Old Western State Hospital

Garden Club of Virginia| Rudy J. Favretti 2011 FellowshipAshley A. Allis

Old Western State HospitalStaunton, Virginia

Copyright © 2011 by The Garden Club of Virginia.All Rights Reserved.

Reproduction:All material contained herein is the intellectual property of the Garden Club of Virginia except where noted. Permission for reproduction, except for personal use, must be obtained from:

The Fellowship Committee, ChairThe Garden Club of VirginiaThe Kent-Valentine House12 East Franklin StreetRichmond, VA 23219

Old Western State HospitalStaunton, Virginia

Prepared forThe Garden Club of VirginiaRudy J. Favretti Fellowship

Prepared by Ashley A. Allis

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 1| Asylum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moral Medicine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Architecture of Segregation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 2| Renewal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Landscape of Reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 3| Institutionalize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Institutional Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 4| Abandon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The End of the Hospital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 5| Rehabilitate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artifacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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I would like to thank the Garden Club of Virginia for their support in sponsoring this unique research opportunity to uncover the history of Western State Hospital’s contributions to the field of mental health and its legacy of creating an attractive campus to facilitate healing. This site has revealed the importance of revisiting the application of design theories of the past to understand what works and doesn’t work in healing environments today. Certainly there is a lot to be told of this site that makes me very conscious of the lives that were carried out here, and the necessity to restore dignity to some of the patients and their families through acknowledging the hospital’s history, both the pleasant and unpleasant aspects. Long established mental hospitals like Western State carry an unintentional stigma placed on them by society related to our fears and misunderstandings about mental health. This stigma carries over to the sites, themselves, despite the inherent beauty and purposeful design of the hospital environment. Ultimately, this site provides a profound opportunity to remember and learn from the past through architecture and landscape as the site undergoes its next renaissance and as new health facilities for healing continue to be designed and constructed in communities everywhere.

I would like to thank and acknowledge Will Rieley, Karen Kennedy, and Roxanne Brouse at Rieley & Associates Landscape Architects and Sally Guy Brown and the Garden Club of Virginia for their immense efforts in arranging this opportunity and providing support throughout the fellowship. I would also like to acknowledge the redevelopment and design team with the Villages at Staunton for their support of the project and help in providing valuable information; Robin Miller and Miller & Associates, Project Manager Jerry Austin, and Frazier & Associates. Many more people have shown interest in my work and have provided memories and details on the site’s history, which is all greatly appreciated. Thank you also to the current residents at the Village of Staunton for their curiosity in my work and for allowing me free reign of their backyard as I conducted site visits.

I would finally like to thank the libraries and rare collections that helped me in my research: The University of Virginia – Special Collections, Health Sciences Special Collections, Alderman, and Fiske Fine Arts; The Library of Virginia Special Collections; The Virginia Historical Society; Western State Hospital Archives; and the Staunton Public Library.

~ Ashley A. Allis

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The subject matter of early 19th and 20th century mental health treatment can be uncomfortable to openly discuss. Some of the words used historically to describe mental health are now viewed as oppressive and hurtful. These words can be found in this report, used in their historical context. The intention of incorporating such words was to describe the evolution of our society’s acceptance and treatment of mental illness, as well as to highlight our missteps along the way. It becomes difficult to separate out words like “lunatic” and “asylum” when they were so commonly used, as is evident in Western State’s first official name, the “Western Lunatic Asylum.”

Use of historic language

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The Old Western State Hospital site was a mental institution from 1828 until 1976, when the hospital completed its move to its current site begun in 1952. After the old site closed, it became a medium security prison, the Staunton Correctional Center, which lasted 26 years, until 2002. Then in 2006, the development company, Miller and Associates of Richmond, purchased the site from the City of Staunton with plans to transform it into condos, hotel, spa, and other mixed uses. Currently, two of the buildings are occupied as condominium residences and one is renovated into a sales office.

Several distinct chapters of mental illness treatment and site evolution have occurred at Western State Hospital since it was founded in 1828. This report will explore these periods as categorized by major terms of administration, or hospital superintendency. The hospital superintendent was not just the lead physician, but he also oversaw the operation of the hospital and was the hospital’s voice to the Board of Directors and the Virginia General Assembly. The superintendents greatly influenced the treatment of the mentally ill, particularly when the field of mental health was new and evolving. Because the superintendent either worked very closely with the architects or designed buildings themselves as the hospital grew, the physical manifestation of the hospital campus reflects both the administrator’s theories on treatment and their taste in institutional campus design during that particular era.

“Moral Medicine,” practiced by Dr. Stribling from 1836 until 1873, characterized the first period of the hospital’s history. The second era was a number of post-Civil War administrators from 1874 to 1904 who made radical changes to depart from Dr. Stribling’s reign. The third embarked on more experimental exploration during the long tenure of Dr. DeJarnette from 1905 to 1945. The final period of significance in mental health treatment at this site was the contemporary hospital, a series of superintendents from 1955 through 1976, including Doctors Pettis, Druff, and Hansen.

This report will first focus on physical campus planning as it corresponds to the best practices of mental health treatment at each of the significant periods of Western State Hospital’s history. Next the report will survey the healing landscape, providing a glimpse into how the hospital used the grounds over time, how the picturesque setting contributed to the healing and soothing of the patients, and what remains visible in the landscape today.

Executive Summary

1825-1827 None1828-1836 Dr. Boys1836-1873 Dr. Stribling1873 Dr. Hamilton and Dr. Fisher1874-1879 Dr. Baldwin1879-1881 Dr. Fauntleroy1882-1883 Dr. Hamilton

Hospital Superintendent History at the Old Site1884-1885 Dr. Fauntleroy1886-1888 Dr. Conrad1889-1904 Dr. Blackford1905-1945 Dr. DeJarnette1946-1961 Dr. Pettis1962-1966 Dr. Druff1967-1976 Dr. Hansen

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noun1. shelter or protection from danger

A.sy.lum |əˈsīləm|

“We neither starve nor torture them into reason; we meet them as friends and brothers; we cultivate their affections; interest their feelings; arouse their attention, and excite their hopes; we cheer the desponding, soothe the irritated, and repress the gay; in a word, we treat them as human beings, deserving of attention and care, rather than as criminals and outlaws, meriting not even our compassion.

But we should not rest satisfied with simply exhibiting our pity for the insane, supplying their animal wants, and protecting them from injury and oppression. We should go farther, and inquire whether, by a system of moral means, not less extensive than humane, we may not be enabled to eradicate their disease, and restore them again to all the privileges and enjoyments of rational beings.”1

- Francis T. Stribling, 1837

Chapter 1

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The Virginia General Assembly passed an act on January 22, 1825 to authorize the establishment of the “Western Lunatic Asylum,” a satellite operation of the Eastern Lunatic Asylum in Williamsburg, Virginia. Eastern Lunatic Asylum was the first public institution for treating the mentally ill in the country, constructed in 1773.

Western State Hospital became the fifth public mental institution in the country, and today the Administration Building stands as the oldest surviving building used to treat the mentally ill in the United States, opened in 1828. The building has maintained its exterior integrity with no major additions or subtractions since around 1848.

Staunton was chosen as Virginia’s next asylum site because of its central location in Virginia set within the Shenandoah Valley and foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Since West Virginia did not secede until 1863, the hospital was positioned to serve the far west reaches of the state’s population. Staunton was a thriving and prosperous town with agriculture, mercantilism, and an increasing tourism interest, and the location amidst good roads and fertile lands also insured an abundant supply of provisions able to be purchased inexpensively to help support the hospital.

Location

Inset map adapted from USGS Seamless Data Warehouse, large map from mapsof.net

Staunton

Augusta County

West Virginia

Charlottesville

Washington, D.C.

LynchburgRichmond

Williamsburg

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1. Eastern State Hospital| Williamsburg, Virginia, 1773 (demolished)

2. Baltimore Public Hospital, or Spring Grove| Catonsville, Maryland, 1798 The first hospital location was razed in 1873 for the construction of Johns Hopkins Hospital, the second location, Spring Grove, opened in 1872 and all remaining buildings dating to 1825 or earlier were used for support. The early central building where treatment occurred was razed in 1964.3

3. Eastern State Hospital| Lexington, Kentucky, 1824 Partially demolished, some aspects of the remaining buildings are believed to include parts of the original structure, but they have been renovated beyond recognition.

4. Manhattan State Hospital| New York, New York, 1825 (demolished)

5. Western State Hospital| Staunton, Virginia, 1828

Oldest Institutions:

“Society is not only to be relieved from dangerous, ungovernable and offensive members, and those pitiable children of extremest wretchedness removed from the public gaze, but a reasonable expectation is indulged, that a mild, though firm discipline, skillful medical aid, soothing, kind attentions, and moderate appropriate employment, may restore the unhappy sufferers to themselves, their relatives and their country. It is believed that a close confinement of the patients, instead of removing, has a tendency in most cases, to confirm the disease; and that it is all important that they should enjoy exercise, amusement, and even labour in the open air. Many of them are not insensible to the beauties of nature, and the comforts of sunshine and shade; whilst many of them take great delight in flowers and fruits and shady walks.”2

- Statement from the 1827 Annual Report describing the need and intention for the Western State Lunatic Asylum

Within Staunton, a site was chosen in the country to truly be an ‘asylum.’ Typical of many institutions, it was located at the edge of settlement, both remote from but in view of town and conveniently located along two principal roads, Richmond Avenue (U.S. Route 250) and Greenville Avenue (U.S. Route 11). Later, the extension of the Virginia Central Railroad, renamed the Chesapeake and Ohio (C&O) Railroad, connected the site to Richmond. A location was selected on a hilltop where the hospital could receive ample cooling breezes, be supplied with fresh springs, and be provided with distant views to Virginia’s rolling mountains. The natural, country setting was truly thought to be essential to the cure of illnesses, including mental illnesses, in a time when air and ventilation were considered to be the best means of ridding diseases thought to travel by oppressive air.

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Earliest image of Western Lunatic Asylum, 1838, Engraving by Robert Cary Long, Jr. Small’s plan did not include the ward to the left.

The original Court of Directors of the asylum was charged with selecting a site and procuring bids for the construction of the hospital’s first building. Four acres were purchased from John Wayt for $600. Before the architect had provided plans, the committee opened a bid for the brickwork and revealed the specifications of the framework of the building. It was not to exceed three stories, excluding the basement level, and would be built upon a stone base with bricks fired from clay found on the site.4 George W. Wall was given the first building contract and was further instructed that “the walls shall be exclusively built with hard burnt bricks and finished from the trowel in the neatest manner without staining or painting – that the moulds in which said bricks are to be made be 9 ½ inches long, 4 ½ inches wide, and 2 3/8 inches thick.”5

William Small of Baltimore designed the first building at Western State, the Central Building, for a fee of fifty-dollars. It was under construction for three years and opened July 24, 1828, under the supervision of Dr. William Boys, acting superintendent until 1835. Two male patients suffering from excessive study and religious excitement were received the first day, followed by two female patients the next. Patient number one resided at the hospital until his death in 1852.

The Board of Directors stipulated to the legislature in 1826 “that no part has been expended in useless ornament; but the object has been to erect the buildings in a plain and substantial style.”6 This accounts for perhaps a more modest display of architecture originally built by Small.

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Moral Medicine

Little is recorded about the hospital during these first few building years. In 1835, there were 35 patients, 18 of which were male.7 Not long after, in 1836, Dr. Francis Taliaferro Stribling became superintendent at the age of twenty-six and began a long tenure of which much correspondence survives. Dr. Stribling wrote annual reports for the Virginia General Assembly providing detailed explanations of medical practices, hospital growth and needs, and patient information to justify the state expenses of operating the institution. These reports were eventually shared with other institutions in the United States and abroad in Europe. A network of information sharing ensured each hospital could learn from the techniques and successes of other hospitals as they uncovered knowledge in this new period of enlightened treatment of the mentally ill.

Dr. Francis Stribling, native to Staunton, served the hospital from 1836 until 1873, passing away in 1874. He was educated in medicine first at the University of Virginia, and then completed his studies at the University of Pennsylvania. During his tenure, he lived within view of Western State on the lot that is now the Stonewall Jackson Hotel and American Shakespeare Center. Dr. Stribling is the most celebrated superintendent in the hospital’s history because of his moral approach to treating the mentally ill in Virginia, and the great strides he made nationally, when he and twelve other superintendents formed what has become known as the American Psychiatric Association in 1844.

Stribling’s cause to help the mentally ill stemmed from his revulsion of observing the insane in prisons and almshouses, confined and restrained, mistreated, and bereft of the means or opportunity to heal. Patients in an asylum were given the chance to get away from the familiar settings that may have caused the illness or provided negative associations that would inhibit recovery at home, and they were housed amongst strangers for the same reasons. At Western State, and under the leadership and supervision of Dr. Stribling, patients were treated as moral, healthful human beings, provided with clean living conditions, care with personal hygiene, nutritious diets, and stability and order in their environment and routine. Dr. Stribling did not restrain patients, and because treatment was not focused on medications at this time, every effort was made to restore the patient back to society when at all possible. Dr. Stribling was the first superintendent to create a system of furloughs that was later adopted by other institutions.8

Francis Taliaferro Stribling (1810-1874)

Top and Opposite| Images from “Dorothea Dix and Dr. Francis T. Stribling...,” Alice Davis Wood, 2008. (Bottom) University of Virginia, Special Collections Library

Two of Dr. Stribling’s Matriculation Cards from the University of Pennsylvania.

“Immured in common jails, enduring the privations and suffering, due alone to the felon’s guilt, with no eye to pity, no sympathizing hand to mitigate the horrors of their imprisonment.” The insane “were chained like beasts, half fed, naked, covered with filth and vermin.”9 – Dr. Stribling, 1830s

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Central spiral staircase to cupolaAdministration building, 2011

Moral medicine was first practiced by Philippe Pinel of France. He advocated for kindness and limited patient restraint. Samuel Tuke at the York Retreat in England was also an early leader in the moral treatment movement. In 1814, he emphasized “soft answers to turn away wrath and quiet firmness in dealing with diseases which originated in the mind.”10 Tuke felt that kindness would yield an expression of one’s inborn goodness, or rationality.11

Moral treatment evolved as physicians realized that human interest in the patients bred positive results that were recorded and shared, advancing scientific knowledge of treatments at the time and discarding invasive and experimental trends like cupping, bloodletting, mercury, purging, and blistering. Restraints like wristbands, muffs, and chains were abandoned and moves to take patients out of overcrowded and poor living conditions were made by the creation of new institutions like Western State Asylum. Sunshine, clean air, and occupation were now considered to be far better cures.

Dr. Stribling advanced the cause of Moral Medicine with other well-known advocates, including Dr. Thomas Kirkbride and Dorothea Dix. He had a professional relationship and friendship with Ms. Dix that included correspondences about hospital operations and legislation and gifts Dix brought to Western State for the patient’s amusement as well as rare and valuable garden seeds to improve the grounds and gardens. Dr. Kirkbride and Dr. Stribling both attended the University of Pennsylvania Medical School in Philadelphia during their last academic year, 1830-1831. The University of Pennsylvania had an enrollment of 480 students, however, so it is likely that the two were not acquainted with one another during their studies.12 Regardless, they soon became powerful allies in the field of mental health.

Patients were wards of the state, and the cost associated with keeping people institutionalized meant that other patients might be unable to receive treatment if there was no room in the State’s hospital system. Some patients did pay privately, however, and there was always a place for them at Western State. Dr. Stribling preferred to take on the patients that could be healed and released, because those were the ones he was best able to provide treatment to. He persistently reinforced the importance of diagnosing someone early on in their illness and getting them immediate help, before they slipped too far away and became lost causes. From the beginning, the buildings were always filled to capacity. This demand for space did not change until at least the 1980s.

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In the very beginning of the hospital’s history, there were four classes of patients divided within the already separate male and female wards; cleanly, filthy, noisy, and quiet. Doctors theorized that small units of patients that were alike one another would benefit from each other. Thus began the architecture of segregation. As the patient numbers increased, so did the sophistication of the categorization of the patients. In 1836, there were six distinct classifications of mental illness; mono-mania or partial insanity, mania, dementia, melancholia, hypochondriasis, and idiocy.13 Within these over-arching diagnoses, patients were committed for treatment under an extensive list of maladies. Mental illness was thought to be a product of either physical or moral causes. Physical causes included hereditary tendencies, epilepsy, fever, blows on the head, the debility of the nervous system, and intemperance. Moral causes included domestic grief, excessive study, reverse of fortune, jealousy, hopeless love, unhappy marriage, harsh treatment, and fanaticism.14 This list of reasons of insanity grew immeasurably over time as new patients were admitted and uniquely diagnosed. The harshest division of patients was the knowledge that two classes really existed, those placed in the hospital for a cure and those placed there for lifelong custody.

William Small’s original hospital plan called for four distinct wings to segregate the patients according to sex, and very likely, ailment; male and female, and manic and depressive.15 However, only two wings were constructed, male and female. The remaining two wings were set aside and to be added on to the structure if the future need and demand arose. In the center was a grand spiral staircase leading to the cupola and a rooftop veranda.

The Architecture of Segregation

Image from “In Jefferson’s Shadow,” by Bryan Clark Green, 2006

“Should it be decided at any future period, that the plans should be completed, the wings can be erected and united to that portion of the plan now erected, with great convenience and without in any degree impairing its utility or beauty of its appearance as will at once appear by reference to the plans before referred to.”16 - 1826 Report of the Board of Directors

William Small Plan. The original hospital plan included four wards. The courtyard design at the top reads, “Grass and flowers.”

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1842Loss of propertyReligious excitementHard studyGold feverLoss of childrenEpilepsyLitigation about propertyBlow on the headDomestic TroubleJealousyIntemperanceDisappointed loveIndulgence of temperReligious perplexityDissipationIll healthMasturbationFrightPecuniary embarrassmentSexual derangementSudden death of a friendPuerperalInhaling tobacco fumesPrecocious puberty

1846AvariceBodily injuriesCongenitalCold, (exposure to)Cerebral lesionConcussion of brainConvulsionsDysenteryDebauchDomestic afflictionsDissolute habitsExposureExposure to sunEpilepsyFeversLoss of law suitFrightFatigue and loss of restIntemperance

1902Alcohol, tobacco and diseaseSenile degenerationHereditaryMenstrual disordersChild bearingNervous prostrationWorryOverworkLactation and death of childDisappointment in loveFinancial troublesRecurrenceMeningitisIndigestionUse of opiumTyphoid feverSunstroke and malariaApoplexySatyriasis Excessive study and venery

Indolent habitsJealousyLoveLoss of armLactationLoss of sleepMental fatigueMental perplexityMillerismNarcotics, (excessive use of)Overtaxed energiesOld agePeuniary troublesPregnancyPuerperalPolitical excitementSexual disordersSuppressed perspirationSeductionSyphilisSedentary habitsClose reading of BibleThe war

MenopauseSpinal diseaseGriefCerebral degenerationIsolationImbecilityRheumatismUterine troublePovertyChronic nephretisImmoral lifeParalysis and gangreneOver studyAlcoholismDeath of neighborDisappointment in marriageIll health and worryLack of nourishmentSolitudeFear of persecutionTyphoid and malarial feversPhysical condition and killing manWorry and sclerosis of arteriesAbnormal brain from birthWandering lifeOverwork and death of friendNeurotic conditionCongenitalLove of money and loss of friendsLoss of money, solitudeEpilepsy and masturbationGastric originTraumatismLoss of sleep-nursing sick childExcessive use of drugs, cocaineMoney, cigarettes and whiskeyHeredity and suicide of nephewWhiskey and opiumStomach trouble and overworkImaginary trouble about wife and farmWorry over the condition of intestinesShock and sudden death of motherInsanity of husband

Select Causes of Insanity

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By the time Dr. Stribling took over responsibility at the asylum, his thoughts about how the physical layout of the campus should be expressed moved away from the idea of one all-containing building as Small had designed. Stribling firmly believed the hospital should not exceed a capacity of 400 patients, which it did not during his tenure. This figure was based on the beliefs of Dr. Stribling’s peer and friend, Dr. Thomas Kirkbride and his well-documented architecture of asylums, commonly known as the Kirkbride Plan. The Kirkbride Plan manifested itself as an all-inclusive building segregated by sex and classification of illness, such as Small had begun.

Indeed, Dr. Kirkbride was also an architect. The Kirkbride plan was a linear building arranged en echelons. The center of the building was used for administration and the superintendent’s home. The cleanest and quietest patients were housed adjacent to the center, and the level of illness increased towards the far reaches of the wings to where the unmanageable and loud patients were located. The goal was for these worse case patients to aspire to an improved mental condition in order to move towards the center, and subsequently, recovery. The reality, however, was that patients were constantly aware of their place within hospital society.

The ideal hospital size for a Kirkbride building was 250 beds. If both sexes were accommodated in one building, then men would be on one wing and women on the other. If sexes were separated, a duplicate building would be provided elsewhere, and each building would accommodate 250 patients. Dr. Kirkbride also strove to design small single rooms that were only big enough for one bed to reinforce the needs, feelings, and privacy of the patients. In this, Dr. Kirkbride tried to prevent overcrowding by defining spatial parameters.

Images from “Dr. Kirkbride and His Mental Hospital,” by Earl D. Bond, M.D., 1947

Typical Kirkbride Building Drawing and Plan View. Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane (c. 1850-1859)

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Small’s Plan Five original buildings and the female lodge Weston State Kirkbride Plan*Plan scales are relative, but approximate

North Building

Male Ward Addition

Female Ward Addition and imbedded Female Lodge

Male Lodge

Female Lodge

South Building

Chapel

Administration Building

Partial Site Plan N

Dr. Kirkbride felt that detached buildings were inefficient to build, heat, and maintain and were also inefficient to circulate through. Long floors prevented workers from having to exit the building at ground level in order to service patients in adjacent buildings. Western State did not try to replicate the Kirkbride Plan, but it does recall some of its major architectural tenets, such as an ideal hospital size, segregation, and purposeful site design and orientation.

The hospital site plan that resulted at Western State depicts a configuration of buildings that provided ample ventilation and regulation of light and heat, but in a very ordered layout to both express regimentation and promote comfort and health. The site is divided between male (north) and female (south), with common shared uses and administration in the center. Unlike the Kirkbride plan, the Old Western State Hospital site is a conglomeration of smaller, human-scaled buildings that create a true campus, and not a menacing solid mass of monumental proportions. The site’s evolution was more organic, with the placement of buildings corresponding to need, gender, and availability of land. Although the site is not perfectly symmetrical, many of the early buildings do reflect one another in size and general shape. For example, the male wards in the North Building (1838) and the female wards in the South Building (1842) are relative in size, and the lodges for the male and female patients (1844) were uniform in size and both intended for noisy and violent patients. The original female lodge was later imbedded within a larger female ward building.

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The North Building (left) and South Building (right) today were designed to reflect one another in scale and design.

Eastern Lunatic Asylum, Williamsburg, Virginia

The tendency towards detached buildings was reinforced by Dr. Galt of Eastern Lunatic Asylum in 1857, when in his annual report he endorsed British “objections to the erection of isolated, single, symmetrical masses of buildings studded over the grounds” in favor of “detached buildings… of the character of cottages.”17 Although early images of Eastern State’s north courtyard reveal a seemingly connected and symmetrical layout, Western State veered far from this popular site design tendency in asylum architecture. The term “cottage” as used in Dr. Galt’s context was misleading in that each detached building was designed to house 40-200 patients congregated in dormitory rooms.18 This was also the case at Western State.

21Asylum

Western Lunatic Asylum, c. 1854

Images compare the Administration Building before and after the Thomas Blackburn additions, indicating an increased interest in the aesthetics of the institution.

Western Lunatic Asylum drawn sometime after 1838

“The windows are provided with light but substantial cast iron sash, in lieu of the prison-like grating which formerly imparted to such institutions so forbidding an aspect. The roof is composed of tin, and thus the chief danger of conflagration avoided.”19 - Dr. Stribling, 1841

Images from University of Virginia Special Collections Library

Dr. Stribling determined that as a means of moral treatment and in order to achieve rehabilitation, the patients required a pleasant environment surrounding them. This was the first correlation between treatment and physical surroundings. Quality architecture was seen as a means to add peaceful aesthetics to the environment of the patients. The oldest buildings at the hospital have windows with cast iron sashes that provided protection against patients escaping or leaping, while having a normal appearance unlike forbidding, prison-like grating. The attendants were able to regulate air coming in, but the 30 panes of glass in each window unit were inaccessible to the patient.

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Image from “In Jefferson’s Shadow,” by Bryan Clark Green, 2006Pages from the portfolio of Thomas Blackburn illustrating WSH

Thomas Blackburn was the architect of many of the oldest buildings in the hospital core and was the chief architect at Western State until at least 1858. According to an early building contract, Thomas Blackburn added on to the Small building, including the porticos in 1847. The front of the building transformed into a commanding structure overlooking Staunton. Blackburn also drafted plans for the front lawn and grounds. Blackburn was previously employed by Thomas Jefferson during the construction of the University of Virginia’s West Range. The Jeffersonian influence is evident in the brickwork of the hospital, the Chinese railings located on some of the buildings’ roof walks and verandas, the use of enduring materials, and the incorporation of classical architectural tenets. In 1999, a portfolio of Blackburn’s drawings and architectural records was discovered, including a large collection from his time working at the Western Lunatic Asylum. Many of the colored renderings illustrate the visions and practical design elements behind Blackburn’s contributions to the hospital. These drawings were largely used to garner support for project implementation, and almost all were constructed in some version of the drawing.20 Blackburn was involved with the construction of the North Building, South Building, Chapel, Laundry, and Male and Female Lodges.

Dr. Stribling was remarkably involved with the building process at the hospital and forged a close relationship to Thomas Blackburn. Dr. Kirkbride had said that the buildings of a hospital should be the result of cooperation between “distinguished and skillful architects and physicians who have a large practical experience with mental patients, who are thoroughly familiar with all details of their treatment, and who know the advantages and defects of existing hospitals.”21 This concept truly manifested itself at Western State, where the site design evolved more organically, but with careful attention to the needs of the patients, their treatment, and the site as a whole.

Dr. Stribling proudly commented on the outcome of the North Building, “In a word, for durability, neatness, convenience, comfort, health, and economy, it is almost impossible to conceive how this building could be excelled…”22 This statement illustrates Dr. Stribling’s close relationship and satisfaction with Thomas Blackburn, in a relationship that lasted over twenty years.

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Map adapted from USGS Seamless Data WarehouseStaunton, Virginia evolved into a showcase of institutions situated on its hilltops early on in its growth and history.

University of Virginia’s Academic Village

1854 Western State Hospital Plan

Many of Western State’s carpenters and masons, along with Blackburn, were influenced by their work with Jefferson at the University of Virginia. The relationship of college campus design to the construction of the institution of Western State Hospital is evident through the arrangement of individual buildings surrounding courtyards and stately grounds. Carla Yanni, author of The Architecture of Madness, indicates that Thomas Jefferson located the University of Virginia in the small town of Charlottesville to protect the young students from the negative associations of city life. His campus design was an attempt to control behavior in the academic village through environmental determinism, or the idea that the environment, which includes architecture, shapes behavior.23 Dr. Stribling believed that architecture could inspire reform, and this certainly was a philosophy of Thomas Blackburn, as well. Furthermore, both colleges and asylums were attempts in physical planning meant to educate and transform the minds of their residents.24

We see the central Administration Building at Western State evolving over time to be the primary location of administrative services for the growing hospital, as well as the welcoming mat to the institution. College campuses often contained an “Old Main,” that housed students and professors and contained small classrooms before evolving into iconic and civic displays for administrative buildings

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Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind, 1860

Staunton Institutions| VSDB (left), Stuart Hall (middle), and Mary Baldwin (right)Stuart Hall and Mary Baldwin Images from Virginia Department of Historic Resources.

Image from “Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind,” Larry Streeter, 1986.

associated with grand domes or bell towers and large porticos. Many asylums saw the same type of evolution in their first buildings, as Western State did with its Administration Building. The structure first housed patients, doctors, and necessary administrative services before the hospital grew into the age of dormitories. Later in its function, the central building, or old building, was primarily used for administration and to greet and orientate new visitors to the hospital.

Robert Cary Long, Jr. was the main architect for the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind (VSDB), located across the valley and visible from Western State, from 1839 through 1846. His work at the VSDB was well balanced with the Jeffersonian and Greek Revival design character of Western State concurrently under construction. Robert Cary Long, Jr. also created the first known etching of the Western Lunatic Asylum in 1838.

The Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind, originally named the “Virginia School for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind,” was contained in one inclusive building, called the Main Building. As with institutional architecture of the time, this site also segregated its users through deliberate design. Boys were separated from girls, and deaf were separated from the blind in four wings of the building. Dr. Stribling served on the school’s Board of Visitors and its building committee, which may explain similarities in the approach to designing these buildings and their visible relationships.

In addition to the VSDB, Staunton was well known for its reputable institutions including Stuart Hall and Mary Baldwin College.

25Asylum

If comparisons are to be made with other asylums around the country at the time, Eastern State Hospital in Lexington, Kentucky provides an interesting plan view comparison to Western State’s Administration Building, although there is no evidence that Small or subsequent architects visited Kentucky. The original Eastern State building was brick and three stories tall, with a hipped roof and Flemish bonding and 66 feet square.25 In 1825 it transformed into a symmetrical building of four wings with male patients housed on the left and female patients on the right wings. The central portion of the building was used by the superintendent and for communal purposes. Soon after the additions to the main building, a separate building called the box room was constructed to the rear to house the worst class of patients. The hospital also had segregated airing yards. Patients performed the labor during construction. As with Western State, some rooms were improved for paying patients. Eastern State acquired land for farming and also developed pleasure grounds. In 1869, the Directors reported that “our pleasure grounds, provided with seats, arbors, flower gardens, swings, &c., are extensive, and are growing more beautiful every day.26 Farming operations ceased in 1957.

Many of these facets were repeated at Western State in Staunton. The general shape and configuration of the main building correspond, as do the back of house uses located to the rear of the building. The use of airing courts and pleasure grounds were popular at all institutions of the time period. Similarly, patient labor and farming were commonplace. The demise of the farming operations at both hospitals occurred around the same time ending at Western State in 1958.

Asylum Architecture- A Critique and Comparison

Image from Karen Hudson’s, “A Cultural Historic Survey of Eastern State Hospital,” 2010.

Image from www.asylumprojects.org.

Plan drawing of Eastern State Hospital, Ky.

Plan drawing of Western State Hospital, Va.

Male Airing Court

Female Airing Court

Privy

Box Room

Smokehouse

Stable

Workshop

Privy

Male Yard

26 Chapter 1

Maryland Hospital plan view, 1870s (above) and sketch of site, 1830s (below)

Images from Spring Grove Hospital Center History. www.springgrove.com

The Baltimore Public Hospital also creates an interesting comparison, and in later years, shared an architect with Western State Hospital, J. Crawford Neilson. It had a central building of brick that was four stories high with two wings of three stories. It was 300 feet long with a cupola over each of the two wings and in the center.27 The main building at Western State was constructed at 225 feet long with just the cupola in the center. We do know that visits were certainly made to the Baltimore Public Hospital by members of the Board of Directors, Dr. Stribling, and Thomas Blackburn.

27Asylum

The Weston State Hospital, or Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum, located in what is now Weston, West Virginia, was constructed between 1858 and 1881 to provide relief to the overcrowded conditions in Virginia and also to relieve growing political differences that divided the west side of the Allegheny Mountains from the east.28 It was Virginia’s third satellite hospital associated with Eastern Lunatic Asylum in Williamsburg and Western Lunatic Asylum in Staunton.

Between the years of 1861 and 1865, the Western Lunatic Asylum in Staunton became known as Central Lunatic Asylum, acknowledging the third site to the far west, then called the Western Lunatic Asylum. Construction began just prior to the Civil War and was not completed until after West Virginia succeeded from Virginia in 1863 and organized itself to provide for its own citizens. Immediately after the war, the state of West Virginia also began to pay Western State in Staunton support costs for its nearly 90 residents still housed there.

Weston State was built under the Kirkbride plan and is a massive Gothic building of hand-cut blue sandstone measuring nearly 1,300 feet in length along the façade.29 Its symmetry and segregated wings are clearly of the Kirkbride style, designed to the optimum number of 250 patients and seeking to provide ample light and air. Both Kirkbride and Stribling were consulted on the design of the new hospital, designed by Richard Snowden Andrews of Baltimore.

The length of the building is a reminder of the enormity of illness contained within, which exceeded 250 patients exponentially. In the 1950s, the patient population peaked at 2,400, far beyond the intended size.30 The hallways are unending, emphasizing one’s imprisonment within the thick stone walls. Echoes of closing doors resound, culminating in a sensory experience that is unpleasant. There is no repose from being institutionalized, and little to make the place feel more domestic than what it is. The courtyards, or airing courts, were sparse and contained within the same blue sandstone walls, lacking windows or gaps to the world beyond.

The Western State Hospital in Staunton, on the other hand, contained smaller units of community in separate buildings with reminders of other people around as they emerged from their buildings and moved about the grounds. Wards were merely a unit within a community. Although some patients were relegated to walled courtyards located behind the buildings, the size of these spaces exceeded those at Weston State. They had landscape variety, ornamentation and comforts not visible at Weston State, which was just a flat lawn plane. Weston State does have a picturesque front lawn, similar to Western State and other institutions of the time, however.

Weston State Hospital greenhouse (top) and walled airing court (middle and bottom)

Western State Hospital Naming History

- 1828-1864: Western Lunatic Asylum- 1861-1865: Central Lunatic Asylum- 1865-1893: Western Lunatic Asylum- 1894-today: Western State Hospital

28 Chapter 1

It has been said that visitors to Staunton, bringing their daughters to begin studies at Mary Baldwin College, would occasionally appear at Western State, recognizing a campus and institution on the hill. While certainly upon closer observation the mistake became immediately evident, a similar mistake would not have been made at Weston State or any other Kirkbride building. The sheer mass and scale of the building is frightening to experience upon arrival and speaks to a place of warehousing mentally insane. Weston State Hospital was not made up of a campus of buildings that visually and deliberately relate to one another, but rather a collection of buildings constructed of various materials and architectural styles as needed in support of the main structure.

Weston State Hospital, 1892, Kirkbride Plan.

Front view of Weston State Hospital, 2011. One wing is clearly discernible, emphasizing the sheer length of the structure.Top| image from “Dorothea Dix and Dr. Francis T. Stribling...,” Alice Davis Wood, 2008.

29Asylum

Re.new.al |riˈn(y)oōəl|noun1. the replacing or repair of something that is worn out, run-down, or broken

“Employment, but above all, employment in the field, in the garden, or in the flower-bed – that kind of employment which all yearn after, and all hope for, as the richest resource of the faded and worn heart, where every other has been exhausted, is the best medicine for the wretched insane.”1 - Nicholas C. Kinney, C.C.D., 1845

Chapter 2

31

Staunton was founded along the Great Philadelphia Wagon Road, a stop along the trail taking settlers westward during the mid-1700s. The first settlers in the Shenandoah Valley were mostly of Scotch-Irish and German descent, as it was easier for immigrants who landed in Pennsylvania to access the valley from the north than it was for Virginians to the east to cross the Blue Ridge Mountains. The Germans typically settled the low regions of the valley, while the Scotch-Irish stuck to the highlands. This resulted in a strong culture and economy of agriculture in the area, which continued well into the establishment of the asylum. The limestone foundation of the area ensured fertile soils, such as those found to the north in Pennsylvania, and also provided interesting natural features in hot springs and caverns. The springs and caverns attracted tourism for their healing qualities, and many hotels arose to serve visitors. Dr. Stribling’s father owned one such inn, called Stribling Springs nearby to Staunton. These geographic and cultural cues manifested a population settled around the premises of agriculture and pride in the bounties of the surrounding environment.

A Landscape of ReformOne of the fundamental measures in moral treatment was to give the patient exercise and occupation to the mental faculties. This was achieved through employment, amusement, and recreation.

Employment

A Pictorial History Brown, David and Elizabeth McCue. Map adapted from mapsof.net

German Expansion into Virginia Staunton, Virginia.

Philadelphia

Rocky Mount

Camden

ChristiansburgWytheville

AbingdonCumberland Gap

Watkins Ferry

Winchester

Harrisonburg

Staunton

Lexington

Fincastle

LancasterYork

32 Chapter 2

“This witnessing the results of their own operations, in the improvement of grounds and walks, the growth of vegetables, and the cultivation of flowers and gardens, leads the mind from the consideration of causes to their effects; and it were necessary to add, that such consideration is a great point gained, and a rapid advance towards ultimate recovery.”3 - Dr. Stribling, 1837

Image from 1909 Annual Report

In 1836, action was being made at the hospital to acquire land for agriculture to occupy the male patients, many of which came from farming backgrounds and were accustomed to the manual labor. A lot of patients were only mildly ill by today’s standards and were able to be trusted in using farm instruments without the threat of harming themselves or others. In fact, this widespread utilization of patient labor over the hospital’s history really discredits the severity of illness that was largely thought to proliferate there. Stribling felt the labor would provide repose and tranquility, as well as be beneficial to the hospital with the fruits that would be yielded. In 1837, the hospital’s directors purchased four acres in meadowland and fifty-six acres of upland adjacent to the hospital’s holdings for cultivation into gardens, orchards, tillage, and pasturage.2 The first true harvest of this newly acquired land occurred in 1840. In the 1869-1871 Annual Report, the site contained 190 acres of land.

The farm labor was found to give patients greatly wanted relief from confinement and joy in being able to be actively engaged and occupied outdoors. This work promoted their appetites and sleep habits and provided healthy physical exercise. Male patients were also involved in construction, including that of the hospital. Thomas Blackburn was known to provide instruction on carpentry and architectural drawing and rendering. The men also cut and piled wood, hauled water, excavated land, and readied fields.

Dr. Stribling referred to the labor as practical utility:

33Renewal

Above| Images from 1966 Fire Insurance Survey, and Below| 1909 Annual Report

Pea Crop (1909) Chicken Coop (1909)

Mattress Shop Smokehouse

During the years of Stribling, hospital expansion really centered on acquiring land for agriculture and to secure sufficient fresh water. He foresaw the land as a means for the florist to cultivate and arrange flowers, the botanist to attend shrubbery and plants, the horticulturalist to produce vegetables, and the agriculturalist to farm.4

For all these uses and to sustain the hospital with food, property was bought up whenever the funds were available and the land was necessitated and able to be purchased. Land speculation was occurring by 1846, when neighboring properties began recognizing the constant expansion of the asylum and held out for top dollar. The hospital felt that not owning adjacent lands would be a threat to the female patients if a disagreeable use should appear. This would subsequently threaten the whole institution of the hospital if a conflicting, non-healing purpose should appear in the vicinity. This threat increased the fervor in which property was acquired.

In addition to farming, workshops were created for patients to make mattresses, brooms, shoes, hats, soap, and cabinets. Women were largely employed in knitting, sewing, spinning, and ironing - things that were more domestic and refined at the time. They made nearly all the clothes, bedding, and other textile goods needed by the institution. In 1838, the hospital was advocating for free expression amongst the patients in their choice of clothing, which was being purchased from prisons. It is at this point that the sewing ladies could really create whatever they desired, before a patient uniform became the norm in the early 1900s. Western State Hospital functioned as a largely self-sufficient institution for the majority of its history. Certainly supplies were needed for purchase, but in leaner times, the hospital was grateful to have its own provisions to fall back on.

34 Chapter 2

Image from 1909 Annual Report

CornOnionsPotatoesSweet PotatoesBeetsCabbageKrautPeasSnap BeansLima BeansGreen/String BeansCucumbersCauliflowerEggplantTomatoesCarrotsCeleryTurnip SaladLettuceTurnipsSalsifyParsnipsSummer SquashSquashCymlingsPumpkinsSaladSpinachKale AsparagusPeppersRadishesHorse-radishesOkraVinegarSage Parsley

ApplesCrabapplesCiderPlumsPearsCherriesPeachesDamsonsCantaloupeGrapesRaspberriesBerriesBlackberriesStrawberriesGooseberriesPie Plant (Rhubarb)CurrantsCanned GoodsBees/Honey

MilkPorkShoatsCowsVealStock HogsBeefCalvesChickensEggsRoasting EarsCornBuckwheatHominyMealBone MealTimothy SeedWheatHayOatsRye MilletEnsilage/SilageFodder StrawIce WoodTallow

BakeryClothing (all)ShoesHatsMattressesBroomsBeddingCurtainsTowelsSoapCarpentryCabinet makingBricks

Irrigated Garden, c. 1912

Production Landscape

Gardens Orchards Farm Workshops

35Renewal

In 1836, Dr. Stribling made requests to the Board of Directors to encourage amusement through the provision of games, musical instruments, library books, and horse-drawn carriages.

Church services were also introduced in 1836 with great enthusiasm and reception from the patients. Although many were able to go into town to partake in services, many others were not. Diagnoses like “religious excitement” made Dr. Stribling cautious about the nature of the religious services, in which he exerted control over the sermon. As today, however, it was understood that faith provides soothing feelings and disciplined hope in recovery. At Western State, patients had to show self-restraint, decorum, and good behavior in order to attend the services.

In 1851, President of the United States, Millard Fillmore, visited the hospital with philanthropist W.W. Corcoran and attended church services. The sight of the insane persons worshipping with such discipline stirred Corcoran, so he donated a Henry Erben & Company pipe organ. The prized instrument remains in the chapel today, although its condition is likely threatened by the longevity of the chapel’s vacancy.

For a brief time in 1846, Dr. Stribling experimented with an organized school to see if the partially demented would be capable of learning. The scholastic exercises did not receive many successes, however, and the attention was redirected elsewhere.

Although some of the entertainments and distractions may have seemed superfluous to the Board of Directors and State Assembly who were funding the hospital, Dr. Stribling argued that merely providing shelter and sustenance was failing to treat the patients. Eventually, individuals began making charitable donations to the library and for entertainment. A pair of magic lanterns, or slide projectors, was donated in 1852 to open the world up to the patients through imagery. Dances, performances, debates, and later movies distracted patients from daily monotony.

Mental Occupation and Entertainment

“As there are often patients who are unaccustomed to labour, means should be provided for their employment and amusement, and every disposition on the part of the patient to occupy himself innocently, should be encouraged. With the view, I would respectfully recommend the erection of a battery, the construction of a billiard table, and a nine pin alley, for their amusement out of doors; and that they be furnished with the means necessary for playing chess, drafts, &c., when the weather is such as to render their confinement in the house necessary. Music, too has not only been extolled as an amusement for the insane, but as an important means of cure, and hence, the procurement of musical instruments would, I doubt not, be highly useful and beneficial. The tones of a well strung piano, when produced by the touch of a skillful performer, (and such an one is now in the building) – the soothing melody of the flute, or the more enlivening notes of the violin, might be productive of the happiest effects, not only in tranquilizing the furious, but in animating and cheering those who are the victims of sadness and gloom.”5 -Dr. Stribling, 1836

Chapel and Organ.

Hospital Choir, c. 1950


36

Image from Virginia State Hospital Board, 1950-1951.

Chapter 2

The front pleasure grounds of Western State are one of the most celebrated aspects of the site today and continue to serve Staunton as a welcoming visual gateway into the city. Over time, the front lawn has been threatened and reduced by transportation projects that have widened the roads surrounding it. The visual importance of the front grounds to the public was apparent during these expansion projects through passionate public outcry. Today, the front lawn remains a tangible element that displays the story of the site’s healing landscape and bucolic setting.

The lawn was conceived as an essential element in moral treatment from the beginning. The beauty of experiencing this passive area combined with the therapeutic aspects of caring for it made the front grounds of Western State a vital part of the hospital community. The pleasure grounds at Western State containing shade trees and Asylum Creek began to evolve before there were public parks to visit. In 1845, the buildings had been updated and tended to, and the embellishment of the grounds became the next task. Expense reports started to indicate the purchase of shrubbery and other landscaping materials. In 1854, progress on the front grounds was apparent, albeit slow moving. The work was being completed entirely by patient labor and with limited funds. In addition, the plant material being installed would take some time to mature to a level of visible ornamentation.

Pleasure Grounds

Pleasure Grounds of Western State Hospital, c. 1871

37Renewal

Turn-of-the-century scenes from the lower lawn

Contemporary site plan with elevations illustrating the terracing of the lawn (right opposite)

Images from University of Virginia, Special Collections

The front lawn really transformed into its picturesque state in 1889, however, in tandem with the height of the country’s park movement. The old vegetable garden opposite of the Baltimore and Ohio depot was converted into park space for the beauty of the front grounds and the pleasure of the patients. By comparison, Staunton’s first park, Gypsy Hill, was created in 1890. The park movement was a means to elevate and refine people. This was particularly a goal at Western State through the creation of a landscape of reform to elevate the patients and treat them with dignity. One would likely agree today that garden maintenance involving planting, trimming, deadheading, and pruning has therapeutic qualities. However, records also indicate that patients did the heavier manual work that transformed the lawn like grading the terraces, paving the roads, and laying the brick walkways. The labor had paid off by 1896, when reports indicate, “Never in the history of this institution have the front grounds and lawn presented a more beautiful and attractive appearance. With a greater variety of flowers and plants than we have ever had, and the artistic skill displayed by several patients in arranging them, the front lawn has been made “a thing of beauty” for the enjoyment and pleasure of the inmates, as well as visitors. “The old ‘front garden’ that was for a number of years an ‘eyesore,’ is now a beautiful lawn with growing trees.”6 It should be noted that today’s romantic weeping willows that frame Asylum Creek did not appear on the site until after the 1930s.

Hills were considered to be advantageous in asylum landscapes because they provided more visual interest than flat sites with fixed horizons, while irregular ground provided exertion that better benefitted the health of the patients.7 Western State’s rolling site required terraces that ran along the front lawn. These grade changes provided avenues for relaxed walking and taking in the air. The terraces were created by patient labor over a period of time, but much this site grading occurred in 1881. Lawn games such as battledore (badminton), martelle (croquet), baseball, and lawn tennis also became a popular use of the front lawn and utilized the flatter portions closer to Greenville Avenue. The women would play grace hoop, quoits (ring toss), and skip ropes, as well.

38 Chapter 2

a

a’ b’

b

b-b’

a-a’

39

N

Renewal

Western Lunatic Asylum, c. 1854. This image illustrates the circulation patterns in a time when horse-pulled carriages were the means of travel. The elaborate system of switchbacks shown in front of the South Building (right), may indicate pleasure carriage roads.

“The females also occasionally walk under the charge of their attendants; but most of these prefer the carriage, and when the weather will permit, scarcely a day intervenes that it is not used by some of them. In addition to the recreation thus furnished, it is pleasant to witness the pride which they manifest in regard to their equipage, and the delight which it affords most of them to display it. It not infrequently happens, when the coachman is disposed to pursue a different course, that he is ordered to drive through the town, or along some very public road, and the reason assigned by the individual thus commanding, is one, which in its operation, is not alone confined to the insane female, viz: “that it is needless to own a fine carriage and horses, unless they be exhibited.”8

- Dr. Stribling, 1839

Male patients were often permitted to go for long walks into the country or town by themselves or in small groups. They were entrusted to return at agreed upon times. Because women were not employed outdoors and were not able to go on long, unaccompanied walks like the male patients, carriages were procured for pleasure drives. They were also used to get fresh air to the convalescents and invalids. It was reported that the act of being escorted in a fine carriage made the female patients feel refined and dignified with pride in the display of a sort of pageantry. In addition, the motion of the carriage produced a soothing cadence of enjoyment. The terraces may have been used as a system of looping carriageways, as early imagery suggests.


40 Chapter 2

Dr. Stribling requested the erection of a battery, the construction of a billiard table, and a nine-pin alley for outdoor entertainment. The earliest map of the site is from 1877 and indicates a billiard building and the nine-pin alley on the hospital’s north side, both contained within separate structures. The nine-pin set was purchased in 1838, and the bowling alley was constructed some time between 1851 and 1859 along with the billiard saloon for playing cards, bagatelle, chess, backgammon, etc. By 1929, the billiard building appears to be gone.

Thomas Blackburn had also created a plan drawing for a “five battery yard” around this time. Although no evidence shows that it was constructed, the plan depicts a walled-in court with a freestanding wall situated at one end. This was likely intended to be for the game of “Fives,” in which players propel a ball against a wall with their hands, a precursor to racquetball.

Recreation

Active and programmed recreation utilizing the pleasure grounds emerged organically. As early as 1842, a militia company was organized amongst the patients where they would march and parade by a drum for several miles into the country, restoring their personal decorum with orderly dress, a ranking system, and military spirit. The town’s renowned Stonewall Band was known to play at the hospital as early as 1887. In 1891, the hospital band, made up of male attendants, gained some reputation and were regularly performing on the front lawn and in the courtyards during the spring, summer, and fall months.

“Having experienced great difficulty in inducing the third class of male patients to take sufficient exercise, owing to their mental and physical energies being almost prostrated by the duration of their disease, the experiment was adopted in the course of the year organizing them into a militia company, officered from amongst themselves, and supplied with badges to designate their appropriate rank. In suitable weather, they paraded frequently, and by the tap of the drum were marched under the supervision of one or more of the attendants for several miles into the country. Besides the good effects of fresh air and wholesome exercise in invigorating their physical health and reviving their spirits, many were induced to manifest an interest as to the dress, order, &c. who had previously seemed indifferent to every means resorted to for the purpose of amusing or occupying them. ...we anticipate, so soon as the spring opens, reviving our military spirit, re-organizing our forces, and unfolding again our colors to the breeze.”9 - Dr. Stribling, 1842


41Renewal

The circular drive in front of the Administration Building, as designed by Thomas Blackburn, was a common feature at many asylums. This created a positive visual association and welcoming arrival for those leaving behind loved ones. Visual cues like a grand entrance validated the legitimacy of the asylum and provided a means for the guests to survey the grounds and understand that the hospital was not a repulsive environment. The streets around and in front of the hospital were paved in 1880 with either macadam or brick, and patients completed the labor. The main entrance was macadamized with curbing and brick pavement.

Blackburn created at least two alternatives for the arrival drive, and perhaps three. The plans labeled ‘A’ and ‘B’ may be two separate concepts for the front approach, or conversely, ‘A’ may have been intended for the back arrival and ‘B’ for the front.10 All illustrated plans envisioned a sweeping circle from the steps of the Administration Building to the gate along Greenville Avenue, with a central focal point and a walled or fenced enclosure. The constructed circle may be a hybrid of these plans with a system of walkways like version ‘A’ and fountains and planting scheme like version ‘B.’ Blackburn specified sugar maples with horse chestnuts alternating each other, 30’ apart with various shrubs to border on the outside, mentioning specifically boxwoods. Today the circle has alternating horse chestnuts and little leaf linden trees with a border of boxwood. There are twin fountains, instead of one. The fountains appear on a map by 1871, but were likely part of an 1854 landscape plan.11 The School for the Deaf and Blind had two similar fountains in images by 1860, and Western State likely had its fountains by then, as well.

The Arrival Drive

Right| Plan C. Trees were envisioned to take the form of a grid in all plans.

Opposite Page| Plan A (above) featuring a singular fountain and Plan B (below) depicting a pair of swings in the center.

42 Chapter 2

Images from “In Jefferson’s Shadow,” by Bryan Clark Green, 2006

43Renewal

Aesculus hippocastanumHorse Chestnut

Tilia cordataLittleleaf Linden

Buxus sempervirensCommon Boxwood Arrival sequence (above) and remaining

entry drive planting scheme (left)

44 Chapter 2

An agreement in 1836 between James Kirk of the town of Staunton and Francis T. Stribling Superintendent and Physician of the Western Asylum was made for the layout and ornamentation of the Asylum grounds.

Role of the Gardener

From “The Adventures of Porte Crayon and His Cousins.” Chapter IV: The Lions of Staunton. Harper’s New Monthly Magazine. 1855. Drawing earlier.

c. 1854 rendering (left) and later drawing (right) illustrating the features of the front pleasure grounds as they evolved.

Other gardeners that can be credited with the evolution of the hospital site over time due to historic documentation of their involvement include William Wood in 1875 and J. Slomaker in 1877.

“In such station he is to have charge of the garden, the green house, the ornamenting and preservation of the grounds, and of such lots as may be cultivated in vegetables, subject at all times to the direction and control of said Samuel A. Hoshour, Steward on his successor in office. In addition to the duties of supervisor, he is to labor manually and industriously in promoting the object for which he is employed, and with such assistance as may from time to time be afforded him, is to exert himself to improve and cultivate properly the grounds under his charge, with a view to supply the tables abundantly with both winter and summer vegetables and to improve and ornament the grounds.”

Should insane persons be allowed to aid him, he is to treat them kindly, and be responsible for their safe-keeping until returned by him to the charge of their appropriate attendants. And he further obligates himself to comply strictly with all the regulations of the Asylum wherein it applies to him in the discharge of his duties or department.”13

In 1870, an agreement was made with Joseph Kavanaugh to provide gardener services and explained the role of the gardener at the asylum.

“Witnesseth that the said Kirk on his part hereby covenants and agrees to plan layout and execute such ornamental plans on the grounds of the said Asylum as shall be approved if by the said Physician and Superintendent after said plans are inspected, submitted to and approved by the said physicians and Superintendent, the said Kirk shall procure the shrubbery, flower, trees, fountain, and all [missing text] necessary to carry into effect said plans. The said Kirk is also to furnish the plan on plants of a green house of such dimensions and to be located on part of the grounds [missing text] shall be erected and approved as the by Physician and Superintendent.”12

45Renewal

Curb cut on left side of image corresponds to apparent road dividing the garden shown in the map to the left.

Gray’s map, 1877, highlighting where early farming and cultivation were occurring, water sources, circulation paths, and patient airing courts. The gazebo and fountains are both present.

Hotchkiss Map, 1884, depicting changes in land uses and additions to the campus. Notable is the inclusion of the reservoir and farm structures.

Images from Historic Staunton Foundation

46 Chapter 2

Blackburn created concept drawings for at least two summerhouses and a greenhouse. The gazebo first appears on the Gray’s map dated 1877, and it cannot be definitively attributed to Blackburn. The annual reports speak generally to pavilions, summerhouses, and gazebos. It is hard to discern locations, whether or not they were ever constructed, and the differences, if any, in use. Based on mapping and available drawings, the gazebo standing today was the only garden shade structure depicted in the front lawn to be enjoyed by that patients. The 1867 to 1869 Annual Report indicates “neat summer houses” have been erected in the female airing court, located behind the South Building.14 There may have been a pavilion in front of the female side, at or near the lower terrace extending on the lower lawn, around 1904. It was specified to be built at 50x75 feet and to be used for dancing and other patient amusements. A newspaper report also mentions a pavilion being moved to the new hospital site in the 1970s, but no other evidence has been found to support that claim.

The 1849 Annual Report describes that the gardener, among his various responsibilities, has “kept in good order the green-house.”15 By 1853, Blackburn designed a 14 by 63 ½ structure to replace or add on to the existing greenhouse. It was a part of a larger move to improve the front lawn and define the public access to the site with the wrought iron fence and a gatehouse. He made note of acquiring an iron fence with the set of a gate costing between 300 to 400 dollars to constitute the main entrance to the asylum. The greenhouse was updated with a new furnace and pipes in 1883 and maintained its position along side of the gatehouse until around 1929, when Sanborn maps indicate both structures are gone. In 1954, Dr. Pettis once again requested the erection of a greenhouse to accommodate patients involved with the gardening and flower clubs. He desired the greenhouse to be constructed at the main hospital site, where the greatest number of patients were housed. By this time, a new site had opened, but only accommodated a limited number of patients. A newer greenhouse may have been constructed behind the hospital residences fronting Greenville Avenue. Today, ghosted brick walkways lead away from the rear lawns into a rectilinear area that may have been a hoop house.

Adjacent to the old and original green house was an impressive Gothic Revival gatehouse and porter’s house. It was demolished in 1946.16 The gatekeeper was not only charged with monitoring the incoming traffic to the hospital, but they also were charged with the nightly lighting of the gas lamps.

Garden Structures

Western Lunatic Asylum, 1891

Photograph, 1892 Annual Report. Gatehouse and gazebo visible.

Gatehouse c. 1871

47Renewal

Image from “In Jefferson’s Shadow,” by Bryan Clark Green, 2006Blackburn summerhouse scheme

48 Chapter 2

Images from “In Jefferson’s Shadow,” by Bryan Clark Green, 2006Blackburn design for greenhouse

Early image of the hospital circa mid-1890s. A horse-drawn trolley traverses Greenville Avenue and a bicycle can be seen exiting the grounds. A weeping willow tree is seen in the foreground, along with two evergreen trees flanking the entrance, perhaps Norway Spruce based upon other early photography. The steam plant, located on the site during the time of the image, was later moved across Richmond Avenue.

Image courtesy Frazier & AssociatesImage from “In Jefferson’s Shadow,” by Bryan Clark Green, 2006

49Renewal

1”=30’

The gazebo first appears on the Gray’s map dated 1877, but can not be definitively attributed to Thomas Blackburn.

Gazebo

50

PLAN

WEST STAIR AXONOMETRIC EAST STAIR AXONOMETRIC

DIRECTIO

N OF C

EILING B

OARDS

BRICK PATTERN BRICK PATTERN4'-11" BASE; 5'-1/2" DECK

2'-2"

4'-4

1 2"

4'-6

1 2"

1'-1"

12'-3"

BRICK (STAIRS)4"x8"x21

2" TYP.

WOOD DECK43

4"x34" W/ 2' OVERHANG TYP.

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BENCH PLAN

BENCH ELEVATION

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Twin Fountains

The twin fountains appear on a map by 1871, but were likely part of an 1854 landscape plan. The School for the Deaf and Blind had two similar fountains in images by 1860.

54 Chapter 2

Early imagery depicting twin fountains at the VSDB, 1860 (left) and WSH, 1871 (right)

Comparisons of early fountains, VSDB (left) and WSH (right)

55Renewal

56 Chapter 2

In 1848, Dr. Stribling ran a notice in the Staunton Spectator and General Advertiser forbidding the public’s use of the hospital’s pleasure grounds. Because public parks did not yet exist, the residents sought out the front lawn for picnics and pleasant recreation. This was problematic because the patients required an orderly, safe environment separate from the city.

Iron Fence

Notice. The custom, so prevalent for some time past, of persons either alone or in parties, frequenting the grounds within the enclosure of the Western Asylum for amusement or recreation, has become so serious an impediment to the proper discipline and order of the Institution, and so entire an interruption of that privacy and seclusion which is essential in many respects, to the comfort and cure of the Patients, that the Directors find themselves compelled in the discharge of their duty, henceforth to forbid it.17

Western Lunatic Asylum, after 1838Opposite| Imagery of surviving ornamental metal work found throughout the site.

In 1853, the enclosure of the front grounds was conceived to keep intruders out from the pleasure grounds utilized by the female patients as well as from the substantial vegetable garden that was located there. In the 1855 Annual Report, Dr. Stribling does refer to the front lawn area as the “pleasure grounds,” a common and fitting term from the time period. The fence was purposefully designed to be ornamental, not prison-like. If patients felt confined, it would rescind the healing aspects they were meant to be gaining in the fresh air and outdoors. Early hospital imagery and reports indicate the use of wood plank fence and rails installed around fifty acres between 1838 and 1839, but the superintendent was seeking something more purposeful, substantial, and attractive.

The contract for the fence was given to Garber and Connel of Staunton in 1855. Thomas Blackburn was heavily involved with selecting the best enclosure for the grounds. The wrought iron enclosure is decorated with pineapple finials symbolizing welcoming hospitality, and spiked pickets, to keep uninvited intruders out. The fence, through a “blending of the ornamental with the useful,” was able to secure ten acres of garden, of which five were “designated for leisure grounds for the female patients.”18

The fence originally enclosed 9 ½ acres, containing the garden and pleasure grounds. It was moved back a few times, once in 1855, again in 1928 for the widening of Waynesboro and Lexington roads, and again with the road widening in 1958. It was draped with rose bushes at one time, but they were destroyed when the fence moved.

57Renewal

“The grounds immediately in front of the buildings are in an exposed condition, and present a somewhat neglected appearance, form the want of a proper enclosure. Here is the garden, containing about five acres, which is extremely valuable for its products and may be made to add attractiveness to the institution, by blending the ornamental with the useful. There are also about five acres within this lot designed for pleasure grounds for the female patients, (a desideratum in connection with such an institution which cannot well be overvalued,) the first step to improving which, must be the construction of a substantial, secure, and we will add, ornamental enclosure. Both as regards the garden and the pleasure grounds, but especially the latter, it is indispensable that they be protected from intrusion from without; and as this enclosure will command the entire outlet from the buildings, except in so far as is now otherwise amply secured, we consider it of the utmost importance that it be such, as whilst it will keep intruders out, will justify us in enlarging the privileges of many of the patients as regards exercise, &c., without endangering their escape. A strong, prison-like fence might afford the security needed, but would detract much from the salutary influence which would otherwise be expected from fresh air, exercise, &c., upon the minds of those whose cause we plead.”19 - Dr. Stribling, 1853-1854

58 Chapter 2

ELEVATION

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59Renewal

In.sti.tu.tion.al.ize |ˌinstiˈt(y)oō sh ənlˌīz|verb [ trans. ]1. establish as a convention or norm in an organization or culture

“Too many people use the hospital as an easy means of ridding themselves of relatives who, becoming mentally enfeebled by age, are regarded as a burden, and foisted upon the State for care and protection. In this way proper hospital patients are crowded out, and the chances for their recovery made more remote. Since the comforts and care of hospital life have become better known, it is found convenient by not a few relatives to have many certified to as insane before a commission of lunacy who possess only the childishness, and possibly the loss of memory, incident to advanced years. We are often blamed for not accepting such, and thus preventing as far as possible a hospital from becoming merely “an old folks’ home” for many whose relatives are well able to look after such harmless citizens at home in their declining years.”1 - Dr. Blackford, 1898

Chapter 3

61

As was common in Virginia in the 1800s, the Western Lunatic Asylum employed slaves in its daily functions. At that time, patients did not want to work with the hospital’s slaves in the laundry or kitchen, so although they would be well-off to engage in some of this type of labor like in the northern institutions, they abstained from these particular domestic chores. Stribling lamented that slaves did not like to stay in one place for too long, thereby creating issues when the slave owners would reassign them somewhere else. He wanted the hospital to buy its own slaves, rather than lease them from other slave owners, like himself. In 1857, the hospital did own its chief cook and his wife, but wanted also a baker and barber. Stribling’s four slaves were hired out to the hospital to work in the kitchen and laundry. In addition, reports indicate that by 1860, the hospital may have hired nine others.2 Dr. Stribling made sure that the slaves addressed the patients in a respectful manner and did not have any physical contact with them or any role in their treatment.

Beyond slaves, Stribling recognized the need for an asylum for free colored persons in 1841, and he claimed that free colored persons living in non-slave holding states are much more likely to be insane than the same class in slave states.3 He also felt that the colored institution should be far apart from the white asylum, even if the separate asylum was managed by the same hospital Board of Directors.

Civil War Years

“The subject of making suitable provision for the colored insane is one which has, for many years, occupied the thoughts of the Board. While slavery existed in Virginia, it was a matter of earnest consideration and discussion among the officers of this Asylum, and as early as 1845 it was by them brought to the attention of the Legislature. Intrinsic difficulties however, then surrounded the subject, which no longer exist. At that time nine-tenths of the colored population were located east of the Blue Ridge, while the majority of the white population resided west of the mountains, in the Valley, and that portion of the State that now constitutes West Virginia. The white population of the west were therefore naturally averse to being taxed for the benefit of the slaves and slave-owners of the east. … The colored population of the East are no longer property but citizens, bound to contribute their due proportion to the support of the Government and entitled to rateable participation in the benefits which may flow from the expenditure of the public revenues.”8 - Alex. H. H. Stuart, President, 1867-1869

“The reflection which we have been enabled to bestow upon the subject, convinces us that it would be mutually prejudicial to both whites and blacks, but especially to the former, were the two classes blended in one Asylum, or within the same enclosure.”4 - Dr. Stribling, 1846

Institutional Change

Eastern State, however, did accept free black persons as early as 1841. In 1850, the hospital received funding to construct a separate building for them. The nation’s other superintendents looked down upon the hospital and its superintendent, Dr. Galt, for mixing the patients prior to the new building. Dr. Stribling maintained that Western State was not a suitable location to treat both patients of white and black races.6 A separate hospital in Virginia was constructed in Petersburg in 1885, and Western State wasn’t desegregated until 1968.7

And later in 1865:“If I mistake not, all in charge of lunatic asylums on this continent – north, south, east, west – agree that the interest of both white and colored require that they be kept not only individually separate, but that they be provided for distinctly as classes.”5 - Dr. Stribling, 1865

62 Chapter 3

“During most of the period embraced in this report, the institution was, of course, exposed to trials and difficulties incident to a state of war, and its inmates subjected to privations, in common with families and individuals all around us. The blockading of ports, demands for the sustenance, &c., of the armies, activity and vigilance of impressioning officers, depreciation of the currency, and the partial failure of crops, conspired to render it, at times, almost impossible to procure food and raiment. Groceries and other supplies, usually deemed essentials in the domestic economy, assumed the place of luxuries, and these latter utterly disappeared. Thanks, however, to a kind Providence, the efforts of those upon whom devolved the labor of procuring supplies, were so far blessed that we do not believe a single member of our extensive household suffered any time with hunger or cold.”9

- Dr. Stribling, 1865

When the new asylum in Weston, West Virginia commenced construction in 1858, friction was always evident between the two institutions to the east and the hospital to the west. This tension largely corresponded to the hostility taking place between the Northern Union and the Southern Confederacy.

The Civil War had an impact on all of the Virginia’s mental health asylums. In Staunton, it created food shortages due to an increase in the price of food and needed staples. Cases of scurvy were common among patients. The hospital was invaded once and supplies were taken, but thankfully no one entered the buildings occupied by the patients.

Eastern State Hospital was not as lucky. The war created great difficulties there. The hospital directors and staff feared an invasion in 1862 and fled, leaving behind one ward master and 252 patients.10 Not long after the invasion, Dr. Galt inexplicably died, perhaps of suicide.11 The Union Government took pity on the hospital’s indigent and provided the hospital with food and material aid for the duration of the war.12

The Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind was taken over by the Confederate military for use as military hospital during the war. Students were relocated to Stuart Hall for the duration of the war, while trenches transformed the front lawn of the VSDB.

During and after the war, the number of patients at Western State increased to between 400 and 500, and “The War” was attributed to dozens of new cases of insanity. Dr. Stribling was ill for much of this time, and his son was a prisoner to the Union army in Baltimore. Dr. Stribling’s illness was not his first bout, nor his last. He had another episode years earlier in 1842, in which he tried to retire from his post at Western State. Stribling’s frail health was attributed to excessive and exhausting labors and anxieties in 1842, perhaps indicating a mental breakdown.13 Again in 1852, he requested leave through tendering a resignation. However, the Board of Directors persuaded him to reconsider. Once more in 1857, Dr. Stribling tried to leave to open a general practice in town, but was again dissuaded.

In the rebuilding period after the war, the Annual Associations of Superintendents held their meeting in Staunton in 1869, which was attended by almost every state in the union and several superintendents from the British Provinces. This was a great acknowledgement to the work of Francis T. Stribling and the Board of Directors. The hospital was in great esteem when Dr. Stribling died in 1874.

63Institutionalize

Despite the clearly described premises of moral treatment through architecture and occupation, the physicians that followed the founding fathers of Kirkbride and Stribling’s era began to stray into a new means of treating the mentally ill. The next generation of physicians not only had access to new medications and treatments, but they also had the benefit of learning from a generation that founded mental health treatment in the United States. They were set up to aspire to advance the growing profession of psychiatry.

After Stribling passed away, he was succeeded by Dr. Baldwin of Winchester. Dr. Baldwin was quick to grow the hospital, seeing a need for 240 beds immediately. He also thought the hospital could be enlarged up to 600 beds without taking away from the current water and heat supply and cooking arrangements. By 1875, reports indicate that restraints were being used judiciously once more. Dr. Baldwin had Utica cribs created to contain patients who wouldn’t stay in bed. This type of restraint along with straightjackets was common in the field of mental health at that time.

Pending hospital expansions did require updating utilities and the acquisition of more water, particularly to help with the laundry and cold storage of the hospital that had newer technologies to do these chores, and the water was needed in case of a fire emergency. This growth of the hospital triggered a long period of water supply troubles that would only increase in time with other changes to the hospital’s framework.

Dr. Baldwin passed away unexpectedly in 1880. Dr. Fauntleroy was appointed to be the next superintendent. He served for two years, was replaced by the assistant physician for two years, and then served two more years. Dr. Fauntleroy was said to be disloyal to the Governor at the time, Governor Holliday, and several board members opposed Dr. Fauntleroy because of this. These politics were likely the cause interrupting his term.

In 1889, there were 600 patients crowded in at Western State, and the population grew to between 700 and 800 by 1896. Reports still indicate that the physicians were practicing moral medicine, or they believed they were.

“Employment reaches a class of patients that are interested in nothing else, and gives as its reward more freedom of thought and action, as well as the inestimable benefit to be derived from new associations, and the engendering of a spirit of independence.

The lifting of the mind, even for a few hours at a time, from out of a pit of despondency and often despair may be the means of tilting the mental balance towards recovery.”14 – Blackford, 1895-1896

A New Chapter

The face of mental health treatment gradually, and drastically changed as moral treatment unofficially ended by 1900, when Western State Hospital housed over 900 patients at times. The availability of convenient asylums legitimized the act of institutionalizing friends and family members. By 1900, there were almost 300 hospitals built in the country.15 Doctors made public claims that treatment could only occur away from home, and they instilled a bit of trepidation by stating that neglecting early treatment could result in an incurable state. Mental illness was misunderstood by physicians, and hardly comprehended by the public. The mentally ill were perceived as uncontrollable and erratic, and the public feared that these traits could be contagious. Meanwhile, society was culturally accepting of institutionalization, and the combination of fear and this social acceptance lent hospitals to evolve into human warehouses, or custodial care centers. Hospitals for the insane also grew in scale and numbers with the general population boom.

64 Chapter 3

“Too many people use the hospital as an easy means of ridding themselves of relatives who, becoming mentally enfeebled by age, are regarded as a burden, and foisted upon the State for care and protection. In this way proper hospital patients are crowded out, and the chances for their recovery made more remote. Since the comforts and care of hospital life have become better known, it is found convenient by not a few relatives to have many certified to as insane before a commission of lunacy who possess only the childishness, and possibly the loss of memory, incident to advanced years. We are often blamed for not accepting such, and thus preventing as far as possible a hospital from becoming merely “an old folks’ home” for many whose relatives are well able to look after such harmless citizens at home in their declining years.”16 - Dr. Blackford, 1898

A report from England was cited in the 1903 Annual Report that claimed an average of 500 people a week “lost their minds.” This increase was found amongst the poorer class, and they felt poverty “constituted no small factor among the causes of insanity.” Dr. Blackford agreed that the poor classes in rural Virginia were also more susceptible to insanity.17

Superintendents were faced with immense pressure to find homes for the committed that lead to overcrowding in the hospitals and the move away from individualized care and moral treatment. This problem was exacerbated when the hospitals became filled with far more incurable patients than those that could be cured, such as geriatrics. At the same time, treatment diverged from such personal interactions between physicians and patients that were held before. The issue of crowding strained the hospital staff, and personal relationships between the unwell and the doctors suffered.

Although physicians deplored the custodial care impressed upon hospitals for individuals nearing the ends of their lives, they were not quick to clear or release the hundreds of committed, as evidenced by the sheer amount of patients entering into their care.

1909 Annual Report.

65

Dormitory Room at Western State Hospital, 1909

Institutionalize

The national association of superintendents convened in 1851 and determined that no more than 250 patients could be treated properly in one building, as Kirkbride had advocated, and that 200 was the ideal patient population.18 Although Western State Hospital had a population of around 400 during Dr. Stribling’s reign, his goal was to have 200 of each sex. Dr. Stribling also felt that subsequent hospitals should be designed to meet the goal of 250 patients.19 In 1866, the annual superintendents’ meeting narrowly accepted the expansion of institutions to contain up to 600 patients.20 Western State had a population between 700 and 800 in 1896.21 In 1909, 1,209 patients had received treatment at Western State. Prior to the hospital closing, it housed 1,062 patients at the old site in 1972, and 450 in 1974 when the hospital was truly split amongst the two sites.

c. 1874

1896

1909

1950

1972

1974

100 Patients

400

700-800

1,209

2,700

1,062

450

Typical crowded dormitory in old building (left), and remodeled dormitories cost just as much as constructing a new building (right) Images of Western State from Virginia State Hospital Board, 1950-1951.

66 Chapter 3

In 1905, Joseph DeJarnette became the superintendent of the hospital, and he would remain in this capacity until 1945. He had been a physician at the hospital around 16 years before taking over the superintendency. This certainly signaled a third era in the management of the hospital and the treatment of the mentally ill. The hospital was already more of a warehouse than a treatment center. Patients really had to have an advocate on the outside to get their release. Reports still read as if the physicians were continuing to practice moral medicine, and Dr. DeJarnette claimed to have eliminated the use of mechanical restraints once more during his superintendency.

“It is with pride that I chronicle the first act of my administration March 8, 1906, when I ordered every mechanical restraint to be removed from patients and all such appliances returned from the wards to my office. From that date to the end of my administration no mechanical restraint of any kind was ever used on a patient of the Western State Hospital.

We made it a rule to speak and shake hands with every patients, and found it inspired kindly feeling and gave the patients an opportunity to speak with the physician.”22 - DeJarnette, 1946

Dr. DeJarnette

Joseph S. DeJarnette (1866-1957)Started at Western State around 1889, was superintendent from 1905-1945, and acted as interim superintendent until as late as 1951.

Patient arrival c. 1950

He also reported that occupation, diversion, regular hours, and wholesome food were the best methods of treating the insane, quoting Oliver Wendell Holmes, “If all the medicines were thrown into the sea it would be a good thing for mankind, but a bad thing for fish.”23 However, DeJarnette was actively engaged in the eugenics movement along with some other experimental treatments that are unthinkable by today’s standards and included electric shock treatments, hydrotherapy, lobotomies, and blood transfusions. He personally invented hot rooms to treat patients with fevers and indestructible clothing for patients to wear. The mental health profession was largely in support of the actions occurring at Western State. It was common practice around the country, not unique to Virginia, to perform invasive surgeries and procedures in order to try to learn about mental illness, and by all best hopes, attempt to cure patients. Around 1911, Dr. DeJarnette had also lobbied for a law to allow superintendents the ability to conduct post-mortems, likely to provide more experience in the understanding of the visible physical attributes of mental illness.24

Image from “Eugenics in Virginia.” www.hsl.virginia.edu.


67Institutionalize

“In the treatment of all diseases it is an established fact that prevention is far better than cure. This is especially true in the treatment of the insane, as heredity has been variously estimated to be the cause of from thirty to fifty per cent. Therefore, I believe that the marriage relation between the unfit, such as those who have dipsomania, insanity, epilepsy, feeble-mindedness, syphilis, and tuberculosis, should be prohibited by law, except in cases where the woman is over 45 years of age. In this way we would perpetuate the race from healthy stock, and eliminate the defectives and weaklings to a great extent. Some writers actually recommend sterilization of this class. This sounds extreme to the unthinking, and appears harsh, but in the course of time, probably many years, some plan of this nature will almost certainly be resorted to.”25 - DeJarnette, 1908

DeJarnette’s first introduction to eugenics came in his 1908 report:

Image from “Eugenics in Virginia.” www.hsl.virginia.edu

Dr. DeJarnette penned a poem ridiculing society for not to sterilizing the mentally feeble and unfit, according to Mendel’s Law.

In 1911, he was more adamant that eugenics was the solution to the prevention of insanity. In 1924, the state of Virginia legalized sterilizations, however it never legalized mandatory sterilizations, as DeJarnette had loudly advocated for. In 1927, Dr. DeJarnette reported that the law had been found constitutional, and he first reported about the number of sterilizations occurring at the site in 1929.

In 1946, DeJarnette wrote his own send-off in the Annual Report highlighting his accomplishments. He boasted of the 1,205 sterilizations performed at Western State and the 649 he personally performed. At that time, he claimed it was “a statistic fact that one out of every twenty of our population will some day become an inmate of a hospital for the insane.”26

68 Chapter 3

In addition to his experimental theories on patient treatment, Dr. DeJarnette also designed many of the newest buildings at Western State and had them constructed with patient labor during his time there. The buildings are characterized by their immense scale and simplicity in detailing. They were constructed relatively quickly to meet the demands of the growing hospital population and contained large dormitory-like accommodations. Fenced in porches were located on ward ends and many of these buildings were named after hospital supporters and benefactors. These dormitories moved away from classic columns and roof-top verandas, but did incorporate similar materials to the older buildings in an attempt to blend in with the original campus core.

The new campus maintained the airing courts as exercise yards and buildings were rooted into the landscape with foundation plantings, as seen below. New site furnishings emerged to meet changing demands in technology and to provide comfort to the patients utilizing the outdoor spaces.

Back of Byrd Building

Wheary Building

Front of Byrd Building

DeJarnette Building

Image from 1966 Fire Insurance Survey

69Institutionalize

Dr. DeJarnette greatly advocated for the separation of various types of patients. In some cases, this lessened the burden placed upon the hospital by moving patients to new facilities elsewhere in the state. Beginning in 1908, it was important to segregate the tuberculosis patients, and separate pavilions were constructed on the Western State campus for this purpose. All buildings were screened in to keep flies out of patient and dining areas, and the new invention of a vacuum cleaner helped to reduce dust raised by sweeping. Also that year, the High Point Colony was established behind the hospital near the hennery and old orchard. Its purpose was a to provide freedom to a small number of patients who were still wards of the hospital, but able to go and come as they pleased. It was an experiment in outpatient treatment.

In 1911, the Lynchburg Colony was opened for epileptics and many patients were transferred there to both be segregated from the other patients and to be institutionalized. DeJarnette advocated for a similar home, or colony, for inebriates.

In 1928, the Glendale farm, owned by Western State, was converted into a sanatorium for paying patients. This later became the DeJarnette Sanitarium, which opened in 1932. The site not only boasted of a golf course and tennis courts, but also claimed to be an “ideal, beautiful location” surrounded by “mountain ranges of indescribable beauty” “at the very gateway of the Shenandoah Park,” in the 1928 report.27 Shenandoah National Park was authorized by Congress in 1926, and it is interesting to see how DeJarnette Sanitarium was being marketed as an extension of this landscape not long after. The park wasn’t fully established until 1935, and the nearby Blue Ridge Parkway entrance at Rockfish Gap didn’t open until in 1939. The DeJarnette Sanitarium was used to treat inebriates, drug addicts, and nervous and mental diseased patients. In 1946, DeJarnette State Sanatorium was separated from Western State Hospital. During the 1950s, many of Virginia’s alcoholic patients were sent to Western State for treatment.

During World War I, many attendants had left Western State due to the draft. Several wards were left with only one attendant, and patients had to look after each other when the attendant was off-duty. Some wards had no attendants. Soldiers were starting to come in for treatment, and the hospital had prepared to care for approximately 150 insane soldiers in 1918. It is interesting to note that only a couple of dozen soldiers were admitted for insanity caused by war during the Civil War – 17 in 1863, 24 in 1865, 30 in 1868.

After World War II, no major buildings were constructed on the site.

DeJarnette Sanatorium.

Tennis Courts at DeJarnette Sanatorium, c. 1950


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71

Western State Hospital male tuberculosis ward (above).

Male patients before moving to Lynchburg Colony. 1911 (left).

1909 Annual Report

1911 Annual Report

Institutionalize

Dr. DeJarnette still felt occupation and diversion along with wholesome food were the best methods for treating the mentally ill. It was a privilege to be allowed on the front grounds if patients were able to conduct themselves properly.

In 1911, Dr. DeJarnette felt it might be beneficial to pay patients for half of the time they work. He felt this would encourage some of the “lazy” patients to get busy. No one was forced to work, although they may have been strongly compelled.28 He seemed to be very concerned with the amount of production that occurred within the farm and gardens, but always framed it as a healthful exercise to the patients. At this time, the reports read as if the farming was less about treating the patients and more about producing food. Patient labor laws were not enacted until 1966 requiring fair payment for labor that benefited the hospital perhaps more than the patient.

A comparison of language written by Dr. Stribling and by Dr. DeJarnette illustrate this point about the believed benefits of patient labor.

“But it happens that a very large number of individuals in our Hospital are from amongst the laboring class of the community; and hence it will doubtless be found, that occupation in the pursuits to which they have been accustomed, will be their best amusement, and such employment the most salutary mode of recreation that can be provided them. … Patients who have been working men, when shut up in their cells will be unhappy, restless and discontented, nor can they long enjoy the ordinary amusements provided them without satiety; but when suffered to go into the field or garden to labor, they become cheerful and happy. They will also appreciate the confidence reposed in them, and exercise all their powers of self-control, that they may prove such confidence is not misplaced. Appetite and sleep will be promoted, and the chances of recovery very greatly increased; convalescents also will be peculiarly benefitted by labor, and especially by labor in the open field. As the excitement of the disease wears away, and the mind regaining its powers becomes capable of rational reflection, subjects of employment are first adverted to; and the physical system now demands and feels the need of habitual and active exertion. Relief from the irksomeness of confinement is now sought and is best found in moderate labor. By this means, mental and physical strength are promoted, and simultaneously regained.”29 - Dr. Stribling, 1837

“We are badly in need of 200 more acres of land, and if the purchase could be made we could pay for it in three years at the present prices of foods, especially since our labor costs us very little. And at the same time it would furnish the patients healthy employment.”30 – Dr. DeJarnette, 1917

Compared to,

Agriculture

The site was at 298 acres from 1873 until 1904. In 1917 there are 600 acres of land, 100 in orchard, twenty-five in garden. DeJarnette requested 200 more acres of land to meet the hospital’s needs. And at one time, the hospital owned 1,363 acres and had control of the entire watershed.

Patients Preparing Apples for Baking, c. 1950


72 Chapter 3

The hospital needed to keep growing the agricultural lands to support the growing numbers of patients housed there. Food could always be raised more cheaply than it could be bought. In 1903, the patient population exceeded 1,000. Not only were there more mouths to feed, but there were more hands available to provide labor. Dr. Blackford recommended purchasing 200 acres for agriculture, mainly to pasture the amount of cows needed to supply the hospital with milk.

Dr. DeJarnette expanded the orchard in 1907. 1,000 apple and peach trees, 200 damson trees, 700 grapevines, 500 improved blackberry bushes, and 1,000 raspberry bushes were planted. The large apple crop yielded 650 barrels of apples in 1908. The hospital had 1,000 chickens under the care of the patients, as well. In 1910, DeJarnette was prepared to add around 450 more fruit trees. Instead they added 500 apple trees and 650 peach trees, giving the hospital over 5,000 total fruit trees! In aerial imagery from the 1930s, orchards can be seen behind the physician homes along Greenville Avenue, behind the Wheary building, and just uphill from the hospital cemetery. Fields surrounded the new Dairy Barn and were located behind the Laundry.

In 1911, Dr. DeJarnette believed that the trees would be able to produce five thousand dollars worth of fruit annually, after supplying the wants of the patients. This is the first indication that the hospital was moving towards agriculture for profit. In 1919, the hospital was selling apples, wheat, and flour. They were also supplying the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind and the State Lime Grinding Plant with all the apples they could haul in 1927. In 1929, the apple crop provided the hospital with a $9,300 profit. In the last six years of DeJarnette’s superintendency, the farm produced a net profit from $18,000 to $25,000 annually.

Not only were the male patients actively engaged in the farming aspects, the women were now involved with canning and preserving thousands of gallons of fruit and vegetables annually. In 1917, there were close to 1,610 patients to care for. The scale of the production landscape had to keep pace with the nourishment needs of the patients. A brick yard was also producing 200,000 bricks a year in 1908 and continued production through at least through 1914 to supply the rapidly growing campus.

“The employed patient is not only much happier, but his chance for recovery is greatly increased- and so the happy circle- the patient is good for work, the work is good for the patient.”31 - Dr. DeJarnette, 1919

Images from the Library of Virginia, RichmondHospital construction occurring in 1912

73Institutionalize

10 Acres

4 Acres

64 Acres

177 1/2 Ac.

190 Acres

298 Acres

288 Acres

490 Acres

590 Acres

600 Acres

852 Acres

972 Acres

1363 Acres

80 Acres

1825

1838

1846

1871

1873

1906

1908

1914

1917

1926

1927

1946-1955

1970s-Today

74 Chapter 3

Plat showing Western State Hospital and DeJarnette State Sanatorium Lands. 1971. Much of the acreage can be attributed to farming.

Orchards on eastern side of hospital, located between a brooding coop and the cemetery to the right of the image.

Image from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey

Image from the Library of Virginia, Richmond

75Institutionalize

Garden Crop Amt. 1841 1842 1850 1852 1879 1881 1883 1896 1900 1903 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1926 1927 1928 1929 1957

Corn Bushel 791 450 400 500 592 0 0 0 0 0 861 13,668 2,379 800 616 0 1,000 0 0 1,600 0 1,000 0 600 1,463 1,200 *

Corn (green) Dozen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,125 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Corn (pop) Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Corn Ears 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2768 0 0 0 4,479 6,800 8,025 0 77,633 95,140 0 0 23,050 12,000 11,773 8,256 0 20,688 0

Onions (early) Dozen 0 0 404 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Onions (late) Bushel 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 0 0 0 0 0 0

Onion Dozen 0 0 0 513 1,370.5 2,792.0 665.0 1776.25 4820 8,107.8 9,767 9,463 11,114 7,746 3,722 0 8,371 6,692 0 13,673 11,750 13,246 64,875 15,289 8,223 6,409 0

Onions Bushel 25 0 0 2 4 0 4 20 52 26 125 104 120 16 55.5 0 247.5 440 0 189 0 0 255 0 0 0 0

Onions (dried) Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 234 0 130 131 251 0

Potato Bushel 375 850 240 220 10 0 0 167 195 828 1,363 1,508.5 3,143 115.5 1,005 512 1,400 772.5 1,500 730 1,937 1,750 171 573 919.5 716 0

Sweet Potatoes Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 180 770 2,100 1,200 252 0

Sweet Potatoes Plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 72,885 0

Cabbage Head 1500 1500 0 0 8,455 11,995 4,665 7,485 7755 8,500 9,046 11,376 18,424 13,160 19,017 14,887 9,625 25,093 0 22,000 0 21,658 0 0 0 0 0

Cabbage (early) Head 0 0 2700 2,500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cabbage (late) Head 0 0 3775 2,710 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cabbage Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 121,748 0 32,340 15,918 51,951 46,669 0

Kraut Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 6 7 0 70 24 0 55 36 24 16 16 51 32 0

Peas Bushel * 0 45 58 88.25 194.00 83.00 163 122 181.5 230 164 254 45 119 0 217 263 0 176 260 0 310 348 322 282 0

Snap Beans Bushel * 0 57 103 411 189 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,221 776 0 0 0 0

Lima Beans Gallons 0 0 0 0 116 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lima Beans (inc. dried) Bushel 0 0 20 51 0 0 21 98 88 178 113 198.5 107.5 112 96 0 200 214 0 416 200 132.5 198 21 141 40 0

Lima Beans (dried) Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 660 416 0 0 0 0 0

Lima Beans (dried) Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32 0 0 0

Green/String Beans Bushel 0 0 0 6 0 0 61 339.25 378.5 757 861 944 591 460 774 0 992 1,179 0 974 1,120 0 0 1,080 130 1,356 0

Carrots and Parsnips Bushel 0 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Carrots Bushel 0 0 10 18 113 106 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 50 55.5 185 126 125 0

Turnips Bushel 0 0 34 338 0 34 0 420 404 809.5 399.5 430 133.5 206 757 0 200 465 0 596 1,172 6 268 1,529 1,486 1,599 0

Parsnips Bushel 0 0 12 15 48 237 0 123 295 130.5 483 345 541 458 156 0 625 435 0 41 427 588 128 110 525 855 0

Radishes Each 0 0 0 0 451 1,205 4,560 21,598 23140 8,346 23,775 20,600 25,100 8,475 30,565 0 20,850 25,070 0 31,200 20,100 28,300 6,672 51,444 48,029 69,628 0

Horse-radishes Bunches 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 6 6 96 74 60 40 0

Salsify (root plant) Bushel 0 0 20 30 48 0 30 47 57 53 60 50 62 62 64.5 0 250 69 0 200 110 115 68.5 166 94 156 0

Beets Bushel 50 60 49 61.5 87.0 284.0 84.0 152 204.5 232.5 403 497 452.5 753 242.5 0 759 932 0 0 524 715 243.5 656 483.5 1,044 0

Turnip Salad Bushel 0 0 95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lettuce Head 0 0 0 0 6,100 11,800 1,668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lettuce Bushel 0 0 51 27.5 2.5 0 0.0 251.5 208.5 175 406.5 389 332 250 366 0 0 520 0 500 500 508 377 261 416 278 0

Salad Bushel 0 0 0 88 1,114 1,170 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Salad Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 117.5 132 268 281 448 303 277 436 0 714 782 0 710 725 357 554 1,103 328 705 0

Spinach Bushel 0 0 0 0 270 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Kale bbls. 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Summer Squash Dozen 0 0 422 758 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 482 0 0 0 0 0

Squash Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 181 72 19 360 331 382.5 147 427.5 150 0 387 538 0 200 121 0 0 120 200 286 0

Squash Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 0 0 0 0

Cymlings Dozen 0 0 0 0 757 564 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pumpkins Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40.0 975 0 940 0 1,600 1,480 0 0 600 25 8,000 10,290 0 0 0

Cucumbers Each * 0 0 0 4,644 1,824 948 5,149 2354 13,861 7,903 26,036 13,731 17,436 25,686 0 11,827 16,780 0 25,000 5,365 16,344 7,601 25,781 11,349 5,275 0

Eggplant Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 31 272 21 40 0

Peppers Bushel 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Peppers Dozen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Peppers Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2400 0 425 1,475 700 1,500 500 0 1,456 745 0 3,385 6,500 6,650 2,996 5,688 3,279 2,486 0

Asparagus Bunches 0 0 0 * 590 425 623 1,192 1185 430 355 535 450 620 470 0 597 310 0 350 215 260 0 260 390 330 0

Asparagus Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 355 0 0 0 0

Cauliflower Heads 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 468 468 600 450 1,100 0 407 220 0 500 0 1,525 331 329 400 525 0

Celery Bunches 0 0 1200 900 880 4,356 0 3,717 3220 3,421 6,458 5,150 5,270 4,255 4,775 0 10,054 6,257 0 6,395 5,250 3,300 4,848 5,569 5,835 4,440 0

Tomatoes Bushel * 0 241 409 421 618 771 306.5 461.75 571 608 623 816 439.5 1,079 853 1,197 520 0 929 419 971 981 806 796 637 0

Tomatoes Plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,000 0

Okra Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,288 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,235 2,037 0

Sage Pounds 0 0 0 0 45 0 0 6 30 35 30 40 62 70 0 0 30 6 0 72 23 40 0 0 0 0 0

Parsley Bunches 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 21 108 0 41 53 44 80 10 18 131 0

* Recorded having, but quantity unknown

"0" indicates none reported

Production Charts

76 Chapter 3

Garden Crop Amt. 1841 1842 1850 1852 1879 1881 1883 1896 1900 1903 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1926 1927 1928 1929 1957

Corn Bushel 791 450 400 500 592 0 0 0 0 0 861 13,668 2,379 800 616 0 1,000 0 0 1,600 0 1,000 0 600 1,463 1,200 *

Corn (green) Dozen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,125 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Corn (pop) Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Corn Ears 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2768 0 0 0 4,479 6,800 8,025 0 77,633 95,140 0 0 23,050 12,000 11,773 8,256 0 20,688 0

Onions (early) Dozen 0 0 404 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Onions (late) Bushel 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 0 0 0 0 0 0

Onion Dozen 0 0 0 513 1,370.5 2,792.0 665.0 1776.25 4820 8,107.8 9,767 9,463 11,114 7,746 3,722 0 8,371 6,692 0 13,673 11,750 13,246 64,875 15,289 8,223 6,409 0

Onions Bushel 25 0 0 2 4 0 4 20 52 26 125 104 120 16 55.5 0 247.5 440 0 189 0 0 255 0 0 0 0

Onions (dried) Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 234 0 130 131 251 0

Potato Bushel 375 850 240 220 10 0 0 167 195 828 1,363 1,508.5 3,143 115.5 1,005 512 1,400 772.5 1,500 730 1,937 1,750 171 573 919.5 716 0

Sweet Potatoes Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 180 770 2,100 1,200 252 0

Sweet Potatoes Plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 72,885 0

Cabbage Head 1500 1500 0 0 8,455 11,995 4,665 7,485 7755 8,500 9,046 11,376 18,424 13,160 19,017 14,887 9,625 25,093 0 22,000 0 21,658 0 0 0 0 0

Cabbage (early) Head 0 0 2700 2,500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cabbage (late) Head 0 0 3775 2,710 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cabbage Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 121,748 0 32,340 15,918 51,951 46,669 0

Kraut Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 6 7 0 70 24 0 55 36 24 16 16 51 32 0

Peas Bushel * 0 45 58 88.25 194.00 83.00 163 122 181.5 230 164 254 45 119 0 217 263 0 176 260 0 310 348 322 282 0

Snap Beans Bushel * 0 57 103 411 189 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,221 776 0 0 0 0

Lima Beans Gallons 0 0 0 0 116 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lima Beans (inc. dried) Bushel 0 0 20 51 0 0 21 98 88 178 113 198.5 107.5 112 96 0 200 214 0 416 200 132.5 198 21 141 40 0

Lima Beans (dried) Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 660 416 0 0 0 0 0

Lima Beans (dried) Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32 0 0 0

Green/String Beans Bushel 0 0 0 6 0 0 61 339.25 378.5 757 861 944 591 460 774 0 992 1,179 0 974 1,120 0 0 1,080 130 1,356 0

Carrots and Parsnips Bushel 0 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Carrots Bushel 0 0 10 18 113 106 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 50 55.5 185 126 125 0

Turnips Bushel 0 0 34 338 0 34 0 420 404 809.5 399.5 430 133.5 206 757 0 200 465 0 596 1,172 6 268 1,529 1,486 1,599 0

Parsnips Bushel 0 0 12 15 48 237 0 123 295 130.5 483 345 541 458 156 0 625 435 0 41 427 588 128 110 525 855 0

Radishes Each 0 0 0 0 451 1,205 4,560 21,598 23140 8,346 23,775 20,600 25,100 8,475 30,565 0 20,850 25,070 0 31,200 20,100 28,300 6,672 51,444 48,029 69,628 0

Horse-radishes Bunches 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 6 6 96 74 60 40 0

Salsify (root plant) Bushel 0 0 20 30 48 0 30 47 57 53 60 50 62 62 64.5 0 250 69 0 200 110 115 68.5 166 94 156 0

Beets Bushel 50 60 49 61.5 87.0 284.0 84.0 152 204.5 232.5 403 497 452.5 753 242.5 0 759 932 0 0 524 715 243.5 656 483.5 1,044 0

Turnip Salad Bushel 0 0 95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lettuce Head 0 0 0 0 6,100 11,800 1,668 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Lettuce Bushel 0 0 51 27.5 2.5 0 0.0 251.5 208.5 175 406.5 389 332 250 366 0 0 520 0 500 500 508 377 261 416 278 0

Salad Bushel 0 0 0 88 1,114 1,170 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Salad Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 117.5 132 268 281 448 303 277 436 0 714 782 0 710 725 357 554 1,103 328 705 0

Spinach Bushel 0 0 0 0 270 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Kale bbls. 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Summer Squash Dozen 0 0 422 758 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 482 0 0 0 0 0

Squash Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 181 72 19 360 331 382.5 147 427.5 150 0 387 538 0 200 121 0 0 120 200 286 0

Squash Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 0 0 0 0

Cymlings Dozen 0 0 0 0 757 564 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pumpkins Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40.0 975 0 940 0 1,600 1,480 0 0 600 25 8,000 10,290 0 0 0

Cucumbers Each * 0 0 0 4,644 1,824 948 5,149 2354 13,861 7,903 26,036 13,731 17,436 25,686 0 11,827 16,780 0 25,000 5,365 16,344 7,601 25,781 11,349 5,275 0

Eggplant Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 31 272 21 40 0

Peppers Bushel 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Peppers Dozen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Peppers Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2400 0 425 1,475 700 1,500 500 0 1,456 745 0 3,385 6,500 6,650 2,996 5,688 3,279 2,486 0

Asparagus Bunches 0 0 0 * 590 425 623 1,192 1185 430 355 535 450 620 470 0 597 310 0 350 215 260 0 260 390 330 0

Asparagus Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 355 0 0 0 0

Cauliflower Heads 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 468 468 600 450 1,100 0 407 220 0 500 0 1,525 331 329 400 525 0

Celery Bunches 0 0 1200 900 880 4,356 0 3,717 3220 3,421 6,458 5,150 5,270 4,255 4,775 0 10,054 6,257 0 6,395 5,250 3,300 4,848 5,569 5,835 4,440 0

Tomatoes Bushel * 0 241 409 421 618 771 306.5 461.75 571 608 623 816 439.5 1,079 853 1,197 520 0 929 419 971 981 806 796 637 0

Tomatoes Plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,000 0

Okra Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,288 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,235 2,037 0

Sage Pounds 0 0 0 0 45 0 0 6 30 35 30 40 62 70 0 0 30 6 0 72 23 40 0 0 0 0 0

Parsley Bunches 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 21 108 0 41 53 44 80 10 18 131 0


"0" indicates none reported 77Institutionalize

Orchard Crop Amt. 1841 1850 1852 1879 1881 1883 1896 1900 1903 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1926 1927 1928 1929 1957Apples Bushel * 0 0 288 864 272 257 182.5 185 1,000 1,272 0 419.5 489 0 863 1,771 0 264 677 356 1,357 40 0 0 724Apples Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 0 920 0 500 1,200 1,400 1,500 1,200 0 1,600 0 0 8,014 825 12,000 0Apples (dropped) Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0Apples (dried) Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,000 0 0 0 0 0 0Apple and Peach Trees 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Crabapples Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cider Barrels 0 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cider Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0Plum Bushel * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 7 0 150 0 0 150 20 30 0Pear Bushel * 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 6 0 2.5 0 0 0 11.5 10 4 0 82 21 0 3 0 160 0Pear Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0Cherry Gallons * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 212 769 0 0 120 0 0 0 0 0 0Peach Bushel * 0 0 0 0 0 0 141 0 133 0 400 0 1,000 1,800 2,400 325 178 5 434 12 0 803 557 300 0Damsons Trees 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Damsons Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Damsons Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0Currants Quarts 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Currants Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Grapes Pounds 0 0 0 1,871 0 850 1,263.5 2457 10,000 9,816 8,360 11,705 5,464 15,237 43,000 19,525 36,185 0 12,000 41,850 16,000 31,530 26,225 0 0 0Grapes Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 632 746 0Grapes Vines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 700 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Raspberries Gallons 0 40 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 131 126 41 0 0 132 0 75 148 79 0 0 0 0 0Raspberries Shrubs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Raspberries Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 69 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Berries Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 129.5 179.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 408 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Berries Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 321.5 243 175 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Blackberries Shrubs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Blackberries Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 107.5 33 192.5 0 0 246 0 80 256 254 0 0 0 0 0Strawberries Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 137 28 80 0 0 895 0 560 379 0 34 408 725 800 0Strawberries Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 973 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Gooseberries Quarts 0 0 0 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cantaloupe Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 270 630 1,058 400 200 600 2,182 5,223 2,602 1,119 0 1,125 524 304 1,112 6,308 151 1,120 0Rhubarb/Pie Plant Bunches 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 145 800 2,455 4,085 1,700 10,250 0 3,935 6,150 0 4,130 2,942 1,122 885 327 1,350 2,175 0Canned Goods Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10,000 0 0 0 0 15,000 0 35,000 65,000 40,000 20,000 0

* Recorded having, but quantity unknown"0" indicates none reported

Above and right opposite| Images from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey

Western State Hospital barns located off-site from the old campus, south of DeJarnette Sanatorium (left) and on Merrikin Farm (right).

Opposite| Remaining Dairy Barn, built between 1927 and 1930.

78 Chapter 3

Orchard Crop Amt. 1841 1850 1852 1879 1881 1883 1896 1900 1903 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1926 1927 1928 1929 1957Apples Bushel * 0 0 288 864 272 257 182.5 185 1,000 1,272 0 419.5 489 0 863 1,771 0 264 677 356 1,357 40 0 0 724Apples Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 0 920 0 500 1,200 1,400 1,500 1,200 0 1,600 0 0 8,014 825 12,000 0Apples (dropped) Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0Apples (dried) Pounds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,000 0 0 0 0 0 0Apple and Peach Trees 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Crabapples Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cider Barrels 0 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cider Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0Plum Bushel * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 7 0 150 0 0 150 20 30 0Pear Bushel * 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 6 0 2.5 0 0 0 11.5 10 4 0 82 21 0 3 0 160 0Pear Barrels 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0Cherry Gallons * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 212 769 0 0 120 0 0 0 0 0 0Peach Bushel * 0 0 0 0 0 0 141 0 133 0 400 0 1,000 1,800 2,400 325 178 5 434 12 0 803 557 300 0Damsons Trees 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Damsons Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Damsons Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0Currants Quarts 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Currants Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Grapes Pounds 0 0 0 1,871 0 850 1,263.5 2457 10,000 9,816 8,360 11,705 5,464 15,237 43,000 19,525 36,185 0 12,000 41,850 16,000 31,530 26,225 0 0 0Grapes Bushel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 632 746 0Grapes Vines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 700 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Raspberries Gallons 0 40 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 131 126 41 0 0 132 0 75 148 79 0 0 0 0 0Raspberries Shrubs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Raspberries Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 69 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Berries Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 129.5 179.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 408 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Berries Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 321.5 243 175 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Blackberries Shrubs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Blackberries Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 107.5 33 192.5 0 0 246 0 80 256 254 0 0 0 0 0Strawberries Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 137 28 80 0 0 895 0 560 379 0 34 408 725 800 0Strawberries Quarts 0 0 0 0 0 973 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Gooseberries Quarts 0 0 0 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cantaloupe Each 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 270 630 1,058 400 200 600 2,182 5,223 2,602 1,119 0 1,125 524 304 1,112 6,308 151 1,120 0Rhubarb/Pie Plant Bunches 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 145 800 2,455 4,085 1,700 10,250 0 3,935 6,150 0 4,130 2,942 1,122 885 327 1,350 2,175 0Canned Goods Gallons 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10,000 0 0 0 0 15,000 0 35,000 65,000 40,000 20,000 0

* Recorded having, but quantity unknown"0" indicates none reported

79Institutionalize

Farm Crop Amt. 1841 1842 1850 1852 1879 1896 1900 1903 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1926 1927 1928 1929 1957Roasting Ears Each 395 24,150 4,700 3,646 56,991 77,000 21,638 Corn (Farm Use) Bushel 300 300 Corn Barrels 1,000 Buckwheat Bushel 103 67 Hominy Bushel 28 Meal Bushel 288 640 900 860 2,131 Bone meal Tons 12 5 10 25 10 Timothy Seed Bushel 1.5 Wheat Bushel 60 440 703 200 738 800 645 666 2,700 2,500 600 2,000 526 336 Hay Tons 5 3 65 75 100 115 80 15 120 40 100 85 100 125 125 100 100 80 70 *Oats Bushel 350 Oats (Sheaf) Dozen 300 300 Oats Load 5 Rye Bushel 667 300 468 220 50 277 1,441 205 360 720 Millet Tons 5 5 Ensilage/Silage Tons 130 190 198 190 189 120 185 185 185 185 160 160 120 130 200 200 *Fodder Loads 3 3 Fodder Bundles 33 1,600 80 301 112 57 600 5,000 4,000 Straw Loads 15 5 Straw Tons 8 20 10 30 50 25 50 40 27

Milk Gallons 6570 7,167 6,772 19874 23,976 25,323 28,455 27,294 24,219 26,618 24,480 29,767 29,845 30,431 36,526 34,051 34,541 41,304 42,336 44,465 45,839 140,737Pork Pounds 5000 5740 8000 9,909 7,848 26318 29,624 24,592 36,084 33,868 26,894 19,658 21,092 16,140 19,963 25,983 18,000 22,000 25,000 37,446 36,090 37,716 47,359 Shoats (young pig) Each 30 29 60 160 90 Cows Each 9 9 5 7 7 22 24 60Veal Pounds 266 1,318 Stock Hogs Each 37 64 120 341Beef Pounds 1,863 1,684 659 2,053 2,031 1,000 2,100 2,125 1,792 3,140 1,510 Calves Each 5 27 29 36 27 30 30 30 16 31 21 33 24 Chickens Each 1,000 1,400 Chicken Pounds 1,200 482 2,020.5 379 16 71 25 Eggs Dozen 1,166 2,179.3 3,844 4,035 3,639 3,630 3,750 362 385 156

Ice Tons 300 220 187 85 Vinegar Barrels 13 2 14 10 14.5 15 12 17 20 24 80 Vinegar Pounds 19 Vinegar Gallons 12 16 504 Vinegar Barrels 6 21 18 17 Wood Cords 126 240 150 90 50 50 40 Tallow Pounds 180


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Typical Patient Diet

1839: Wheat and corn bread, coffee, tea, milk, butter, bacon, beef, veal, mutton, poultry, and the various fruits and vegetables.

1926: Beef, bacon or mutton twice daily in abundance, eggs once a week during the laying season, pie once a week, ginger bread once a week, ice cream in hot weather every two weeks on the general wards and twice a week all the year on the infirmaries. Buttermilk is served to all five times a week, and vegetables and fruits are abundant. The diet during the winter months is varied by the 27,000 gallons of canned fruits and vegetables raised on the farm.

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Farm Crop Amt. 1841 1842 1850 1852 1879 1896 1900 1903 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1926 1927 1928 1929 1957Roasting Ears Each 395 24,150 4,700 3,646 56,991 77,000 21,638 Corn (Farm Use) Bushel 300 300 Corn Barrels 1,000 Buckwheat Bushel 103 67 Hominy Bushel 28 Meal Bushel 288 640 900 860 2,131 Bone meal Tons 12 5 10 25 10 Timothy Seed Bushel 1.5 Wheat Bushel 60 440 703 200 738 800 645 666 2,700 2,500 600 2,000 526 336 Hay Tons 5 3 65 75 100 115 80 15 120 40 100 85 100 125 125 100 100 80 70 *Oats Bushel 350 Oats (Sheaf) Dozen 300 300 Oats Load 5 Rye Bushel 667 300 468 220 50 277 1,441 205 360 720 Millet Tons 5 5 Ensilage/Silage Tons 130 190 198 190 189 120 185 185 185 185 160 160 120 130 200 200 *Fodder Loads 3 3 Fodder Bundles 33 1,600 80 301 112 57 600 5,000 4,000 Straw Loads 15 5 Straw Tons 8 20 10 30 50 25 50 40 27

Milk Gallons 6570 7,167 6,772 19874 23,976 25,323 28,455 27,294 24,219 26,618 24,480 29,767 29,845 30,431 36,526 34,051 34,541 41,304 42,336 44,465 45,839 140,737Pork Pounds 5000 5740 8000 9,909 7,848 26318 29,624 24,592 36,084 33,868 26,894 19,658 21,092 16,140 19,963 25,983 18,000 22,000 25,000 37,446 36,090 37,716 47,359 Shoats (young pig) Each 30 29 60 160 90 Cows Each 9 9 5 7 7 22 24 60Veal Pounds 266 1,318 Stock Hogs Each 37 64 120 341Beef Pounds 1,863 1,684 659 2,053 2,031 1,000 2,100 2,125 1,792 3,140 1,510 Calves Each 5 27 29 36 27 30 30 30 16 31 21 33 24 Chickens Each 1,000 1,400 Chicken Pounds 1,200 482 2,020.5 379 16 71 25 Eggs Dozen 1,166 2,179.3 3,844 4,035 3,639 3,630 3,750 362 385 156

Ice Tons 300 220 187 85 Vinegar Barrels 13 2 14 10 14.5 15 12 17 20 24 80 Vinegar Pounds 19 Vinegar Gallons 12 16 504 Vinegar Barrels 6 21 18 17 Wood Cords 126 240 150 90 50 50 40 Tallow Pounds 180


81

A partial menu for the week of November 1, 1909:Thursday Friday Saturday

Hash Beef-steak & Gravy HashWarm Loaf Bread Oatmeal SausageMolasses Warm Loaf Bread Warm Loaf BreadCoffee/Buttermilk Molasses Molasses Coffee/Buttermilk Coffee/Buttermilk

Boiled Beef/Bacon Boiled Beef/Bacon Boiled Beef/BaconTomatoes Pumpkin, Turnips, Potatoes Potatoes and beans soupMolasses Molasses MolassesCorn and Loaf Bread Corn and Loaf Bread Corn and Loaf Bread

Cold Loaf Bread Hot Loaf Bread Cold Loaf BreadButter Butter ButterMolasses Molasses Molasses

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1956 Aerial Image, Agricultural Survey Image from 1956 Soil Conservation Plan, Library of Virginia

N

82 Chapter 3

Images courtesy of Frazier & Associates.1930s aerial imagery indicating orchard and field locations

83Institutionalize

1955-1966 2011

84

The introduction of the automobile, followed by its increase in popularity, changed the arrival and circulation system of the hospital. Parking areas for visitors had to be procured. Visitors could still arrive by way of the main entry, on Greenville Avenue, but they were quickly ushered around the hospital buildings to the surface parking lots located in the back. By 1952, two large lots were constructed behind the buildings to meet increased needs.

In addition, the automobile made it necessary to add garages and shops to house and service the hospital fleet. Back of house services requiring deliveries and pickup expanded internal circulation needs to accommodate automobiles. Most of this service traffic would have been assigned to Richmond Avenue. Traffic markings and signs became a part of the landscape in 1953.

The Introduction of the Automobile

Chapter 3

Images from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey

Images from the automobile landscape, including surface parking areas and garages.

85Institutionalize

86

In 1929, Dr. DeJarnette hoped to reintroduce the custom of pleasure drives into the country. It seems that the neighboring roads had become heavy with traffic traveling at high speeds, and walking into town or the country was too dangerous to allow patients to freely move about. He was advocating for the reintroduction of horse-drawn carriage rides, but the act of moving the patients into the country for enjoyment via bus became a popular activity. They would visit Shenandoah National Park and local municipal parks and fairgrounds for special outings.

The popularity of the automobile also had other implications on the hospital site. In 1958, construction on a new highway loop in front of the hospital at the intersection of Richmond Avenue and Greenville Avenue took a significant amount of the hospital lawn at 3.5 acres. Although comparisons of the site prior to and after the lost acreage are hard to see, one can sense the heartache felt over the loss through the words of Dr. Pettis:

“We are deeply concerned over the loss of most of our hospital lawn at the main site, now being converted into a highway loop. Construction is being started in this area, and equipment and materials are now being moved in. The area is being fenced off, to prevent any patient or employee entering that area while work is under way. There can be found no adequate substitute for this lawn area, which we had used for years to get patients out-of-doors. In fact, we are now in a position where we cannot conduct outdoor activities on a scale even relative to what we have in the past - - a severe blow to all the patients as well as hospital personnel and hospital appearances.”32 – Dr. Pettis, 1958

“Staunton Evening Leader, Tuesday June 5th, To the Editor, Geo. C. Pittman Jr.,1956At the present moment I am a mere novice in the field of psychology and mental health. However, I am fully aware of the necessity for recreation for the mentally ill.

Have you ever been forced to stay in a room knowing you couldn’t leave until a task was finished? That alone was bad enough knowing you could get out when through.

Let us consider another example. Men selected to serve on submarines must be of the most mature and stable personality in order to withstand the hardships of being shut in for long periods of time.

Instead of taking the land from Western State suppose Gypsy Hill Park was in danger. The people of Staunton would raze the town to the ground in order to save a spot of beauty and recreation. Yet, these same people function as whole individuals and could go elsewhere.

Mental health are words we hear daily, but it certainly seems there is a little concern about their whole meaning. Stop and think what they mean. To be confined for treatment is hard enough but to be unable to go outside is a worse fate.

Each of us has our vacations and an outing or two to which to look forward. These silent citizens gain immensely more from their outings. Go to the hospital, see for yourself their great elation and enjoyment over simply having freedom in a closed yard.

I cannot urge you people of Staunton too strongly to protest this action. Who knows, the lawn you may save you may use!”33

And by the outpouring of support from the community:

Chapter 3

In the 1950s, volunteers from Mary Baldwin College would lead calisthenics and organize simple dramatics and song-fests during the summer. At least once a week there would also be a party held on the lawn.


87

In the 1950s, local church groups would go to the hospital to entertain patients. They would have picnics on the front lawn, and hospital staff and patients were also seen picnicking here. Male patients were still part of the landscape crew, and generally seemed to enjoy their work. They were unrestrained and could move about the grounds freely. The gates were usually open or unguarded, and these men were often given a few dollars on Saturday morning and were allowed to go to town to eat out and have a movie as a treat.

At this time, the lawn was being referred to as the “playground,” and was essential to the exercise of the patients. The public understood the healing aspects of this landscape, as well.

“As long as memory goes back those lovely old trees and green vistas have delighted residents as well as visitors to our much prized and widely advertised Shenandoah Valley to say nothing of the use of those delightfully shaded grounds for recreational therapy of the mentally ill, which therapy has come to be recognized as one of the most valuable aids in restoration to useful citizenship that large segment of our society which has a right from a humane as well as from the economic standpoint to receive sympathetic help and care from the state, whose charges they are.”34

- Willie C. Morehead, R.N., Waynesboro, VA

“It remains our hearts’ desire to see that our people at this hospital are given every opportunity to enjoy beautiful grounds and comfortable buildings and to achieve our goal of making the hospital a real, therapeutic center for the patients.”35 - Dr. Pettis, 1960

Institutionalize

“Much of the disability which patients in mental hospitals show is the result not of illness but of extended hospitalization and isolation from outside social contact. The old type “total institution” with its impersonal regimentation, where patents are expected to conform has created a sub-human, brainwashed individual incapable of existing outside the protection provided within its walls.

We believe that it is imperative that no patient admitted to Western State today be permitted this flight into regression, total dependence, and regimentation. Toward this end, we strongly feel that patient, family, and community must be kept in close touch with each other. We believe it is better to error on the side of sending the patient home too quickly than having him stay longer than necessary.”1

- Dr. Hansen, 1970

a.ban.don |əˈbandən|verb [ trans. ]1. (abandon someone/something to) condemn someone or something to (a specified fate) by ceasing to take an interest in or look after them

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Dr. Pettis followed Dr. DeJarnette as superintendent. The new site of Western State was under construction, and Dr. Pettis truly saw it becoming a therapeutic community. Mental health treatment was largely employing occupational therapy that was centered more on crafts, activities, and home economics than on manual labor. Patients prepared exhibits for state fairs. Kitchen classes were popular, and in 1956, the hobby shop provided an opportunity for “self-expression” to teach “the proper use of leisure hours.”2 An industrial therapy program was also incorporated around 1960.

By the mid-1950s, patient labor laws and common practices had shifted away from manual labor. Although a handful of individuals were still helping with the care of the livestock and grounds maintenance, the level of participation by the patients was far below what it had been a couple of decades earlier. The farming operation closed down in 1958, and much of the land and implements dedicated to agriculture were liquidated. By the time the site was vacated, the property consisted of 82 acres, which is where it stands today. Patients continued to “farm” several acres for fun, but no longer for the support of the hospital.

Western has an authorized quota of 10 physicians, 27 graduate nurses, 365 attendants, plus 191 other employees. On June 30, 1951 its staff consisted of 3 doctors, 9 nurses, 248 attendants, 137 others. Its stretched staff was left 33 percent short of capacity.3 The hospital began transitioning to a new site three miles southeast of the old site in 1952, when the first new unit opened. In 1955 there were approximately 2,800 patients at the old site and 300 in the new site between the ages of 12 and 98.4 The hospital had around 680 employees including eight physicians, two dentists, six psychologists, four social workers, 20 registered nurses, six practical nurses, one chaplain, 25 staff members in the occupational therapy department, and 390 attendants.5 10,000 meals a day were required to feed the patients and employees.

By 1960, much of the plan to build at the new site had stalled. It would take two decades before substantial construction would get more than half of the patients housed there. In the mean time, services were shared and patients were bussed back and forth to take advantage of the recreational and occupational facilities and programming at the new site. Improvements and beautification were still a priority for the front lawn and areas surrounding the patient buildings at the old site in 1965. The buildings and grounds department was forced to juggle two sites to perform routine maintenance.

By 1970, Dr. Hansen implored the abandonment of the old site in his report to the Board of Directors and Virginia Assembly. He described the dread he felt each time a fire siren sounded in Staunton. There were 1,370 patients left at the site, while the buildings were quickly deteriorating. There were no fire escapes, no fire alarm system, and no way to evacuate patients from the upper floors. The buildings lacked sanitation and acceptable food preparation areas. Fifty-four patients on a ward would share two toilets. Beds were crowded together with no place for patients to store personal belongings. Many areas had no lights, while in other areas the lighting was poor. There were no bathing areas for infirm patients, and most wards and elevators could not accommodate wheelchairs.

In 1974, 450 patients were still housed in three buildings at the old site. The Wheary building was vacated in August of 1975. It had contained 175 geriatric patients.6 The remaining two buildings also housed geriatric patients and some drug patients. There was no room anywhere in the state to take the remaining patients, but in 1976, the switch to the new site was complete. There were 1,354 patients at the new site, and the sheriffs were still bringing them in by the carload. The old Western State site closed.

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The End of the Hospital

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1970s Aerial Image Image courtesy of Frazier & Associates

Beds - thousands

Beds - occupiedCentral (Petersburg)

Eastern (Williamsburg)

Southwestern (Marion)

Western (Staunton)

Lynchburg Colony

Petersburg Colony

Beds - rated capacity

Beds capacity, building under construction

1 2 3 4

Number of beds occupied and rated capacity showing overcrowding and percent overcrowding of Virginia State Hospitals and Colonies as of June 30, 1951. Western State housed 2,490 patients, 25.4 percent more than its rated capacity.

Graph from Virginia State Hospital Board, 1950-1951.

Percent OvercrowdingCentral - 32.4Eastern - 8.3Southwestern - 7.8Western - 25.4Lynchburg - 33.7Petersburg - 31.3Average - 23.4

91Abandon

Marcellus Wright and Son of Richmond designed a new master plan for Western State Hospital at its new site around 1946. The site plan is indicative of suburban development that was popular post-World War II. The sprawling campus is connected by a system of circulating roads, emphasizing the transition into an automobile reliant culture, although still physically connected to the railroad. The buildings resemble plain college dormitories, while the landscape plan is a simple statement of street trees and open expanses of manicured lawn. At the time of the closure of the old Western State Hospital site, the new hospital relocated as much useful equipment and building appurtenances as they possible could use and store. In addition, they uprooted and transplanted much of the landscape material, including shrubs, plants, and some site furnishings. Very little of this is evident in the landscape of the current site today. A report from the Historic Staunton Foundation archives also states that a gazebo and striking rooster-crowned weather vane that had become a landmark on one of the oldest buildings were moved. The weather vane is indeed housed in the Western State archives, however, it is unsure what happened to the gazebo.

When designed, the site was envisioned to hold 3,000 plus patients, still operating in the mind-set of human warehousing. When the full transition from the old site occurred in 1976, 1,354 patients were housed here. Today there are twelve residential care buildings that were constructed, and only four occupied by patients, two by administrative services, and six lie vacant. The hospital population is down to around 250 patients.7 An additional administration building is also vacant. This population shift is due to the necessary changes and advancements in mental health treatment that gradually began in the 1970s including deinstitutionalization and community care. Today, many patients can be medicated and treated as outpatients, reducing the need for institutional space. In addition, other types of specialized institutions have arisen to treat specific types of illness or disabilities that would have once been lumped into the health system of Western State. These include rehab centers for drug and alcoholism, assisted living and retirement homes for the elderly, and residential communities to treat mental disabilities.

Western State Hospital’s inhabited site today is worn and dated, as is typical of architecture from mid-twentieth century modernism in the United States and the construction methods and materials employed. In comparison, the buildings at the old site are now over 100 years older than those at the current site, and appear to have a long user life ahead of them. Part of this success can be attributed to the use and continuous occupancy through 2002. The best means for preservation is to inhabit the old buildings.

Stribling Building. Architectural rendering (above) and built result (below)


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Western State Hospital, II

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1946 Plan of New Western State Hospital, Marcellus Wright & Son. A comparison is shown of the newer suburban style of site planning against the compact nature of the old site.

*Plan scales are relative, but approximate

1949 Western State Hospital Plan

93Abandon

Marcellus Wright & Son Architects, c. 1946-1964 Images housed in the Library of Virginia, Richmond

94 Chapter 4

Some of the oldest buildings at the new site were designed in the mind-set of the 1950s, when mental patients still were regarded as “second class citizens.” These buildings still had up to four patients crowded in a single small cubicle in a large room subdivided with more cubicles, completely devoid of privacy.8 Although the buildings were not enclosed in wire like at the old site, they also did not have porches or connections to the outdoors beyond the locked doors and windows. Newer buildings at the site were more attuned to the privacy of the occupants, however.

Hospital design, like at the new Western State campus, shifted once more away from environmental determinism in the latter part of the twentieth century. Sites were increasingly located in isolation from cities and services, and not in respect to healing settings. Sites were chosen to be located near the sprawling suburban population, or where large tracts of land could be acquired at cost.

The current hospital site truly harkens the classification of a suburban “campus” rather than a “landscaped park,” and the disconnection that has resulted between the detached buildings is evident today. Most notable is the extensive manicured lawn that is limited in shade trees and structures and lacks areas for enjoyable passive recreation and reflection. Tennis courts and a basketball court are located at the corner of a site, but are not easily accessible from the buildings that are in use. The courts are cracked and uninviting, and appear as if they are no longer used. The architecture is repetitive and ordinary, while the old site recollects a more unique Virginia tradition and vernacular. Patients should be encouraged to spend time outdoors and enjoy the environment that they inhabit, but there is very little appeal to the current site landscape.

95Abandon

Today, health care facility design is once more taking a holistic approach to siting hospitals and providing pleasing environments to facilitate recovery. Western State Hospital is in the process of constructing their third facility, planned to open in 2013. The second site will be redeveloped into a mix of commercial uses. Adjacent to the current site, the new site is located at the crest of a hill with views once more directed at the Blue Ridge Mountains. The configuration of the singular building with multiple wings most closely reflects the William Small plan. Patient wards jut into the landscape, but provide each single occupancy room with a view of a garden formed by the building walls. This foreground view anchors the building and sets the patients within a scaled environment. The views of the mountains beyond provide a more expansive experience, taking the viewer out of the insular moment. The central part of the building houses administrative uses and learning classrooms. The classrooms surround a large interior courtyard and two smaller ones.

Very specific design considerations must be made in the architecture and landscape to provide a safe environment for patients. The Western State Hospital site that is currently occupied has a very cold feeling, with stark white walls and tiled floors. The new site strives to create more of a residential feeling with warm colors and wood floors. Patients are housed in wings called patient care units in the two-story hospital. At the end of each unit is a nurse’s station that is orientated so that multiple wings can be observed at once. There is a system of doors that can be closed off to regulate the size of the patient care unit based on hospital population or the severity of the illness of the patients contained within, with some patients requiring a higher level of supervision. The central core contains classrooms for daytime activities, a gymnasium, and a full kitchen. The designers recognized that patients need as much access to sunlight as possible. Therefore, ample windows

Site plan of the third Western State Hospital campus slated to open in 2013.

Image courtesy of CannonDesign, 2011

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Western State Hospital, III

Chapter 4

provide natural light and add to the warmth of the indoor environment, while balconies and porches are available in the day use rooms. Patient care units are orientated to the south, west, and east, where the most natural light is available.

In the courtyards are gardens that patients with certain privileges are able to work in. The central courtyard also contains shade structures for passive enjoyment and a meandering walking path. Each patient care unit has access to a fenced “backyard,” with the understanding that patients should be outdoors as much as possible. Design standards ensure that nothing is in the environment that can be looped around, used to escape, or otherwise pose a safety threat to the patients. Trees and plants cannot have poisonous leaves or berries or have thorns. The branches must be brittle and easily able to break away. Although much of the outdoor space remains under review, trees and shrubs in the spaces adjacent to the building may include Red Maple (Acer rubrum), Willow Oak (Quercus phellos), Sweet Bay Magnolia (Magnolia virginiana), Japanese Maples (Acer palmatum), Allegheny Serviceberry (Amelanchier laevis), Lilac (Syringa vulgaris), and Northern Bayberry (Myrica pennsylvanica). It is also important that the plantings are fragrant and seasonally interesting, in order to help patients and staff to feel relief from stress, and that the plantings are low enough to provide clear surveillance over patients.9

Treatment today is focused on occupation through self-fulfillment in continued education and learning. A daily course schedule includes skills classes in computer experience, auto maintenance, art, horticulture, creative writing, communication skills, music, and exercise, as well as a focus on personal growth courses like anger management, problem solving, stress management, coping skills, basic living skills, organization, and self esteem. These classes provide a regimented schedule of daily expectations, as well as provide a blueprint for healing and recovery. The psychosocial rehabilitation center strives to empower the patients through creating opportunities for them to engage in their own healing.

Although all three of the Western State campus sites are geographically close to one another, their fundamental theories on mental health treatment and architectural tenets are dramatically different.

Dormitory image from 1908 Annual Report (left) and single-occupancy room design for 2013 WSH campus (right)

Image courtesy of Western State Hospital, 2011Images from University of Virginia, Special Collections

97Abandon

Western State Hospital was closed and turned over to the Department of Corrections for a minimum-security prison in 1981. The site design, solid construction, and logical floor plans of the Western State Hospital buildings, like many other institutions, readily lent itself to be recycled into another type of housing, as it was for inmates. The historic buildings were thoroughly updated to meet the health, safety, and welfare standards of the day. Prison infrastructure such as security fences, lighting, and watchtowers were added to the grounds.

There was some strong discussion regarding this transformation, as early as 1974. The mayor of Staunton and some citizens worried that a prison would detract from on-going revitalization efforts, with such a prominent location along Route 250 entering into the city and in such close proximity to the downtown. The medium security correctional center that finally was agreed upon was not only less threatening than a prison, but also offered the prospect of needed jobs in the city. It was conceived as a 676-capacity facility for male and geriatric inmates and those with developmental disabilities and substance abuse and mental health problems.10 The Department of Corrections re-roofed the entire complex, which ultimately saved the old buildings.

The first superintendent of the correctional center was Edward Murray. He valued the existing landscape, particularly the front lawn. Although prison infrastructure had to be introduced to the site, he made sure that as little was disturbed as possible. One cherry tree was cut down to make way for the fence, and any remaining trees lost were unhealthy. Murray noted the bared spots left from the removal of shrubbery from the site by the hospital, which had relocated it and everything else they could transport with them to the new site. An early newspaper article noted that the correctional center had plans to include garden space and a recreation area for the inmates. It had also planned to use six buildings and fence in a five-acre area, including the Wheary building and the Byrd building. The superintendent was granted a residence at the front of the hospital grounds, while the Administration Building was re-purposed for correctional center administration and staff living quarters. Three buildings were razed during the conversion.11

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Correctional Center

Chapter 4

99Abandon

Image from AECOM and Miller and Associates

NWhen the Staunton Correctional Center left the site, the old hospital grounds were faced with a threatening future. The City of Staunton took over ownership and began looking for the right developer to move the site into its next chapter in history. Five developers submitted proposals to become the master developer, and Miller and Associates impressed the city the most in 2006.

The historic Western State Hospital buildings that now comprise The Villages at Staunton provide interesting interior architectural detailing with thick walls and original doors and windows, all brought up to today’s standards in safety and in conveniences. The site had some unexpected challenges, including buildings that had stood vacant for decades, pigeon droppings, and insufficient utility provisions, but the old buildings and the landscape, albeit in rough shape, were instantly appealing to the development team. The first step in the project was to begin removing some of the reminders of the prison landscape, and installing the necessary utilities and infrastructure to allow future development. The North Building was the first project, becoming the 19-unit Bindery condominium building. The female lodge converted into the Brookdale Condominiums, a thirteen-unit project. The superintendent’s house has been restored and converted into two units, and the male lodge has become a two office complex.12

Today, as the site undergoes its next transformation into residential units, hotel accommodations, and offices, the original buildings once more lend themselves to adaptive reuse, proving the site to contain architecture of survival. In comparison, massive Kirkbride hospitals are more difficult to maintain and transform into new uses. They are also difficult to disguise from their former use and erase the stigma associated with the buildings.

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The Next Chapter

Chapter 4

101Abandon

Re.ha.bil.i.tate |ˌrē(h)əˈbiləˌtāt|verb [ trans. ]1. restore (someone) to former privileges or reputation after a period of critical or official disfavor

Chapter 5

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Artifacts

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1. Gazebo

4. Administration Building

2. Fountains

5. South Building

3. Asylum Creek

6. Brookdale Condominiums

Western State Hospital Old Core Site Plan

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7. New Entrance Sign

10. Laundry

13. Chapel

16. Back of Laundry

19. Female Wards

22. Prison Tower

8. Bindery Condominiums

11. Back of Chapel, Kitchen

14. Rockery

17. Back of DeJarnette Building

20. Female Wards, Library

23. New Entrance Cul-de-sac

9. Sales Office

12. Service Area, Kitchen

15. Female Wards

18. Byrd Park Airing Court

21. Byrd Building

24. Front Entrance DriveRehabilitate

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Western State Hospital Site Plan

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9 10

1213 14

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1. Reservoir

4. Shop

7. Residence

10. Garages

13. Prison Yard

16. Residence

2. Cemetery

5. Residence

8. Wheary Building

11. Dairy Barn

14. Prison Tower

17. Residence

3. Gas Holder

6. Parking Lot

9. Pavilions

12. Power Plant

15. Residence

18. ResidenceRehabilitate

Another important facet of the hospital landscape is the hospital cemetery. Cemeteries generally represent contemplative landscapes commemorating the lives of the deceased. Hospital cemeteries, however, provide a unique glimpse into the nature of memorializing the mentally ill. The large memorial grounds at Western State certainly raise the question as to how we remember and pay respect to the individuals interred here.

The first hospital cemetery for Western State is located off of Richmond Road, a short distance away from the old campus, and contains the remains of 104 patients.1 The first patient was buried there in 1828, and the last in 1847. Only a few markers remain, along with a sign describing their significance. A cemetery was established much closer to the institution in 1848.

Between 1848 and 2001, almost 3,000 patients were buried in the main cemetery at Western State Hospital, along with perhaps some staff members. Many of the patients were unclaimed by loved ones or indigent, and others regarded Western State as home and chose to remain there. Overwhelmingly striking is the reminder of hundreds of unmarked headstones. The cemetery is terraced up the hillside behind the hospital buildings. Views of Staunton and old oak trees provide a setting one would anticipate in a memorial landscape.

Original hospital cemetery, 1828-1847. Richmond Ave.

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The Hospital Cemetery

Chapter 5

FRONT ELEVATION

PLAN

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HEADSTONES ARE CAST IN CONCRETE.REMNANTS OF PAINT ILLUSTRATE WHEREPATIENT NUMBERS WERE ONCE VISIBLE.


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1”=30’

All deceased patients that were wards of the state, were provided with a uniform concrete marker and were given a dignified burial. Due to patient confidentiality laws and perhaps the stigmas associated with mental illness, only the patient number was recorded on the stone in paint. The paint has long since worn off most of the stones, leaving ghostly reminders of the unnamed unfortunates. A handful of the markers were created out of carved hardwood. While records still exist to name the deceased, it is uncertain as to whether or not a map of the patient numbers corresponding to plots exists. Some graves are marked with named stones, provided by loved ones over the years.

Today the cemetery is under-maintained with tall grasses, dying trees, and overturned and broke markers. The land upon which it stands was incorporated into the sale of the whole campus. The development company thereby owns the rights to it, and does not have a significant amount of manpower to devote to the cemetery’s on-going maintenance. Furthermore, substantial landscape restoration is necessary due to the age of the site. The burial grounds should really be under the ownership and care of a public entity, and while the logistics of the ownership are questionable, we can look to other hospitals for examples of how the patients are remembered.

Many mental hospital cemeteries are in a far-worse condition than at Western State. At Weston State in West Virginia, wooden markers denoted the final resting places. At some point in history, maintenance workers found the markers to be burdensome in their maintenance routines and tossed them aside. Other stories like this abound in early mental hospital cemeteries. Conversely, individuals are actively engaged in trying to erect monuments to name and remember the dead in hospital cemeteries nationally.

Eastern State Hospital erected a monument with the interned patients’ names on it to honor their lives, which is a common trend in sites of this nature. In 2008, a group was attempting to raise the funds to mark the graves at Western State, or to construct a similar monument as Eastern State has.

109Rehabilitate

Throughout the hospital’s history, and mentioned as early as 1837, acquiring enough water and rights to water to support the site was a challenge. Fresh, clean, and potable water was necessary for supporting the patients and healing aspects of the site, while large amounts of pressurized water were needed to protect the hospital from the ever-present threat of fire. The agricultural production and farming operations also required a significant amount of water.

A reservoir was established on the hill behind the hospital first mentioned in 1844 to meet the gravity force needed. The original reservoir held one hundred thousand gallons fed by a limestone spring two miles away.2 The water would flow from the spring to the reservoir, and then the overflow would be conducted to an ice-pond below.

Fire suppression was always a concern of the hospital, but by 1887, the Board of Directors felt that the hospital had acquired enough fire apparatus within their asylum fire department to warrant canceling the site’s fire insurance. They also felt the building materials of brick were not flammable enough to pose a severe risk.

In 1887, a drought and increase in water use at the hospital began to create issues with the water supply once more. They sought once more to acquire more springs and to connect to city water. In 1903, the reservoir was expanded to a capacity of over 500,000 gallons of water, mainly for fire protection, laundry, and cold storage.

In 1911, typhoid fever was a serious threat to the hospital. Water had to be tested and treated regularly in order to prevent the spread of the disease. In 1914, 100 acres was purchased in the vicinity of the Keyser place spring, the main spring for the institution for decades. Further actions in 1917 involved the purchase of a chlorinator to purify the site’s water that was deemed bad by the health department. In 1926, Western State Hospital purchased another farm, the Lithia farm of 252 acres to give the hospital absolute control of the watershed basin.

The Demand for Water

110 Chapter 5

111

Map of the drainage and catchment basin of Asylum Creek to illustrate a report on a water supply for the W.L. Asylum. Jedediah Hotchkiss, 1879. Available Library of Congress.

Rehabilitate

In 1852, a gasometer shared with the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind was constructed to provide light to both institutions. The improved lighting was predicted to improve the moods of the patients, especially during the winter months when they were largely confined indoors. There was always a shortage of winter apparel to allow many patients to be outdoors.

In 1880, a refrigerator became an important need for the hospital. It was a brick building with a large ice chamber and nearly air-tight. Meats could be held here for several days, while the ice drippings were directed outside. In 1896, the refrigeration system was updated to an ammonia gas compression pump, which allowed different rooms to have different temperatures based on the product stored within. The ice was now made with a brine system. At one point, the hospital had been hauling ice from a pond three and a half miles away. In 1909, the ice pond on site was cemented and able to supply the hospital on-site again.

An abattoir was also a necessary building for butchering on site. It, along with the cold storage of the refrigerator, allowed more head of cattle to be killed at one time. Previously, the steward would order between fifteen to twenty cattle at a time and butcher three times a week for the hospital’s immediate needs. The remaining cows would have to be fed and moved around, which would cause them to lose between 80 and 100 pounds before there was demand to use them.

The final necessary building constructed during this time frame was a laundry. The combination of the new structures and the increase in hospital size created a shortage of water that could not be met by the hospital’s existing springs and city water. Once more, in 1898, Western State was in dire need of a water source.

Self-Containing Campus

112 Chapter 5

Image from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey

Images from the 1900 Annual ReportSteamhouse and boiler design (left) and laundry building design (right)

Constructed laundry facility

Coal trestle along Richmond Avenue and the remaining wall used to contain the poured coal that supplied the adjacent power plant.

113Rehabilitate

Approach to Byrd Park

114

Airing courts were enclosed spaces located in both the male and female sides of the site. These courtyards were enclosed by heavy brick walls, of which sections remain today. The airing courts were intended to provide health and tranquility to the more deeply disturbed patients that did not have privileges to use the front grounds unencumbered. In 1909, about sixty-five feet of the brick wall around the male airing court fell and had to be rebuilt with a cement foundation and capped with cement

The Byrd Yard was a later recreational yard in the late 1940s through the remainder of the site’s history. In 1955, Dr. Pettis wanted to improve the space with a roofed patio with lawn chairs and tables for supervised periods of recreation. Patients were said to just loiter about the yard with no particular objective. This indicates a bit of a shift from previous methods of outdoor enjoyment. One can imagine patients were much more severe in their illnesses and medicated at this time.

“The ground is well shaded, and has a large summer-house. Privacy and ample room are there secured to such patients as may not possess sufficient self-control to enjoy the open grounds in front of the ward.”3 - A.M. Fauntleroy, Superintendent, 1880

From “The Adventures of Porte Crayon and His Cousins.” Chapter IV: The Lions of Staunton. Harper’s New Monthly Magazine. 1855.

Early image showing airing court walls on the female side

Airing Courts

Chapter 5

Image from Historic Staunton Foundation

Above and top left opposite| Images from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey

Byrd Park Gate Male Courtyard Gate

Male Courtyard, 2011 (left) and walled enclosure from the mid-twentieth century (right)

115Rehabilitate

1909 Annual Report 1911 Annual Report

Views from Administration Building overlooking hospital campus, front pleasure grounds, and the City of Staunton.

Screened in porches were used to improve air circulation for tuberculosis patients (left) and to provide fresh air and safety for all patients. Infirmary (right).

116

Another location for outdoor enjoyment was built into the architecture with verandas, porches, and roof walks. These elaborate details provided distant views to the mountains, as well as surveillance over the entire hospital complex. Here, Thomas Blackburn introduced the Chinese railings inspired by his work with Thomas Jefferson.

Healthful Breezes

Chapter 5

Images from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey and 1900 Annual Report

Covered walkways were located throughout the site.

117

Verandas and covered walkways were recommended for construction in 1853 to both preserve the health of the patients moving about the grounds in inclement weather, but also to give them an avenue for exercise during poor weather. They were not provided until 1857.

Rehabilitate

1”=30’


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PLAN

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CAST CONCRETE,11

4" RIBBING

6'

1'-7

3 8"

814"

2"1"

2"

4'

1'-6

1 4"

1'-7

"

21 8"

1'-4"

1'-2"

14" RECESS

2" TYP.

51 2"51 2" •

•••1 2"11 8"3

4"

Bench with wood back rest. Circular detail on leg visible in both. c. 1909

There are two concrete benches remaining on the front lawn of the site, that go back until at least 1909. An image from the 1909 Annual Report shows these benches with wooden backs, but by 1953, they were backless.

Site Furnishings

Chapter 5

1”=30’

119

PLAN

SIDE ELEVATIONFRONT ELEVATION

CAST CONCRETE

1"x234" WOOD SLATS

1'-014"4"3'-25

8"7'-51

4"312"

8'-014"

3'-2

1 2"

SEAT BACK

SEAT

CONCRETE LEG

4" TYP.

2"2

1 2"

1 12"

1'-1

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1'-8

1 2"

BENCH HEIGHT VARIES BY LEVEL OF FINISHEDGRADE. DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE BASED ON ONEEXISTING BENCH.


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Bench in 1966 image

In 1952 and 1953, new benches were being added to the front lawn and patient courtyards. Sixty new lawn benches were created for the old and new sites in 1964. Several of these remain on the site along the entrance drive.

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120

New bench type used, and backless concrete ones visible. Photo 1953.

The Annual Reports mention swings in 1842 and 1887. An ornamental and comfortable swing was constructed in 1842 for the benefit of the females, and two double swings were erected convenient to the wards in 1887. Blackburn’s design for the front yard included two swings facing each other as the central focal point. Although they swings were not installed, it is interesting to note that they were conceived early on.

Later photographic imagery shows what appears to be a swing located in the courtyard between the Wheary and Carter Buildings.

Chapter 5

1”=30’

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58 D. REBAR

GRILL REST

FRONT ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION

PLANPLAN

1 12"

3"

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2'-6"9"

4"4"

3 78 "7 34 "

1'-10" 2'-3"1'-1"1'-65

8"1'-1"

3'-812"

TERRA COTTACHIMNEY

112" OFF-SET TYP.

6 12 "TYP.

912"

5"


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TThe barbecue grills that remain scattered across the lawn were used by patients and staff and by visiting volunteer groups, such as churches, that would regularly provide their services. The front lawn has four of these grills, while one remains in the yard of one of the hospital residences fronting Greenville Avenue.

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1”=30’

122

LADDER REST

CONCRETE BASE

WOOD POST

3'-2

"21 4" 2"

4'-3

1 2"2"

41 2" 2" 9"

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512"

5"

METAL FIXTURE


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-41 2"

2"13 4" 2"

3 4" 2"11 8"

4'-4

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5"2"

434"

312"

212"

212"

2"

LADDER REST

METAL FIXTURE

CAST IRON


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Original gas street lamp with wooden pole mounted on a concrete base. A handful of these remain throughout the front grounds.

Original gas street lamp with a cast iron pole. Fixture head is the same as the other illustrated lamp.

Gas, for lighting the asylum, was introduced in 1851. By 1854, the hospital was illuminated. Electricity came into fashion and replaced the interior gas fixtures in 1904.

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In the 1903 report, Dr. Blackford recommended replacing the old brick walks around the buildings with granolithic (concrete) walks or vitrified (glazed) brick. He felt the old bricks were dilapidated and an eyesore to the grounds of the institution.4 Although some brick walkways around the administration building appear to be original, vitrified bricks are more prevalent on the site today. Very few sidewalks are of concrete, and those that are were put in place recently by the development team. Dr. DeJarnette also recommended replacing brick walks with cement sidewalks in 1909, and in 1914, he reported laying 1,500 feet of cement walks.

Paving

Older brick walks on site in herringbone patterns.

Newer, vitrified bricks in running bond and basketweave patterns. Center image shows points of connection to where covered walkways once were connected to the ground plane.

Rehabilitate

Name1 Power Plant2 Wheary Building3 Male Tuberculosis Ward4 Carter Building, Wards 16, 17, 18, 215 Wards 10, 11, 12, 136 Male Lodge, Ward 3, Clothes Corner7 Bindery, North Building, Additional Building89

101112 Administration Building/Central Bldg.13 Chapel Building14 Central Kitchen15 Canteen16 Infirmary17 Carpenter's Shop1819 Mattress Shop and Grounds Shop20 Sweet Potato House21 Utility Building22 Storage House, Old Morgue23 Building and Grounds24 Female Tuberculosis Ward25 Food Service26 Laundry27 Storage, Motor Pool and Patrol28 Transformer Vault29 Wards X, Y, Z30 Wards J, K, L, Library31 South Building, Wards D, E, F32 Laundromat333435 Storage Garage36 Female Lodge, Wards G, H, I, Brookdale37 Byrd Building, Wards U, V, W38 DeJarnette Building, Wards M, N, O3940 C.O. House4142 Residence4344 Storage Building, Residence454647 Horse and Hay Barn4849 Dairy Barn50 Residence51 Garage52 Garage53 Residence54 Garage55 Apts. 101 and 20156 Coal Trestle57 Residence58 Garage59 Residence84 Milk House

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1886

12

31

36

Gas Ho.

Ice Ho.Meat Ho.

Coal Shed

Barn

Stable

Lumber Shed Servants Rm., Carpenter’s Shop, Storage, Laundry

Meat Ho., Sleeping Rm.,

Bakery

Billiard Rm.

30

137

6

26

1904

12

31

36

Gas Ho.

Ice Ho.

Paint Shop

Meat Ho.

Coal Shed

Potato ShedLime Ho.

Bakery

Carriage Ho.

Lumber Shed

Storage, Freezer

Billiard Rm.

3029

26

14

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6

5

17

19

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1949

2

3

12

31

36

37

383029

26

14

137

6

45

16

17

1928

24

42

Ice Ho.

Meat Ho.

Potato ShedApple Shed

Poultry Ho.

Sheds

Bakery

Carriage Ho.

Gas Ho.

Wagon Shed

1987

55 57 59 50

51

12

31

36

37

4938

3029

26

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137

6

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42

23

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Milk Ho.

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Rehabilitate

Name UseYear

Constructed Addition/ RenovationYear

Demolished Architect1 Power Plant Power Plant, Steam Plant 1950 -2 Wheary Building 250 beds, suicidal wards, gender segregated, medical offices, prison 1935 1980 - DeJarnette3 Male Tuberculosis Ward Male Tuberculosis Ward, Clinic, Class Rooms 19074 Carter Building, Wards 16, 17, 18, 21 Male Wards, 168 beds, Dining Room 1921 19805 Wards 10, 11, 12, 13 Male Wards, 90 beds 1891 1980 Neilson6 Male Lodge, Ward 3, Clothes Corner brick stable, later Ward 3, Male Ward, noisy/filthy/violent patients, clothes corner, sales office 1828 1844, 2007 - Robert Cary Long7 Bindery, North Building, Additional Building Male Wards 4, 5, 6, 7 216 beds, prison book bindery, condos 1838 1845, 1850, 1879, 2007 - Blackburn89 1960

101112 Administration Building/Central Bldg. Wards, 2, 3, A, B; Female and Male, Prison Administration 1828 1833, 1845 - Small13 Chapel Building Steward's Office, Dining, Kitchen, Sewing, Chapel, Storage, Medical Office, Bakery 1841 1886 - Blackburn14 Central Kitchen Kitchen, Music Hall, Storage 1870 Neilson15 Canteen 195516 Infirmary Wards 15 and 19, S, 72 beds 1911 1980 DeJarnette17 Carpenter's Shop Carpenter's Shop, Auditorium 1875 1951 -1819 Mattress Shop and Grounds Shop Mattress Shop, Soap Shop, and Grounds Shop, ambulance storage 1889 Neilson20 Sweet Potato House Storage 192621 Utility Building Storage House 190022 Storage House, Old Morgue Morgue, storage23 Building and Grounds Building and Grounds, utility building, offices, shop 1949 -24 Female Tuberculosis Ward Female Tuberculosis Ward, Furniture Repair Shop, Reimbursement Offices, Storage 190725 Food Service Food Service, storage, class rooms, housekeeping offices 193826 Laundry Storage and Personal Quarters, drug room, post office 1865 1933 - Blackburn27 Storage, Motor Pool and Patrol Storage, Motor Pool and Patrol 195328 Transformer Vault Transformer Vault 195329 Wards X, Y, Z Female Wards, Classrooms, Dental Offices 1891 - Neilson30 Wards J, K, L, Library 81 beds, Library 1894/1886 Neilson31 South Building, Wards D, E, F Female Wards, 114 beds 1844 1845, 1850, 1960 - Neilson32 Laundromat Laundromat, storage building, milk pasteurizing plant 1946 -333435 Storage Garage Storage Garage 1952 -36 Female Lodge, Wards G, H, I, Brookdale Female and Male Wards, 90 beds, noisy/filthy/violent patients, condos 1844 1875, 1960, 2009 - Neilson37 Byrd Building, Wards U, V, W 195 beds, Cafeteria, Beauty Parlor, sewing room, swimming pool, prison 1929 - DeJarnette38 DeJarnette Building, Wards M, N, O 138 beds, noisy building, female wards 1921 - DeJarnette3940 C.O. House Personnel Rooms and Apartments 19384142 Residence Residence 1938 -4344 Storage Building, Residence Storage Building, Residence 1885454647 Horse and Hay Barn Horse and Hay Barn 18804849 Dairy Barn Storeroom 1927-193050 Residence Residence 1930 -51 Garage Garage 1938 -52 Garage Garage 1948 d53 Residence Residence 1926 d54 Garage Garage 1910 -55 Apts. 101 and 201 Residence 1898 -56 Coal Trestle Coal trestle -57 Residence Residence 1938 -58 Garage Garage 1932 -59 Residence Residence 1931 -84 Milk House Milk house, shed 1946 -

Tredway Building 1916-1923 DeJarnetteNine Pin Bowling Alley 1851Smoke house 1844Ash House 1844Greenhouse 1849(or earlier) 1853 BlackburnSuperintendent's house 1874Abattoir 1881 NeilsonMorgue 1889 NeilsonOld Steamhouse on the C&O rail line 1894 NeilsonPorter's lodge at front entrance 1897 NeilsonWards 8, 9, 10 100 beds 1879Gas holder gas holder, garage (1928) 1891-1892 1928Gatehouse 1849(or earlier) 1946

Name UseYear



101112 Administration Building/Central Bldg. Wards, 2, 3, A, B; Female and Male, Prison Administration 1828 1833, 1845 - Small13 Chapel Building Steward's Office, Dining, Kitchen, Sewing, Chapel, Storage, Medical Office, Bakery 1841 1886 - Blackburn14 Central Kitchen Kitchen, Music Hall, Storage 1870 Neilson15 Canteen 195516 Infirmary Wards 15 and 19, S, 72 beds 1911 1980 DeJarnette17 Carpenter's Shop Carpenter's Shop, Auditorium 1875 1951 -1819 Mattress Shop and Grounds Shop Mattress Shop, Soap Shop, and Grounds Shop, ambulance storage 1889 Neilson20 Sweet Potato House Storage 192621 Utility Building Storage House 190022 Storage House, Old Morgue Morgue, storage23 Building and Grounds Building and Grounds, utility building, offices, shop 1949 -24 Female Tuberculosis Ward Female Tuberculosis Ward, Furniture Repair Shop, Reimbursment Offices, Storage 190725 Food Service Food Service, storage, class rooms, housekeeping offices 193826 Laundry Storage and Personal Quarters, drug room, post office 1865 1933 - Blackburn27 Storage, Motor Pool and Patrol Storage, Motor Pool and Patrol 195328 Transformer Vault Transformer Vault 195329 Wards X, Y, Z Female Wards, Classrooms, Dental Offices 1891 - Neilson30 Wards J, K, L, Library 81 beds, Library 1894/1886 Neilson31 South Building, Wards D, E, F Female Wards, 114 beds 1844 1845, 1850, 1960 - Neilson32 Laundromat Laundromat, storage building, milk pasteurizing plant 1946 -333435 Storage Garage Storage Garage 1952 -36 Female Lodge, Wards G, H, I, Brookdale Female and Male Wards, 90 beds, noisy/filthy/violent patients, condos 1844 1875, 1960, 2009 - Neilson37 Byrd Building, Wards U, V, W 195 beds, Cafeteria, Beauty Parlor, sewing room, swimming pool, prison 1929 - DeJarnette38 DeJarnette Building, Wards M, N, O 138 beds, noisy building, female wards 1921 - DeJarnette3940 C.O. House Personnel Rooms and Apartments 19384142 Residence Residence 1938 -4344 Storage Building, Residence Storage Building, Residence 1885454647 Horse and Hay Barn Horse and Hay Barn 18804849 Dairy Barn Storeroom 1927-193050 Residence Residence 1930 -51 Garage Garage 1938 -52 Garage Garage 1948 d53 Residence Residence 1926 d54 Garage Garage 1910 -55 Apts. 101 and 201 Residence 1898 -56 Coal Trestle Coal trestle -57 Residence Residence 1938 -58 Garage Garage 1932 -59 Residence Residence 1931 -84 Milk House Milk house, shed 1946 -


126 Chapter 5

Name UseYear




Name UseYear




Name UseYear





127Building 5.

Building 4.

Building 3.

Building 2.

Building 1.

Rehabilitate

128

Building 7.

Building 16.

Building 20.

Building 23.

Building 26.

Building 29.

Building 12.

Building 17.

Building 21.

Building 24.

Building 27.

Building 30.

Building 13.

Building 19.

Building 22.

Building 25.

Building 28.

Building 31. Chapter 5

Images from 1955 and 1966 Fire Insurance Survey129

Building 32.

Building 37.

Building 42.

Building 49.

Building 55.

Building 58.

Building 35.

Building 38.

Building 44.

Building 50.

Building 56.

Building 59.

Building 36.

Building 40.

Building 47.

Building 53.

Building 57.

Rehabilitate

1998 Aerial Image

2002 Aerial Image

130 Chapter 5

2006 Aerial Image

2008 Aerial Image Images from Google Earth

131Rehabilitate


Entry drive to physician residences front Greenville Ave.

1955-1966 2011

Stairs to female wards x,y, and z

Back of kitchen service area

132 Chapter 5

Back of Chapel and kitchen service area

Courtyard between Administration Building (left), Chapel (right), and the North Building (center)

Rear yards behind physician residences

1955-1966 2011

133Rehabilitate


Service area at Laundry

Approach to Byrd Yard, behind South Building

Gazebo

1955-1966 2011

134 Chapter 5

Female wards X, Y, and Z



1955-1966 2011

135Rehabilitate


Shop


Coal Trestle

1955-1966 2011

136 Chapter 5

Image from Miller and Associates

Aerial image of the Villages at Staunton.

137

N

2011

55 57 59 50

51

12

31

36

37

4938

35

3029

26

14

137

6

1

2

40

42

23

27

5854

Rehabilitate

References

139

1 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1837 (University of Virginia Collections) 16.

Page 13 2 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1827 (Library of Virginia Collections). 3 Helsel, David and Trevor Blank, Images of America: Spring Grove State Hospital (Charleston, SC 2008) 23 and 97.

Page 14 4 Florence, Camille, Grandeur in the Wilderness: The Architects and Architecture of Western State Hospital and the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind (Staunton, VA 1969) 4. 5 Ibid., 4. 6 Ibid., 8.

Page 15 7 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1835 (Library of Virginia Collections). 8 Wood, Alice Davis, Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital (Waynesboro, VA 2004) 29. 9 Hamrick, Richard M, “Western State Hospital Old Site History” 1987.

Page 16 10 Bond, Earl D., Dr. Kirkbride and His Mental Hospital (Philadelphia, PA 1947) 24. 11 Wood, Alice Davis, Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital (Waynesboro, VA 2004) 21. 12 Bond, Earl D., Dr. Kirkbride and His Mental Hospital (Philadelphia, PA 1947) 22.

Page 17 13 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1836 (University of Virginia Collections) 5. 14 Ibid., 5. 15 Green, Bryan Clark, In Jefferson’s Shadow: The Architecture of Thomas R. Blackburn (Richmond, VA 2006) 50. 16 Report to the General Assembly of Virginia, 1827.

Page 21 17 Green, Bryan Clark, et al. Lost Virginia: Vanished Architecture of the Old Dominion (Charlottesville, VA 2001) 94. 18 Bond, Earl D., Dr. Kirkbride and His Mental Hospital (Philadelphia, PA 1947) 104.

Page 22 19 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1841 (University of Virginia Collections) 35.

Page 23 20 Green, Bryan Clark, Personal interview, 2011. 21 Bond, Earl D., Dr. Kirkbride and His Mental Hospital (Philadelphia, PA 1947) 151-152. 22 Green, Bryan Clark, In Jefferson’s Shadow: The Architecture of Thomas R. Blackburn (Richmond, VA 2006) 58.

Page 24 23 Yanni, Carla, The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States (Minneapolis, MN 2007) 8. 24 Ibid., 8.

Page 26 25 Asylum Projects, Eastern State Hospital. 26 Ibid.

Page 27 27 Florence, Camille. Grandeur in the Wilderness: The Architects and Architecture of Western State Hospital and the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind (Staunton, VA 1969) 7.

Chapter 1

Endnotes

140

28 Pitts, Carolyn, Weston Hospital Main Building National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form. 29 Ibid. 30 Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum.

Chapter 2 Page 31 1 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1845 (University of Virginia Collections) 6.

Page 33 2 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1837 (Library of Virginia Collections). 3 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1837 (University of Virginia Collections) 18.


Page 36 5 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1836 (University of Virginia Collections) 8-9.

Page 38 6 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1896 (Library of Virginia Collections). 7 Yanni, Carla, The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States (Minneapolis, MN 2007) 58.



Page 42 10 Green, Bryan Clark, Personal interview, 2011. 11 Fraizer Associates, “The Villages at Staunton Streetscape and Landscape Pattern Book,” 4.

Page 45 12 Agreement between James Kirk and the town of Staunton 1826 (Library of Virginia Collections). 13 Agreement between Jos. P. Kavanaugh and Samuel A. Hoshour Steward, 1987 (Library of Virginia Collections).

Page 47 14 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1867-1869 (University of Virginia Collections) 36. 15 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1849 (University of Virginia Collections) 27. 16 Fraizer Associates, “The Villages at Staunton Streetscape and Landscape Pattern Book,” 4.

Page 57 17 Green, Bryan Clark, In Jefferson’s Shadow: The Architecture of Thomas R. Blackburn (Richmond, VA 2006) 63. 18 Fraizer Associates, “The Villages at Staunton Streetscape and Landscape Pattern Book,” 4.

Page 58 19 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1853-1854 (University of Virginia Collections) 48-49.

141

1 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1898 (Library of Virginia Collections).

Page 62 2 Wood, Alice Davis, Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital (Waynesboro, VA 2004) 147-151. 3 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1845 (University of Virginia Collections) 19-30. 4 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1841 (University of Virginia Collections) 42-43. 5 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1865-1866 (University of Virginia Collections) 11. 6 Wood, Alice Davis, Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital (Waynesboro, VA 2004) 145-146. 7 Eastern State Hospital, “The History of Eastern State.” 8 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1867-1869 (University of Virginia Collections) 6-7.

Page 63 9 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1863-1864, 1864-1865 (University of Virginia Collections) 27. 10 Wood, Alice Davis, Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital (Waynesboro, VA 2004) 168-169. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1842 (University of Virginia Collections) 9, 60-61.

Page 64 14 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1895-1896 (Library of Virginia Collections). 15 Yanni, Carla, The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States (Minneapolis, MN 2007).

Page 65 16 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1898 (Library of Virginia Collections). 17 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1903 (University of Virginia Collections) 11-12.

Page 66 18 Wood, Alice Davis, Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital (Waynesboro, VA 2004) 128. 19 Ibid. 20 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1866 (University of Virginia Collections) 11. 21 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1896 (Library of Virginia Collections).

Page 67 22 Twelfth Annual Report of the DeJarnette State Sanatorium, 1946, 12. 23 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1911 (University of Virginia Collections) 14. 24 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1909 (Library of Virginia Collections).

Page 68 25 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1908 (University of Virginia Collections) 10. 26 Twelfth Annual Report of the DeJarnette State Sanatorium, 1946 (University of Virginia Collections) 12-14.

Page 70 27 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1928 (Library of Virginia Collections).

Page 72 28 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1911 (University of Virginia Collections) 10-11. 29 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1837 (University of Virginia Collections) 17. 30 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1917 (University of Virginia Collections) 9.

Chapter 3

142

Chapter 4

Chapter 5


Page 86 32 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1958 (Library of Virginia Collections). 33 Pittman, George, (Staunton Evening Leader, 1956).

Page 87 34 Morehead, Willie C., “Raps plan to take hospital’s front lawn” (Richmond Times-Dispatch, 1956). 35 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1960 (Library of Virginia Collections).


Page 90 2 Western State Hospital Annual Report, 1956 (Library of Virginia Collections). 3 Virginia State Hospital Board, Report for the Department of Mental Hygiene and Hospitals (University of Virginia Collections). 4 Some facts about Western State Hospital, 1955. 5 Ibid. 6 Staunton Leader, “175 patients to be moved from old site” 1975.

Page 92 7 Krouse, Sarah, “Balfour Beatty, Kaine break ground on Staunton hospital” (Washington Business Journal 2009).

Page 95 8 Robertson, Gary, (Richmond Times-Dispatch 1976).

Page 97 9 CannonDesign, 2009.

Page 98 10 Perez, Simon, “History is Consideration, Correctional Center Buildings Prominent” (Daily News-Record 1990). 11 York, Brower Jr., “Staunton Prison Superintendent Determined Unit Won’t be Scar” (N-V 1976).

Page 100 12 Miller and Associates, 2011.

Page 108 1 Santos, Carlos, “Bringing dignity and respect to the unnamed dead” (Richmond Times Dispatch 2008).




143

Agreement between James Kirk and the Town of Staunton. September 8, 1826. Library of Virginia Collections.

Agreement between Jos. P. Kavanaugh and Samuel A. Hoshour Steward. February 11, 1870. Library of Virginia Collections.

Anderson, Barbara. CannonDesign. Baltimore, Maryland. Personal interview. August 2, 2011.

Asylum Projects. Eastern State Hospital Lexington. <asylumprojects.org> July 19, 2011.

Beghtol, John. Western State Hospital. Staunton, Virginia. Personal Interview. July 1, 2011.

Blaine, James G. and John H. Mason. "Application of the Fair Labor Standards Act to Patient Work Programs at Mental Health Institutions: A Proposal for Change." Boston College Law Review 27.3 (1986): 553.

Bond, Earl D. Dr. Kirkbride and His Mental Hospital. Philadelphia etc.: Lippincott, 1947.

CannonDesign. Civil Narrative. Memo. December 12, 2009.

Cochran, Doug. Staunton, Virginia. Personal correspondence. July 2011.

DeJarnette State Sanatorium (Staunton, Va.) "Twelfth Annual Report of the DeJarnette State Sanatorium for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1946." University of Virginia Collections.

Druff, James H. "Francis Taliaferro Stribling Papers at Western State Hospital." Augusta Historical Bulletin 2.2 (1966): 19,20, 21, 22.

Eastern State Hospital. The History of Eastern State. <http://www.esh.dmhmrsas.virginia.gov/History.html> August 9, 2011.

Florence, Camille. Grandeur in the Wilderness: The Architects and Architecture of Western State Hospital and the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind. Staunton, Va.: 1969.

Fraizer Associates. The Villages at Staunton, Streetscape and Landscape Pattern Book. Staunton, Virginia, 2007.

Green, Bryan Clark. Personal Interview. August 8, 2011.

Green, Bryan Clark. In Jefferson's Shadow: The Architecture of Thomas R. Blackburn. 1st ed. Richmond, Va.: Virginia Historical Society; New York, 2006.

Green, Bryan Clark. In the Shadow of Thomas Jefferson: The Architectural Career of Thomas R. Blackburn, with a Catalog of Architectural Drawings, 2004.

Green, Bryan Clark, et al. Lost Virginia: Vanished Architecture of the Old Dominion. Charlottesville, Va.: Howell Press, 2001.

Hamrick, Richard M. "Western State Hospital Old Site History." Augusta historical bulletin 23.1 (1987): 17,18, 19, 20.

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144

Helsel, David and Trevor Blank. Images of America: Spring Grove State Hospital. Arcadia Publishing. Charleston, South Carolina, 2008.

Hudson, Karen E. “A Cultural Historic Survey of Eastern State Hospital, Fayette County, Kentucky.” June 21, 2010.

Kilpatrick, Kathleen. Staunton Correctional Center (Old Western State Hospital Complex): A Challenge and Opportunity for Staunton, Augusta County and the Commonwealth. 2002.

Krouse, Sarah. “Balfour Beatty, Kaine break ground on Staunton hospital.” Washington Business Journal. December 1, 2009. <www.bizjournals.com>.

McNair, Dave. Historic Treatment: Staunton commits to Western State. The Hook. February 2, 2006.

McNamara, Elizabeth. "Institutional Change: A Former Asylum and Prison in the Shenandoah Valley Becomes the Villages at Staunton." Preservation: the magazine of the National Trust for Historic Preservation 63.1 (2011): 58-9.

Miller and Associates. <www.robinmillerassociates.com> August 8, 2011.

Miller, Robin. Miller and Associates. Richmond, Virginia. Personal Interview. August 4, 2011.

Morehead, Willie C. Raps plan to take hospital’s front lawn. Richmond Times-Dispatch. June 6, 1956.

Perez, Simon. History is Consideration, Correctional Center Buildings ‘Prominent.’ Daily News-Record. May 17, 1990.

Pittman, George C. Staunton Evening Leader. Editorial. June 5, 1956.

Pitts, Carolyn. Weston Hospital Main Building National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form. United State Department of the Interior National Park Service, 1990.

Potter, Edmund D. A Guide to Historic Staunton, Virginia. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2008.

"Report to the General Assembly of Virginia," Journal of the House of Delegates of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Richmond: Thomas Ritchie, 1827.

Robertson, Gary. Richmond Times-Dispatch. January 11, 1976.

Sanborn Insurance Maps. 1867-1970. <http://sanborn.umi.com/>.

Santos, Carlos. Bringing dignity and respect to the unnamed dead. Richmond Times Dispatch. July 27, 2008.

Scripps, Beth. Western State Hospital (Boundary Increase 2009) National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. United State Department of the Interior National Park Service, 2010.

Scripps, Beth. Western State Hospital (Boundary Increase) National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. United State Department of the Interior National Park Service, 2002.

Some Facts about Western State Hospital. November 1955.

Spring Grove Hospital Center History. <www.springgrove.com> July 19, 2011.

145

Staff, Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission. Virginia School for Deaf and Blind National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form. United State Department of the Interior National Park Service, 1968.

Staff, Virginia Historic Landmarks Comission. Western State Hospital National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form. United State Department of the Interior National Park Service, 1968.

Staunton Leader. “175 patients to be moved from old site.” August 6, 1975.

Streeter, Larry, K. Edward Lay, and University of Virginia. Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind. [no. 37] Vol. Charlottesville, Va.: School of Architecture, University of Virginia, 1986.

Stribling, T. S., et al. Papers of T. S. Stribling, 1937; 1939.

Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum. <trans-alleghenylunaticasylum.com> August 19, 2011.

"Virginia Illustrated." Harper's New Monthly Magazine 0010.57 (1855): 289,290-310. Making of America, Cornell. <digital.library.cornell.edu> August 19, 2011.

Virginia State Hospital Board. “Report for the Department of Mental Hygiene and Hospitals.” University of Virginia Collections. For the years 1950-1951 and 1951-1952. Commonwealth of Virginia Division of Purchase and Print. Richmond, Virginia.

Western State Hospital (Staunton, Va.) "Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Western Lunatic Asylum to the Legislature of Virginia, with the Report of the Superintendent and Physician." Library of Virginia Collections. For the years 1835, 1872, 1879-1881, 1883-1884, 1886-1887, 1892-1894, 1897-1898, 1939, 1946, 1952-1965, 1967-1976.

Western State Hospital (Staunton, Va.) "Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Western Lunatic Asylum to the Legislature of Virginia, with the Report of the Superintendent and Physician." University of Virginia Collections. For the years 1836-1869, 1871, 1873-1878, 1888-1891, 1895-1896, 1899-1900, 1902-1904, 1907-1908, 1911-1912, 1914-1918.

Western State Hospital (Staunton, Va.) "Annual Report of the President and Directors of the Western Lunatic Asylum to the Legislature of Virginia, with the Report of the Superintendent and Physician." Virginia Historic Society. For the years 1870, 1909-1910, 1919-1921, 1925-1929.

Western State Hospital (Va.). Some Facts about Western State Hospital. Staunton, 1955.

Wood, Alice Davis. Dorothea Dix and Dr. Francis T. Stribling: An Intense Friendship, Letters 1849-1874. Xlibris, 2008.

Wood, Alice Davis. Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia's Western State Hospital, 1836-1874. Waynesboro, Va.: Gallileo Gianniny Publishing, 2004.

Yanni, Carla. The Architecture of Madness: Insane Asylums in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.

York, Brower Jr. Staunton Prison Superintendent Determined Unit Won’t be ‘Scar.’ N-V. March 20, 1976.

146

Information Sharing|

Barb Anderson, Project Architect (new site)CannonDesignBaltimore, Maryland

Jerry Austin, Project ManagerVillages at Staunton

John Beghtol, Program Administration SpecialistWestern State HospitalStaunton, Virginia

Bryan Clark Green, Historian and AuthorCommonwealth ArchitectsRichmond, Virginia

Doug Cochran, Former Public Information OfficerStaunton, Virginia

Robin Miller, DeveloperMiller and AssociatesRichmond, Virginia

Beth Scripps, Architectural HistorianFrazier AssociatesStaunton, Virginia

Survey|

Balzer and Associates, Inc.E. Ray Burkholder, L.A.Verona, Virginia

Collections|

Historic Staunton FoundationStaunton Virginia

University of Virginia LibrariesSpecial CollectionsCharlottesville, Virginia

Library of Virginia Special CollectionsRichmond, Virginia

Virginia Historical SocietyRichmond, Virginia

Staunton Public LibraryStaunton, Virginia

Acknowledgements


147

Old Western State Hospital

Documents

Transcript of Old Western State Hospital