ROLE OF GENDER IN CASSAVA PROCESSING

Ebere Omeje

OKPARA, SUNDAY S

PG/M.Sc/11/58331

ROLE OF GENDER IN CASSAVA PROCESSING

IN ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL

ECONOMICS

meje Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

ROLE OF GENDER IN CASSAVA PROCESSING

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

ii

ROLE OF GENDER IN CASSAVA PROCESSING IN ENUGU STATE,

NIGERIA

OKPARA, SUNDAY S

PG/M.Sc/11/58331

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

JULY, 2015

3

TITLE PAGE

ROLE OF GENDER IN CASSAVA PROCESSING IN ENUGU STATE,

NIGERIA

OKPARA, SUNDAY S

PG/M.Sc/11/58331

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUK KA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc) DEGREE IN AGRICUL TURAL

ECONOMICS

JULY, 2015

4

CERTIFICATION

OKPARA, SUNDAY. S. a postgraduate student in the Department of Agricultural Economics, with

registration number PG/M.Sc/11/58331 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for course

and research work for the award of degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Agricultural Economics,

under the title “The role of gender in cassava processing in Enugu State, Nigeria”. The work

embodied in this dissertation, except where duly acknowledge, is the product of my original work

and has not been previously published in part or full for any other Diploma or Degree of this and or

any other University.

------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------- Prof; E.C OKORJI DATE SUPERVISOR ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ PROF. S.A.N.D. CHIDEBELU DATE HEAD, DEPT OF AGRIC, ECONOMICS -------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Almighty God.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My since and utmost gratitude goes to Almighty God and Our Blessed Virgin Mary on whose

favour and blessings, I have completed this study.

Foremost, I must express my sincere appreciation to Prof; E.C Okorji my supervisor, whose

enthusiasm for this work, encouragement, support and constructive criticisms made even the most

difficult challenge feasible, his fatherly love and care in assisting me, to presents this work in the

most organised manner.

My endless appreciation also goes to my head of Department Prof. S.A.N.D. Chidebelu, and my

Departmental lecturers; Prof. E. O. Arua, Prof. C. J. Arene, Prof. E. C. Eboh, Prof. [Mrs.] A. I.

Achike. Prof. Noble J. Nweze, Prof. C. U. Okoye, Dr. C. U Agbo, Dr. A. A. Enete, Dr. E. C.

Amaechina, Dr. B. C. Okpukpara, Mr. P. B. I. Njepuome and Dr. N. A. Chukwuone, for their care,

help and encouragement in my academic pursuit.

Even in a hurry, I will not forget to appreciate my loving parents for their endless support and

seeing me through in this work; there are no words that can express my heartfelt gratitude for laying

down a solid foundation for my education and ensuring that my dream of being well educated turns

into a reality. Special thanks to both of you for your unalloyed support and prayers.

Finally, am indebted to my siblings; Francis, Ifeanyi, Samuel, Paul, Egr; Fidelis, Uchenwa,

Calista and others. My cousins; Nnaemeka Nnamani, Chigezie, Uchenna, Nkiru and Ogochukwu,

for their contributions and support both morally and financially. For my friends and course mates

like; Offiah Ebere, Mr Onyishi, Ali Maliki, Anthonia, Emmanuel, Johnpaul who have been so nice

to me and cannot be left unappreciated. May God bless you all.

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ABSTRACT

The study was designed to investigate the role of gender in cassava processing activities in Enugu state, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to describe the socio-economic characteristics of cassava processors; ascertain various processing activities undertaken by men and women and their level of participation; identify and describe the type of technologies adopted in cassava processing and their output; analyze and compare costs and returns of processing cassava tubers into various products; identify the factors affecting the profitability of cassava processing; and identify the major constraints faced by cassava processors in the area. Data for the study was collected from a sample of 240 respondents (comprising men and women cassava processors) whose responses were sought on their processing activities. Descriptive statistics, participation index analysis, budgetary analysis, ordinary least square (OLS) method and exploratory factor analysis were used in analyzing the data while chow test and student t-test were used to test the hypotheses. The results showed that majority (73.4%) of the respondent were women; 62.50% were married while men (11.66%) and women (24.58%) processors were between 41 and 50 years of age. About 29% of women processors had no formal education while 10.83% of men attained primary education; 9.58% and 23.33% of men and women processors respectively had between 16 – 20 years of processing activities. Also about 24% of the men earned annual income of between N61,000 and N80,000 while 28.75% of women earned between N41,000 and N60,000. Result on the type of processed products obtained by the processors shows that; Garri, Akpu, Chips and Abacha were the major cassava by-products processed. The participation index of men and women in cassava processing activities shows that men sometimes participate in cassava processing activities while women always participate in virtual all the activities of cassava processing with a grand mean of 2.25 and 2.94 respectively. Result on the type of technology employed shows that both men and women processors employed trado-modern techniques in processing of cassava tubers into various products. Average times to process 335kg of cassava into the following products were: garri (16hrs 25mins and 11hrs 6mins) for traditional and modern techniques respectively), Akpa (fermented cassava paste) (87hrs 57mins), chips (63hrs 33mins) and abacha (16hrs 95mins). The gross margin analysis on the net returns of processing 335kg of cassava tubers into various products shows that processing of chips is more profitable when compared to other processed products. Multiple regression analysis indicates that years of experience, level of education, extension contact, access to credit, processing capacity, and access to labour had positive (P<0.01) effect on the level of profit made in cassava processing. Both null hypotheses were rejected. Result on exploratory factor analysis shows that; financial constraints (factor i), institutional constraints (factor ii), and infrastructural constraints (factor iii) were the major constraints faced by cassava processors in the study area. It was concluded that there is a substantial difference in the level of men and women participation in cassava processing and whenever men are involved, they play complementary roles. The study therefore, recommended that gender sensitive analysis polices should be vigorously pursued by government and non-governmental organization and Agricultural extension agents should intensify more efforts in disseminating improved processing technologies to processors.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Title page i

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Abstract v

Table of contents vi

List of Tables vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTON

1.1 Background information 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 4

1.3 Objectives of the study 5

1.4 Research hypothesis 6

1.5 Justification of the study 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Description of Cassava and its Origin in Nigeria 8

2.2 Processing of Cassava Product 9

2.3 Cassava Processing Operation 10

2.3.1 Peeling and Washing 11

2.3.2 Grating 12

2.3.3 Fermentation 12

2.3.4 Chipping/Slicing 13

2.3.5 Pressing 13

2.3.6 Sieving 13

2.3.6 Sun-Drying 14

2.3.7 Frying/Roasting or Drying 14

2.3.8 Soaking 15

2.3.9 Boiling 15

2.4 Cassava Processed Products 15

2.5 Gender Participation in Cassava Processing 17

2.6 Cassava Processing technologies 19

2.7 Constraints by Faced by Gender in Cassava Processing 22

2.8 Theoretical Framework 23

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2.9 Analytical Framework 24

2.9.1 Budgetary Analysis 24

2.9.2 Multiple Regression Analysis 25

2.9.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis 26

2.9.3 Likert Scale Rating 27

2.10 Related Empirical Studies 28

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 The Study Area 29

3.2 Sampling Procedure 29

3.3 Method of Data Collection 31

3.4 Data Analysis 31

3.4.1 Model Specification 31

3.4.1.1 Participation index 31

3.4.1.2 Budgetary Analysis 32

3.4.1.3 Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method 32

3.4.1.4 Exploratory Factor Analysis 33

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Socio-economic Characteristics of the Cassava Processor. 34

4.1.1 Gender distribution among cassava processors 35

4.1.2 Material status of processors 35

4.1.3 Age of processors 35

4.1.4 Educational status 36

4.1.5 Experience among processors 36

4.1.6 Household Size 37

4.1.7 Annual income among processors 37

4.2: Cassava Processing Activities Performed by Men and Women and

their level of Participation 38

4.2.1: Types of Cassava Processed Products Obtained by the respondents 38

4.2.2. Level of Men and Women Participation in Cassava Processing Activities 39

4.2.3 Student’s T-test analysis 40

4.3 Types of Technologies adopted in Cassava Processing Activities and their Ouput 41

4.3.1 Type of Technologies adopted in Cassava Processing Activities 41

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4.3.2 Output of Technologies adopted in cassava processing Activities 42

4.4. Cost-return Analysis and Comparison of Various Cassava Processing Products 44

4.4.1: Cost-return Analysis of Various Cassava Processing Products 44 4.4.1.1 Equipment used in Processing Cassava Tubers into Various Products 44

4.4.1.2 Cost-return Analysis of Garri Processing 45

4.4.1.3 Cost-return Analysis of Akpu Processing 46

4.4.1.4 Cost-return Analysis of Chip Processing 47

4.4.1.5 Cost-return Analysis of Abacha Processing 48

4.4.2 Comparison of Cost-return Analysis of Various Processed Cassava Products 49

4.4.3 Utilization of Cassava by-products by the Processors 51

4.5 Factors affecting the level of Profit in Processing Cassava Tubers into Various

Products 52

4.5.1 Chow Test 55

4.6 Constraints faced by Cassava Processors in the Study Area 55

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIO NS

Summary 57

Conclusion 59

Recommendations 60

REFERENCES 61-66

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LIST OF TABLES

Tables 4.1 Distribution of respondents according to their socio-economic of the respondents 34

Tables 4.2 Distribution of respondents according to the type of cassava processed product(s)

obtained 38

Table 4.3. Distribution of respondent according to the participation index of men and women

cassava processing activities. 39

Table 4.4 Test of difference in the level of men and women participation in cassava processing

activities 40

Table 4.5 Distribution of respondents based on the type of technologies adopted 41

Table 4.6. Distribution of respondents based on the average hours spent in processing 335kg of

cassava tubers using either traditional or modern technologies 42

Table 4.7: Depreciated values of equipment used in processing cassava tubers into various

products 44

Table 4.8 Cost-return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to garri 46

Table 4.9 Cost-return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to akpu 47

Table 4.10 Cost-return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to chips 48

Table 4.11 Cost-return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to abacha 49

Table 4.12 Comparison of cost-return analysis of various processed cassava products 49

Table 4.13 Distribution of processors according to the utilization of the by-products 50

Table 4.14 Determinants of profit in processing cassava tubers into various products 52

Table 4.15. Chow test result showing the significant relationship between the

socio-economic characteristics of the farmers and the volume of credit

sourced. 55

Table 4.16 Varimax Rotated component matrix on the constraints faced by cassava

processors 55

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Food is one of the basic needs of man but its provision is not always adequate for all nations

especially in developing countries (Ogunleye, Adeola & Ibigbami, 2008). The significance of

cassava in agricultural sector in Nigeria has been recognized in the area of its growth potential,

industrial uses, human and animal food, economic of production and processing. It is a prefered

staple food by many people in Nigeria because of its attributes. Cassava became popular with the

introduction and implementation of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), since 1986 with

increasing output. According to National Report (2006), this policy made those imported cereals to

be more costly, making cassava a relatively cheap source of energy. As a famine-reserve crop, it

holds a greater potentials for the transformation of Nigeria economy. This has given rise to the

enhencement of the status.

Currently, Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava in the world with an annual output of

over 47 million tones of tuberous roots (IITA, 2010). Its importance forms the premise of the

presidential initiative on cassava production and processing which is one of the major reforms in

Nigeria economy from 1999 (Adedayo & Sangosina, 2005). Cassava can be grown by the poorest

farmers in the study area, because of the suitable productive factors and ease of cultivation. It was

based on this advantage that Enugu state ranked third among the states that produced the largest

quantity of cassava in Nigeria (IITA, 2011). Some of the inherent features which make cassava

attractive especially, to the marginal farmers in Nigeria are that, it is rich in carbohydrate, starchy

and consequently has a multiplicity of end uses. It also has the ability to withstand adverse

conditions, available all year round and thus providing food security. According to Ezike, Nwibo &

Odoh (2011), commercialization of cassava is not all about growing the crop in large quantity but

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an integration of such with effective value addition in form of processing. They also noted that,

without value addition to cassava roots, cassava can not be stored or exported.

However, Henry, Westby & Collinson (1999), reported that several constraints affect

cassava processing which limits the contribution that the crop makes to the nation economy. For

instance, the presence of hydrogen cyanide and high moisture content in cassava roots is a major

factors limiting its utilization, but can be reduced by appropirate processing technologies. Also,

post-harvest physiological deterioration is an endogenous root disorder affecting storage of cassava.

Thus, the most economic way to deal with these problem is through processing (Ezike et al, 2011).

Processing is a form of value addition which implies the conversion of raw output into other

diversified utilities that are acceptable by the consumers.

Gender analysis is considered as an important tool to identify the participation of

male and female rural dwellers in on and off-farm activities. The term gender refers to socially

ascribed rules, responsibilities, opportunities associated with women and men, as well as the hidden

power structures that govern relationships between them (UNDP, 2010). Gender issues focus not

only on women but also on the relationships between men and women, their access to, control over

resources, division of labour and needs. Rota, Sperandini and Hartt, (2010) noted that gender

relations in agriculture is important for it determines household security, household well-being and

many other aspects of life

An understanding of gender farmers role, its importance and constraints surrounding them in

cassava processing is a pre-requiste to devising policies to improve productivity and socio-

economic development. The study by Felix and Enete (1995) revealed that both men and women

contribute significantly to cassava processing, but differ in the task that they perform. In Nigeria,

the structural role of men and women in the agricultural cycle reveal that women are more active

specifically in processing and marketing of agricultural products (Mafimesla, 2007). According to

IJAERD (2008) women are likely to gain proportionally more, if investment and development

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efforts are shifted in their favour and that their income reflect more on the quantity and quality of

food consumed by various households. In Enugu state, one crop in which the role of men and

women is over-riding is cassava production and processing.

Over the years, it is believed that some crops are labelled as men’s and some women’crop.

This refers to the gender of the farmer who controls output. Moreso, Okorji (1983) reported that

women owned more cassava fields than men and concluded that cassava is women`s crop. Adegeye,

Omonona and Awoyemi (1999), also asserted that women are more active in the cassava industry

and that they are predominant in the processing and marketing than the men folk. In Nigeria,

women provide the primary labour force of most agricultural activities especially in processing.

Also, Jacques (2010) noted that 70 percent of the labour requirements of Nigeria’s cassava industry

is fore filled by women in the rural areas.

Cassava is extemely perishable, post-harvest tubers must be processed into various forms in order to

improve the nutrient content, palatability and to increase the shelf-life of the products. Moreso,

Odebode (2001) reported that both roots and leaves contain varying amounts of cynaogenic

compounds, whose breakdown products are toxic to human and animals and thus are not always

edible in an unprocessed form.

Traditionally, cassava roots are processed by various methods into numerous products and utilized

in various ways depending on the local customs and consumer preference.

Cassava can be processed into gari, fufu,chips and abacha and these food constitute the main staple

of Nigeria. Jacque, (2010) pointed out that; gari is favoured derivative as it has a longer shelf-life

than the other processed products. Also, Aworh (2008), noted that processing cassava roots into gari

is the most effective traditional means of reducing cyanide content to a safe level by World Health

Organisation (WHO) standard of 10% particular processing methods (ppm), and is more effective

than heap fermentation and sun drying commonly used in easten and southen Africa.

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Moreover, the current drive towards higher levels of commercialization of cassava processing under

the presidential initiatives on cassava requires that the scale of cassava processing be increased by

the processors. Therefore, there is need to study ways and means of increasing their ability to

sustain the rural economy in Nigeria.

1.2 Problem Statement

One of the main sources of food insecurity in Nigeria today, is the massive post-harvest

losses due to inadequate processing capacities of the processors. Agricultural production would be

meaningless if what is produced is not processed into forms that consumer would cherish.

According to Hahn and keyer (1995), Cassava is one of the most important staple crops given by

men and women in Africa. It is mostly grown and processed by men and women in the rural areas.

However, despite the importance of cassava in food security, poverty eradication and wealth

creation in the state, the processing capacities of these processors is faced with myraid of

challenges. They are ill equiped and largely use traditional methods of processing, hence the

spoilage of large quantities of cassava in the area. EARRNET (2003) reported that lack of improved

processing technologies that can extend shelf life and assure quality products has contributed to low

commercialization of the crop. With local equipment dominating cassava processing, post-harvest

losses across the continent are estimated at between 35 and 40 percent (IITA, 2010). This situation

limit utilization of the crop, results in gluts and further contributes to the improverishment of

farmers.

Gender analysis takes into consideration the fact that men and women participate in social

and economic realities differently depending on their socio-economic status and culture. According

to Odii (1996), rural development policies directed at the households may not have their intended

effects or produce unintended outcomes, unless the role and position of gender in rural households

are explicitly taken into account. The work performed by women remains undervalued, unreported,

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or underreported in traditional governmental reports or economic analysis reports, whereas the work

performed by men remains the focal point (Fabiyi, Danladi, Akande and mahmood, (2007)

However, Ukeje (2004) reported that the major constraint to effective recognition of

women’s actual roles and responsibilities in agriculture is the scarcity of gender disaggregated data

for purposes of planning and policy making. This situation affects the level of gender participation

in various post-harvest activities especially in cassava processing in the study area.

In Enugu state, there is little quantitative and qualitative information about gender contribution in

Agriculture especially in cassava processing. It is however, been noticed that quite a number of men

and women go into cassava processing, but information is lacking on what they do and the extent

they are involved in cassava processing. This has endangered knowledge gap which needs to be

filled. Thus, it becomes imperative for empirical documentation of gender roles in cassava

processing, so that development intervention agencies could target the right beneficiaries in the

study area.

It is against this background that the study aims as much as possible to find answers to the

following research questions. What are the socio-economic characteristics of cassava processors?

What are the various cassava processing activities performed by men and women and their level of

participation? What are the type of tools/technologies adopted by cassava processors and their

output? What are the costs and returns of processing cassava into various products .What are the

factors affecting the profitability of cassava processing? What are the major constraints faced by

cassava processors?.

1.3 Objective of the study

The broad objective of this study was to examine the roles played by gender in cassava processing

in Enugu state.

The specific objectives are to;

i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of cassava processors in the study area

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ii. ascertain various cassava processing activities undertaken by men and women processors and

their level of participation

iii. identify and describe the type of technologies adopted in cassava processing and their output

iv. analyze and compare the costs and returns of processing cassava into various products

v. identify the factors affecting the profitability of cassava processing

vi. identify the major constraints faced by cassava processors in the area and;

vii. Make policy recommendations based on the research findings.

1.4 Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested to guide the study

1:There is no significant relationship between the socio-economic characteristics of cassava

processors and their level of profitability.

2:There is no significant difference in the level of participation of men and women in cassava

processing.

1.5 Justification of the Study

The importance of food to human existence cannot be over-emphasized because, it is one of

the necessities of life. Since men and women are involved in traditional food processing, providing

an effective allocation of resources would make life a lot easier for them with attendant benefits for

the well-being of the family and society at large. Gender analysis is important in development

planning and policy making as it provides information that can be used to ensure that men and

women are not disadvantaged by development activities or to identify priority areas for action to

promote equality between women and men (Hunt, 2004)

This study will quide the potential processors in selecting the most profitable cassava

processing products as well as adoption of appropirate processing technologies to ensure high

quality and sustainable quantity of cassava by-products. Also, adequate processing of cassava fresh

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roots would help to increase shelf-life, reduce transportation problems and hydrogen cyanide

(HCN) content to the appropirate level as recommended by world health organisation (WHO).

Moreso, it is hoped that the findings on more viable processing technologies will spur rural and

industrial development and raise the incomes for processors, traders and all stakeholders in the

cassava chain. A valuable development of value-added cassava through processing would boost the

economic position of Nigeria as well as increasing profit margin for the industrial firms.

Finally, the empirical findings and suggestions based on the study will help policy makers

on the proper allocation of resources and other interested research scholars for reference purposes.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Literatures were reviewed under the following sub-headings;

i. Description of cassava and its origin in Nigeria

ii. Processing of cassava products

iii. Cassava processing operations

iv. Processed cassava products

v. G ender participation in cassava processing

vi. Cassava processing technologies

vii. Constraints faced by cassava processors

viii. Theoretical Framework

ix. Analytical Framework

x. Related empirical studies

2.1 Description of Cassava and its Origin in Nigeria

Cassava (manihot esculenta) is a perennial root crop that grows in non-ideal conditions and

represents a major staple crop in Africa, especially in Nigeria. Cassava was introduced into Central

Africa from South America in the 16th century by the early Portuguese exporter (Ohadike, 2007). It

was probably the incapacitated slaves who introduced the cassava crop into Southern Nigeria as

they return to the country from South America through the Island of Sao Tome and Fernanda Po

(Odoemenem & Otanwa, 2011; Ikugbayigbe, 1992).

Improved cassava varieties became available in Nigeria from mid-1970’s and was

distributed for planting materials by the National seed services (NSS) through the Agricultural

development project started in 1986 (IITA, 1994; NRCRI, 2006). It performed so well in the

country that the nation has become the largest producer having overtaken Brazil and Thailand

(FAO, 2005).

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According to Ezike et al (2011) Nigeria production in cassava, accounts for 19% of world output

and 34% of Africans output. It is produced mainly by small farmers especially in South and Central

Nigeria and cultivated as a food and cash crop.

However, cassava did not become important in the country until the end of the 19th century

when processing techniques were introduced as many slaves returned home (Odoemenem and

Otanwa, 2011). Thus, due to the fact that cassava roots are perishable; they require some form of

processing before sale. While some cassava is sold as fresh roots, they usually receive some special

post-harvest handling or treatment before they reach the market. For this reason, processing

becomes of central importance for the future use of cassava products.

2.2 Processing of Cassava Products

Processing of Agricultural products in Nigeria is as old as farming itself. The various

processing methods of food crops came up as a result of necessity, mainly because some food crops

cannot be consumed the way they are harvested nor be kept long. Therefore, processing is a form of

value addition, which entails the processing or conversion of the produce into more conversant,

diversified and acceptable forms to the consumers (Ezike et al, 2011). It can also mean the

transformation of raw outputs into other form of products with higher value and diversified utilities.

Cassava processing involves several methods which include peeling, crushing/decaying, sun or

smoke drying or frying, fermentation by soaking in water, heaping, stacking or sedimentation,

sieving and cooking/boiling or steaming in different combination (Nweke, 1998).

In Nigeria, traditional food processed at home or in small scale cottage operations constitute

the principal mode of cassava utilization. Also, according to Peter (2004), cassava can be processed

into different forms for consumption in Nigeria ranging from garri, alibo or flour, noodles, chin-

chin, tapioca, chips, animal feed or starch. By means of fermentation, it can be processed into

alcohol, yeast, protein and waste product can be processed into biogas.

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Ugwu and Ay, (1992) asserted that cassava requires more processing than any other food

crops in Africa. Traditionally, cassava roots are processed by variety of methods in different

products and used in diverse ways according to local customs and preference.

2.3 Cassava Processing Operations

In the processing of cassava roots, it is vital to complete the whole process within the shortest time

possible, since as soon as the roots have been dug up as well as during each of the subsequent stages

of manufacture, enzymatic processes are apt to develop with a deteriorating effect on the quality of

the end product (NEPAD, 2006). This call for an organization of the stages of processing that will

minimize delays in manufacture.

Cassava is processed traditionally to obtain different relatively shelf staple intermediate and final

products for various food applications (Wilhemina, Gayin, Yawson and Plahar, 2009). These

products include garri (a roasted fermented cassava meal, fufu which is a fermented cassava mash

and dried cassava chips which is further processed into cassava flour.

According to Nweke and Enete (1999); Okorji and Okereke (1990), Cassava processing

involves a combination of activities which are performed in stages. Such activities are (1) peeling

(2) chipping, milling, slicing or grating (3) dehydration by processing, decanting, drying in the sun

or over hearth of frying (4) fermented by soaking in water (5) sedimentation (6) sieving and (7)

cooking, boiling or steaming. They further stated that the number of steps required and the sequence

varies with the product being made.

This sequence of activities also generates a wide range of intermediate products, which can either

be sold or stored until the need arises. Cassava roots processing has been done mostly by the

traditional method which requires that roots be peeled with knife, washed, and then followed by the

application of different operations to arrive at the desired end products (Okorji, Eze & Eze, 2003).

22

Cassava has a high potential for product diversification because it can be processed into various

forms for human consumption and made into chips for farm animals, starch and starch derivatives

(Ajibade & Adetuji, 2012).

Cassava processing offers the best opportunity for linkages from the farm sector to the non-farm

sector. The following are stages involved in processing of various cassava products:

2.3.1 Peeling and Washing

In small and medium size mills, the general practice is to remove the peel (Skin and Cortex)

and to process only the central part of the root, which is of the much softer texture (Ojekunle 2010).

The roots are cut longitudinally and transversely to a depth corresponding to the thickness of the

peel, which can be easily removed. Any dirt remaining on the smooth surface of the core of the root

can now be washed off without any trouble and the peeled roots deposited in basins or pan where

they remain immersed in river water until taken out for rasping. Also, Okorji et al (2003) noted that

cassava tubers are peeled using a kitchen knife or matchet to remove dirty and adhering mucilage.

Basin, used sack and sponge can also be used to facilitate washing. These stages of operation are

tasky and labour demanding. Kolawole, Oladele, Agbetoye, ogunlowo, Sanni & Abass (2012),

stated that peeling cassava roots immediately after harvesting is a difficult operation and it is mostly

done by women. Hand peeling is currently the only feasible option (Sanni, 2004)

According to Ubalua (2007), in the processing cassava fermented products, the roots are

normally peeled to rid them of two outer covering, a thin brown outer covering and a thicker

leathery parenchymatous inner covering. These peels are regarded as wastes and usually discarded

and allowed to rot. With the hand peeling, the peels can constitute 20 – 35% of the total weight of

the tuber (Ekundayo, 1980). Also, Ubalua (2007) further stated that cassava peels normally have

higher concentration of cyanogenic glycoside than the parenchyma (pulp) and this makes the peel

unsuitable for animal feed.

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2.3.2 Grating

This involves the rubbing of cassava pulp against very rough and sharp surface. According

to Okorji et al (2003), the washed cassava tubers are crushed into pulp using the grating machine

mounted on wheels or concrete slabs, with the assistance of manual labour to feed the machine with

cassava tubers. Grating is very important in other to obtain uniform smooth mash. Thus, the

smoother of the mash determines the quality and market valued of the desired end product.

(CORAF 2012) suggested that in the case of non-uniform, the mash should be grated again until

smooth mash is obtained.

2.3.3 Fermentation

Fermentation is one of the oldest and most important traditional food processing and

preservation techniques. Aworh (2008) stated that food fermentation involves the use of micro-

organisms and enzymes for the production of foods with distinct quality attributes that quite

different from the original agricultural raw material.

Cassava fermentation has been categorized into solid state and submerged fermentation processes

(Oyewole, 1992).

Solid state cassava fermentation

The major feature of solid state fermentation processing is that cassava is not soaked in

water. There are two major variations in solid state fermentation of cassava.

The first is typified by the West African “garri” production method where peeled cassava roots are

grated, packed into polypropylene or jute sacks and subjected to pressure using heavy weights or

hydraulic pressure for 3 – 5 days of fermentation (Okafor, 1977; Ofuya, Adesina & Ukpong 1990).

The fermented mash is further dewatered, sieved and roasted (garrification) before consumption.

In the second variation, cassava roots are not grated, but cut into pieces or sliced before being

spread out in the open air or under the sun (Essers and Nout, 1989). The dried products are then

milled into flour.

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Submerged Fermentation Processes

Cassava roots, peels or unpeeled, whole or cut into pieces are soaked in water for the duration of

fermentation (Oyewole and Odunfa, 1989). Also, according to Oyewole (1995) the duration of

soaking varies with the weather, where relatively short periods (2 – 3 days) are used during hot dry

season and longer period (4-7 days) during the cold raining season. He further stated that

submerged fermentation of cassava is mainly an acidic fermentation process during which the PH of

the cassava roots decreases from 6.5 – 6.9 to 3.8 – 4.1 after 84 hours of soaking in water.

2.3.4 Chipping/Slicing

The objective of chipping is to expose the maximum surface (i.e. increase surface area) of the

starchy flesh roots and encourage a rapid drying. Thick slices are difficult to dry because, the

moisture diffusion from the inside will greatly reduce and the time for complete drying considerably

extended (Wilhemina et al, 2009). Usually in sun drying system, the chips are dried more by the

sun’s rays. For effective drying, the chips should permit air to readily pass through a large mass of

shape.

2.3.5 Pressing

This involves the use of iron or wooden instrument constructed with or without compartment where

bags containing the wet pulp are put for press drying. They are usually press-dried with the aid of

hydraulic press or the screw (Okorji et al, 2003).

2.3.6 Sieving

After pressing, the de-watered cassava mash (a solid cake) had to be broken up and sieve to remove

the large lumps and fibre (from central vascular stands) and to obtain a homogenous product.

According to Wilhemina et al (2009), uniform particles size is important for product quality

(because it allows for a more uniform roasting for individual particles during the operation, since

the smaller particles took less time and less energy in roasting). Traditionally, sieve is done

manually using sieves made from palm leaves, bamboo or raffia cane.

25

2.3.6 Sun-Drying

This is the exposure of sifted mash or chips to sun in order to reduce the moisture contents to a level

that is no longer detrimental to its storage. El Shiaty, (1988), noted that sun drying is a key post-

harvest operating and almost all processing operations depend on it. However, sun drying of

cassava chips is normally carried out on any convenient flat surface, on roofs, concrete surfaces or

even mats.

The objectives is to produce dry cassava chips that will be clean, white colour and free from

extraneous matter as well as to increase the shelf-life. Many factors such as thickness of the slices,

the loading rate i.e. the quantity of chips per unit area of drying surface, air temperature and relative

humidity and wind speed affects the rate of drying of cassava chips (Wilhemina et al, 2009).

2.3.7 Frying/Roasting or Drying

Wilhemina et al (2009) reported that garri frying is a complex procedure in traditional

processing and it depends almost entirely on the skill of the operators. At village level, garri is fried

in shallow cast-iron pans, or in the more traditional areas in earthen ware pan, over an open wood

fire. They futher noted that, the sieved cassava mash is spread thinly in the pan in 2 – 3kg batched.

A piece of calabash is often of the pan but scraped quickly and stirred constantly to keep the

material moving to prevent it from burning until frying is completed when it reaches a temperature

of 80% - 85%oc. The rapid heating partially gelatinizes the garri which is dry during the operation

of frying. The process took 30 – 35 minutes, with the moisture content of the final product reduced

to about 18%. Also, CORAF (2010) stated that garri frying may take 20 – 30 minutes depending on

the heat sources and quantity of sifted cake. The finished garri is usually recognized from the colour

change from white to cream (for non-palm oil fortified garri) and crispy hand feel of the

grains/particles.

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2.3.8 Soaking

This is the immersing of cassava roots, peeled or unpeeled, whole or cut into water to soften it. The

duration of soaking varies with weather, for short period (2-3 days) are used during hot dry season

and longer period (4-7 days) during the cold season (Oyewole, 1995)

2.3.9 Boiling

In this method, (Cassava) are cooked in water for some time as in the parboiling of rice for milling

and yams for yam flour preparation (Ihekoronye and Ngody 1985).

Boiling is engaged in the processing of cassava into Abacha.

2.4 Cassava Processed Products

Some of the major cassava products and steps involved in producing them were discussed by

Nweke (1994) as follows:

Cassava paste: This is called Akpu in some places, to make them, whole roots are immersed in

water (stream, puddles, or water in container) for 3 – 5 days, while they soften and ferment. They

are taken out of the water and peeled. Fibers are removed from the pulp by sieving in water using a

basket, fiber bag, or performed metal bowl. The mash is squeezed in a fiber bag to reduce water

content. The product is balled and steamed. Sometimes peeling is done before soaking, which

improves the attractiveness of the end product but makes it more expensive because fresh roots are

harder to peel than soaked ones. This product is ready to eat without further cooking. Uncooked

paste is made in a similar way to steamed paste but without cooking, and so it must be steamed

before it can be eaten.

Chips and Flour: flour is often made at home from cassava chips. Chips and flour are called lafun

in some places. They are made by wide range of traditional methods. Soaked roots can be converted

into chips by sun-drying either directly after peeling or after crushing, sieving, pressing and rolling

into balls. Alternatively, chips are made directly from fresh roots by sun-or smoke-drying of peeled

27

fresh roots. The peeled chip may be fermented before drying by piling them in heaps covered with

leaves for a few days. Chips are made by any of these methods can be milled into flour.

Granules: Toasted granules are widely known as garri. Fresh roots are peeled and grated; the

grated pulp is put in sack, and the sacks are placed under heavy objects for 3 or 4 days to drain

excess liquid from the pulp while fermenting. The dewatered and fermented lumps of pulp are

sieved and other resulting fine pulp is roasted in a pan. Palm oil is often added during roasting, to

stop the pulp burning, although that action changes the colour of the garri from white to yellow.

Abacha: It involves boiling peeled roots and slicing the boiled roots into small flat pieces, using

knives or perforated metal. The sliced pieces are soaked overnight to make wet abacha and

then be sun-dried.

The traditional cassava products in Africa is shown in table 2.1

Table 2.1: Traditional Cassava Products of Africa

Common Name Other Names Given to the Product

Garri (cassava granules) ‘koko-gari’; ‘eba”; ‘agbelina’, kapok pogari”

Fufu (cassava paste) ‘foufou’; ‘foofoo’; fulful’; foutou’; ‘baton du manioc’; akpu’;

udeputim; pupuru’; ‘farine’; “yakayeke’; exidzi’; makak’;

Lafun (cassava flour) ‘bombo’; makessa’; luku’; cossettes’; nshima’; exidzi’;

makak;’ kanyanga’; mapanga’; maphumu’

Attieke ‘atieke’

Kokonte ‘crueira’; alebo’

Chikwangue ‘ntuka’; bugali’ ‘kmonmogo’, ‘chawada’; bobolo’; ‘myondo’;

‘mboung’; ‘mangbele’; ‘casava bread’.

‘placani’

Mould fermented flour ‘tapioca flour’

Cassava beer ‘nguii’; ‘panvu’; ‘baunnu; ‘uala’

Fermented boiled roots ‘meduama- m bong’

Source: Adeboye (2006). Dynamic of the technology adoption process in rural base cassava

processing systems in south western Nigeria, ifs Sweden.

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2.5 Gender Participation in Cassava Processing Activities

Gender participation is a term that describes the roles and activities of men and women according

to traditions and beliefs of a particular culture (Buckland, 1993). In most developing countries

men and women participate in traditional agriculture performing different roles. These roles are

gender specific; complimentary and reciprocal in natural activities like land preparation,

harvesting, processing and marketing (Ayodele, 2001). Therefore, the extent of men and women

participation in cassava processing activities varies from one place to the other as it is defined by

gender relations dictated by varying cultural norms and values. Processing activities plays a major

role in the post-harvest food system. These activities according to IFAD (2007) constitute the

main occupation of rural women, who employ age old traditional techniques in the processing of

roots and tuber crops. Traditional methods employed are simple and convenient for their scale of

processing. The cassava processing operations have been reported by many authors as labour

intensive. According to (IITA, 1996) post-harvest system of cassava requires more labour than

most staple crops. The Collaborative study of cassava in Africa (COSCA) has shown that 67

percent of cases, cassava processing activities were carried out by women only compared to 6

percent of cases for men only. Women along with children participated in another 19 percent

cases, and in 6 percent cases women worked alongside men. This represents 92 percent

participation of women in cassava processing (Nweke, 1994)

However, the number of men involved in cassava processing increases as the opportunities for

commercialization increases (Ugwu and Ay, 1992). Although men are seldom involved in cassava

processing operations, they tend to perform more of the heavy-duty farm operation

FMANR (2000) reported that small-scale cassava processing is the domain of women

although most of the mechanized equipment (grater and grinder) are owned and operated by men.

It appears therefore, that gender roles in cassava processing tend to change as processing becomes

more mechanized. Also, Ifediora (1992) remarked that, the extent to which women contribute to

29

cassava processing is limited to their financial position, cultural affinity, objectives and their own

time which depends on the number and type of occupation engaged in outside cassava processing

as well as personal sourcing of cassava tubers. Involvement of rural women in agricultural

activities increases with the increase in rural-to-urban migration of male members of the

household. Also, Olayide and Bello-Osagie (1980) observed that women play dominant role than

men in off farm segment of the food system such as processing, storage and marketing which are

crucial to the level of food security. According to Gracia (1985) women participation in small

scale traditional agriculture, which is primarily a rural activity is important since the farming

system of developing economics rely largely on female labour. Thus, considering the cassava

processing labour force generally COSCA (1992) estimated the gender contributions in cassava

processing as shown in table 2.2;

Table2.2 Frequency Distribution of Men, Women and Others in Cassava Processing

(Gender Roles In Cassava Processing)

Sub-process (A) Women

(B) men

(C) others

A/A + B+C %

B/A +B+C %

Total

Washing 273 2 24 91 1 299 Peeling 318 11 60 82 3 389 Soaking 88 6 6 88 6 100 Grating 48 35 16 48 35 99 Milling 44 24 6 59 32 74 Pounding 165 5 17 88 3 187 Sieving 187 5 23 87 2 215 Roasting 33 4 7 75 9 44 Sun-drying 179 13 21 84 6 213 Frying 52 3 5 87 5 60 Wrapping 25 0 1 96 0 26 Fermenting in sacks

106 24 26 68 15 156

Total 1691 141 232 82% 7% 2064 Source: COSCA (1992), No.4.

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2.6 Cassava Processing Technologies

Technology has made pertinent contributions to national progress and its usefulness has

attained universal recognition both at national and international levels. According to Odebode

(2008), modern agricultural technology has contributed significantly to agricultural development

and the gap between developed and developing countries in the area of agriculture can be

attributed largely to differences in the level of technological development adaptation and transfer

process.

In Nigeria cassava is processed using both traditional and mechanized methods. However,

researchers are on to provide better processing alternatives technologies with the aim of

minimizing post-harvest losses and to improve utilization conditions of cassava products.

According to IFAD (2007), agro-processing activities constitute the main occupation of rural

women who employ age-old traditional techniques in the processing of root and tuber crops.

Traditional methods employed are simple and convenient for their scale of operation. The

equipment used for traditional processing is cheaper compared to the requirements for modern

high technology processes. However, Westby (2002);Oduro and Clarke (1999) noted that these

traditional technologies are low yielding, time consuming, labour intensive and give products of

relatively low quality.

Different types of cassava processing technology are produced locally such as cassava

grater, sifter, watering press, cassava chippers and garri fryers. These machines are used to

produce garri, cassava flour, chips, and pellets for livestock. Hence, Davies et al (2008) remarked

that mechanization of cassava processing operations will enhance human capacity, leading to

intensification and increase in production and processing. The cassava processing operations have

been reported by many authors as labour intensity and poor quality of locally produced cassava

products has been traced to problem associated with the nature of technology employed by the

processors.

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Therefore, it is important that many of the processing operations be mechanized because it will

lead to reduction in time spent and cost of labour operations for the women (Ifediora, 1992). This

will attract some benefits such as ensuring that the processing operations are completed in the

shortest possible time and money saved can put into further cassava processing activities or other

economic uses. According to Odebode (2001), the present rate of traditional technology is

considered to be inappropriate for women, because it is labour intensive, cost ineffective,

strenuous and associated with low productivity. It is therefore, important to device improves

techniques capable of increasing the income generating capability of rural women and enhancing

acceptability of cassava products.

Meanwhile, Odebode (2001) further noted that the quality and quantity of produce derived from

modern technology is higher than those from the traditional. This underscores the need to intensify

policy programmes targeted projects aimed at providing favourable environment for enhanced

adoption of modern technology in cassava processing. Aworh (2008) reported that hand peeling is

the major bottelneck in traditional cassava processing. It is slow and labour intensive with an

output of 25-30 kg/man-hour. He further stated that Abrasive peelers with much greater capacities

are less efficient than hand peeling because of greater loss of edible tissue and the need for

excessive manual trimming.

While it is true that traditional technologies are constrained by reliance on manual

operations, full scale mechanization, even when technically feasible, is not always economically

justifiable as experiences with large fully mechanized cassava processing plants in Nigeria have

shown. The traditional and improved cassava processing technology/equipment is shown in table

2.3

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Table 2.3–Traditional and Improved Cassava Processing Technologies/Equipment

Processing stages Traditional technology Improved technology A. Garri 1. Peeling

Knife made of bamboo, flint or metal

• mechanical peeler • motorized peeler • hand peeler, hand rasper

2. Washing Local calabash bowel Aluminum tank 3. Grating Rough stone, prickly trunk of palms

sheet/tin iron pierced with nail on one side

Mechanized grater, motorized grater, hammer mill, disk grater, hand grater

4. Fermenting Heavy stone on heavy weighed cloth or nylon bag

Batch fermentation in aluminum tank, locally made hydraulic or mechanical

5. Dewatering Heavy stone on heavy weighed cloth or nylon bag (for several days)

Hydraulic jack press, screw press, parallel board press, upgraded traditional press for few minutes.

6. Sieving Woven baskets, suspended cloth pieces holding mash

Improved pulverizer e.g. drum sieve, rotating sieve

7. Frying/Revasting Cast iron pan over wood fire Upgraded roaster, solar dryer, kiln type dryer

8. Sifting Woven basket Improved pulverizer and sifter B. LAFUN 1. Peeling

Knife made of bamboo, flint or metal Mechanical peeler, motorized peeler, hand rasper

2. Soaking Local calabash Aluminum tank 3. Pulverizing Woven basket Improved pulverizer 4. Dewatering Heavy stone on heavy weighed Hydraulic press mechanical press 5. Drying Cast iron pan over wood fire Drum dryer, solar dryer C. STARCH

1. Peeling Knife made of bamboo Mechanical peeler, cassava filter,

motorized peeler 2. Washing Calabash bowel Aluminum tank 3. Grating Sheet or tin iron pierced with nail on one

side Power grater, motorized grater, disc grater

4. Dewatering Heavy stone on heavy weighed cloth or nylon bag

Hydraulic press, screw press

5. Drying cast iron pan over wood fire Engraved fryer, solar dryer 6. Packing Local jute bag Scaled polythene bags Source: Odebode,( 2008).

Within the two extremes (traditional and full-scale mechanization), there is a wide ranging

technology-mix suitable for different scales of processing operations as shown above.

33

Large fully mechanized garri processing plant were largely unsuccessful in Nigeria because

of low capacity utilization, high overhead costs, poor management and lack of required technical

experience for operations and maintenance of sophisticated, capital-intensive equipment’s. In

contract, tremendous success has been recorded with small scale garri processing factories in which

some of the tedious manual operations of traditional cassava processing such as grating, pressing

and sifting are replaced by machine while still retaining other manual operations.

2.7 Constraints Faced by Gender in Cassava Processing

The rural men and woman farmers are confronted with many constraints in the performance of their

processing activities. According to Davies et al (2008), cassava processing is constrained by lack of

steady supply of tubers throughout the year, high transport cost to processing centers, inadequate

processing equipment and low returns from small-scale processing. Odebode (2008) noted that,

problems encountered by the cassava processors include high cost of processing equipment,

transportation difficulties, poor infrastructural facilities, shortage of labour, poor access to market,

lack of fund and poor storage facilities.

Okorji and Obiechina, (1990) remarked that education and the associated mobility of women

tend to reduce the ability and willingness of subsequent generations of women to contribute

significantly to cassava processing and other agricultural activities. More so, Ifediora (1992) on the

role of woman to cassava processing identified some factors militating against increased cassava

processing to include; tedious nature of peeling and frying operations, lack of government support,

and shortage of cassava tubers. Others include lack of sufficient capital to invest, market

uncertainty, high cost of cassava tubers, irregular lack of electricity supply and high cost of

processing equipment. Ezike et al (2011) identified, absence of efficient grater, dryers, peeling

machine and pelletizes, lack of appropriate packaging materials for cassava products and gross

inadequacy of micro nutrient fortification of cassava products. Odebode (2001) identified shortage

of labour, high cost of processing, poor access to market, lack of fund and poor storage facilities.

34

Also, technological factors which influence appropriateness of technology to be; the cost of such

technology, whether the technology is affordable or not, its technical complexity, acceptability,

divisibility and maintainability.

Onyemauwa (2012) highlighted the major factors constraining the involvement of women in

cassava processing as, inadequate capital, high cost of labour in processing and pre-occupation with

house hold chores.

2.8 Theoretical Framework

A Theory is a set of related statements that are arranged so as to give a functional meaning

to a set of events.

This study is primarily based upon the social role theory. Role varies according to geographical

location and is the result of religious, cultural, socio-economic and political circumstances. Men and

Women play different roles in different cultures as these cultures impose different expectations

upon them considering them as a specific part of gender (Amin, 2010). In Nigeria, especially in

rural society, most women literate and illiterate generally remain involved in one form of cassava

processing or the other with the assistance of men.

The social role theory claims that gender roles are socially constructed which follow social and

behavioral norms of the society. It can also mean what society expects of an individual occupying a

given status position. Roles are therefore, the results of persons engaging in purposive behavior

within an interactive context governed by group norms and taking place within a social system.

Uwakah,Uwagbte and maduke (1999), noted that forty years ago, in the traditional rural Nigerian

setting, occupational roles were rigidly defined by gender. The woman was responsible for home

mangement, child care and other light duties, leaving the more strenuous farm activities to the men.

Today, the situation has changed. In addition to working in the home, women are now actively

involved in transforming and developing economy especially in the area of cassava processing as

well as men involving in off-activities like in cassava processing.

35

2.9 Analytical Framework

The nature and purpose of a study determine the type of analysis that can be employed

(Chukwuone, 2009). While calculation of rates means, frequency distributions and percentages may

be adequate for some exploratory studies. Eboh (2009) noted that more detailed and higher level

analysis will be required for case studies and sample surveys especially those that deals with

quantitative data. For the case of this study, descriptive statistics, budgetary analysis, multiple

regression and exploratory factor analysis will be employed.

2.9.1 Budgetary Analysis

Budgeting is used to select the most profitable plan from a number of alternatives and used to test

the profitability of any proposed change in a plan. The gross margin is a dependable analytical tool

in determining the profitability of an enterprise. It is very useful where fixed cost is a negligible

portion of the enterprise and is defined as the difference between the gross farm income (GI) and

the total variable cost (TVC) (Olukosi and Erhabor, 2005).

This is GM = GI - TVC

Where

GM= Gross margin

GI= Gross farm income

TVC= total variable cost

Some of the importance of gross margin analysis includes; it serves as a guide to the

selection of enterprises by comparing their margins; it is used to determine net farm or off-farm

income; it is used as a budgeting tool to compare the profitability of one enterprise with another. In

this study, budgetary analysis will be used to determine and compare the profitability of processing

cassava tubers into various products

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2.9.2 Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple regression analysis is an econometrics method used to study relationship involving more

than two variables. The variation in the dependent variable is explained by more than one

independent variables. Barbara and Linda (2013) pointed out that multiple repression techniques

can be applied to a set of data set in which the independent variables are correlated with one another

and with the dependent to varying degrees. They further stated that, it is an extension of bivariate

regression in which several independent variables, instead of one, are combined to predict a value

on a dependent variable for each subject.

According to Gujarati (2004), most regression models are multiple regression models because few

phenomenons’ can be explained by only one variable.

The goal of regression is to arrive at a set of values called regression co-efficient for

independent variables. Regression techniques consist of standard multiple regressions, sequential

(hierarchical) regression and statistical (stepwise) regression (Barbara and Linda 2013). Differences

between these techniques involves the way variables enter the equation, what happens to variance

shared by variable and who determine the order in which variables enter the equation.

The result of regression is a generalization of equation below that represents the best prediction of

dependent variables from several continuous independent variables. The regression equation takes

the following forms;

Y = f(x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 …xn,e) (implicit form)

Y = A+B1X1+B2X2+B3X3+B4X4 …… BnXn+e (explicit form)

where

Y = dependent variable

A = intercept of Y (the value of Y when all the X values are zero)

X1-Xn = independent variables

b1 – bn = regression co-efficient

37

e = random disturbance or error term

Also, Awoke (2001) noted that the changes induced by independent variables explain the behavior

of dependent variable, hence, form the basis for the prediction of regression.

2.9.2 Factor Analysis

The specific goal of factor analysis is to summarize patterns of correlation among observed

variables, to reduce a large number of observed variables to a smaller number of factors, to provide

an operational definition for an underlying process by using observed variables, or to test a theory

about the natural of underlying process (Barbara and Linda, 2013). Factor analysis has a

considerable utility in reducing numerous variables down to a few factors. Variables that are

correlated with one another but largely independent of other subsets of variables combined into

factors. Factors are thought to reflect underlying process that have created the correlations among

variables. According to Makhura, Goode and Coetzee, (1997) the model for factor analysis is

organized in such a way that all variables within a particular group are highly correlated among

themselves but have relatively small correlations with variables in another group. Factor analysis

include selecting and measuring of a set of variables, preparing the correlation matrix, extracting a

set of variables from the correlation matrix, determining the number of factors, (probably) rotating

the factors to increase interpretability and finally interpret the results. Barbara and Linda (2013)

noted that, there are two major types of factor analysis: exploratory and confirmatory. In

exploration factor analysis, one seeks to describe and summarizes data by grouping together

variables that are correlated while confirmatory factor analysis is used to test a theory about latent

processes.

Exploratory factor analysis procedure using principal component model with iteration and varimax

rotation will be employed in grouping factors militating against gender participation in cassava

processing into major components. In this analysis, the factors loading under each constraint

represent a correlation of the variables (constraint areas) to the identified militating factors and have

38

the same interpretation as any correlation co-efficient. However, only variables with factors loading

at 0.30 and above will be used in naming the factor (Ashley, Amber and Anthony 2006; Madukwe,

2004). Also, variables that loaded in more than one factors will not be used.

The factor analysis (FA) model can be represented as thus,

X=λf+e

where

X = is the vector of n observable variables

F = is the vector of m unobservable variables

λ = is the loading matrix of the order nfm

E = is the error vector of n

2.9.3 Likert Scale Rating

The likert scale named after Rensis Likert who developed it in the year 1932, is one of the most

widely used techniques to measure attitudes (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh and sorense, 2006). They

inferred that Likert scale assesses attitude toward an issue by presenting a set of statement about the

issue and requesting the respondents to indicate for each, whether they strongly agree, agree,

disagree or strongly disagree. These various agree-disagree responses are assigned a numeric value,

and the total scale score is found by summing the numeric value, and the numeric responses given

to each item, which represents the individual’s attitude towards the issues. This is why the scale is

called summated rating scale (Anaekwu 2007).

The Likert rating scale even though it is not an analytical tool per se, Osculate (1992) observed that

it is more likely that a researcher would report the mean score on a scale. Based on this, the level of

gender participation in cassava processing will be ranked using a participation index constructed

from a 3 point Likert scale rating. Participating will be ranked in order of importance from; never

involved = 1-1.99, sometime involved = 2-2.90 and always involved > 2.90.

39

2.10 Related Empirical Studies

Some empirical studies related to this work are reviewed. For instance, Onyemuwa (2012) carried

out a study on analysis of woman participation in cassava production and processing in Imo State,

southeast Nigeria. The study was conducted in 3 local governments Area and was purposely

selected from each of the 3 agricultural zones of the state.

Analytical techniques used include descriptive statistics (tables, frequency counts, mean)

was used to analyze the socio-economic characteristics of women that participate in cassava

production and processing in the area and participation index constructed from 3 point likert scale

was used to examine the level of women participation in cassava production and processing.

Meanwhile, the result of woman participation index showed a grand mean of 3.02 which indicates

that women always participate in the enterprise in the state.

In addition, Okorji et al (2003) carried a survey research on the efficienecy to cassava processing

techniques among rural women in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. The study area Owerri Agricultural

Zone of Imo state southeast Nigeria was purposely chosen because there is a preponderance of

woman cassava processors in the area. The study identified fifteen processing operations which the

cassava tubers undergo before transforming into any of the six major cassava productions. The

cassava products identified were gari, akpu, starch, akara-akpu, tapioca and flour.

Enete and Amusa (2010), in their study on the determinant of men and women contribution

to farming decisions in cocoa based agro-forestry households in Ekiti state, Nigeria used

exploratory factor analysis procedure to identify the major societal constraints militating against

women contribution to household farming decision. The result reviewed that, the variables were

grouped into 3 major constraints as constraint I (Techno-institutional constraint), constraint 2

(socio-personal constraint) and constraint 3 (Economic/Financial constraint)

40

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

The study area is Enugu state of Nigeria which was created on 27th August 1991 out of the

former Anambra state. Its capital is Enugu. According to Eze (2012) Enugu state lies between

longitudes 70 61E and 70 541E and latitude 50 561N and 60 521N in the south Eastern part of Nigeria,

encompassing an area of about 7161 km2 with elevation ranging from 32.01 m to 590.24m above

sea level. The state has an estimated population of 3,267,837 (female-1,671,795 and male-

1,596,042) and has coal and limestone deposits (NPoC, 2006). Enugu state is bounded in the East

by Ebonyi state in the North by Kogi and Benue state, in the South by Abia state and in the West by

Anambra state. The state comprises 17 L.G.A and three Agricultural zones.

Majority of the population are farmers, men and women largely involve in processing of

agricultural outputs especially in cassava processing. Prevalent crops are cassava, yam, maize, rice,

melon, groundnuts and economic tress like oil palm, orange and cashew among others trees found

in the state (Nzeh & Eboh, 2011).

3.2 Sampling Procedure

This study employed multi-stage random sampling techniques for selecting 240 men and

women cassava processors in the state. The first stage involves a random selection of two

Agricultural zones out of three zones. At the second stage, three L.G.As from each of the two

Agricultural zones were randomly selected. The third stage involves a random selection of four (4)

communities from each of the L.G.As to make a total of 24 communities. Lastly (10) cassava

processors were randomly selected in each of the communities, making a total sample size of two

hundrend and fourty (240) respondents (comprising men and women processors in garri, akpu,

chips and abacha) for the study.

41

3.3 Data Collection

Data for this study were obtained using primary source. Primary data were collected through

a well-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was elicited information on the socio-economic

characteristics, various processing activities undertaken by men and women, the type of

technologies employed and costs and returns of processing cassava into various products. Two well-

trained and resident enumerators from each of the sampled L.G.As of the selected agricultural zones

were assisted in the administration of the questionnaire. The enumerators were closely supervised

by the researcher.

3.4 Data Analysis

The data for this study were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Objective (I)

and (III) were achieved using descriptive statistic such as means, percentages, frequency counts.

Objective (II) was achieved using participation index analysis, Objective (IV) was achieved using

budgetary analysis and (V) was realized using ordinary least square (OLS) regression model while

Objective (VI) was realized using exploratory factor analysis procedure. Hypothesis 1 and 2 were

tested using chow test and t- test respectively.

3.4.1 Model Specification

3.4.1.1 Participation Index

The index was constructed using a 3 point likert scale after (Ayoade, Ibrahim and Ibrahim,

2009).The 3 point scales were weighted in order of importance.

Never involved = 1-1.99

Sometimes involved = 2- 2.90

Always involved > 2.90

The cassava processors were asked to indicate their level of participation in various cassava

processing activities such as peeling, washing, grating, bagging, pressing, sieving, boiling, slicing

soaking etc. The mean score for each of the processing activities were calculated and the grand

42

score of all the activities were divided by the number of activities to determine the participation

index of men and women in cassava processing.

3.4.1.2 Budgetary Analysis

Budgetary analysis was carried out to determine and compare the profitability of processing cassava

tubers into Garri, Akpu, Chips and Abacha.

The gross margin was estimated as the difference between the total revenue and total cost in cassava

processing activities as stated in equation below:

GM=TR-TVC..........................1

TR= TVP=TPP.PY..........................2

π =TR-TC ..............................3

Where

GM= Gross margin

TR= Total revenue

TVC= Total variable cost

TVP= Total value of processing

TPP= Total physical product

Py= price of the unit product

TC= Total cost (total fixed cost plus total variable cost) of processing cassava tuber into various

products.

π = profitability of each cassava products

N/B: For the purpose of uniformity and ease of comparison of the products, 335kg of cassava tubers

were used as computing quantity.

3.4.1.3 Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) Method

The model was specified in its explicit form as thus

Y= bo+b1x1=b2x2+b3x3+b4x4+b5x5+b6x6+b7x7+b8x8+et: Where

43

Y= level of profitability (Naira)

X1= Age (years)

X2= Experience in cassava processing (years)

X3= level of education (No of years spent in formal school)

X4= Extension contact (No of visit in a year)

X5= Access to credit (dummy: 1= yes; 0= otherwise)

X6= processing costs (Naira)

X7= co-operative membership (dummy: 1= yes; 0= otherwise)

X8= Number of labour employed (man-day)

B1_ b8 = regression co-efficient

et = stochastic error terms

Four functional forms, linear, exponential, double-log and semi-log were fitted into the

regression model and the form that best fits the regression line, according to economic, statistical

and econometric criteria were chosen as the lead equation and used for analysis.

3.4.1.4 Exploratory Factor Analysis Model

The model is specified as:-

Y1= a11x1 + a12x2 + *** + a1nxn

Y2= a12x1 + a22x2 + *** + a2nxn

Y3= a31x1 + an2x2 + *** + a2nxn

,,

,,

,,

Y= an1x1 + an2x2 + *** + anxn

Where

Y1, Y2 Y3 = observed variables/constraints facing cassava processors,

44

a1– an = factor loading or correlation co-efficient,

x1- x2 = unobserved undering factor constraints.

The study was selected factors with high factor loading of 0.30 and above.

45

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents

The socio-economic characteristics of men and women cassava processors is shown in Table 4.1

Table 4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of men and women cassava processors

Men Freq

%

Women Freq

%

Both Freq (%)

Gender 66 27.5 174 72.5 240(100) Material Status: Single 13 5.42 22 9.17 35(14.58) Married 41 17.08 109 45.42 150(62.50) Divorced 6 2.5 11 4.58 17(7.08) Widow/Widower 6 2.5 32 13.33 38(15.83) Educational Status: No formal Edu. 19 7.92 77 32.08 96(40) Primary Education 26 10.83 52 21.67 78(32.5) Secondary Education 17 7.08 34 11.67 51(21.25) Tertiary education 4 1.67 11 4.58 15(6.25) Age ≤ 30 13 5.41 32 13.33 45(18.75) 31-40 21 8.75 44 8.33 65(27.08) 41-50 28 11.66 59 24.58 87(36.25) 51 & above 04 1.67 39 16.25 43(17.92) Experience ≤ 5 years 09 3.75 19 7.16 28(11.67) 6-10 12 5.0 33 13.75 45(18.75) 11-15 16 6.66 42 17.5 58(24.17) 16-20 23 9.58 56 23.33 79(32.50) Above 20 6 2.5 24 10.00 30(10.42) Annual Income ≤ 40,000 04 1.67 21 8.75 25(10.42) 41,000-60,000 17 7.08 69 28.75 86(35.83) 61,000-80,000 24 10 48 20.00 72(30) Above 81,000 21 8.75 36 15.00 57(23.75) Household Size ≤ 5 members 26 10.83 98 40.83 146(60.83) 6-10 members 36 15 66 27.50 80(33.33) 11-15 members 4 1.67 10 4.16 14(5.83) Total 100 Source: Field survey, 2013

46

4.1.1. Gender distribution among cassava processors

Table 4.1 shows that 25.3% of the respondents were men while 73.4% of them were women. The

indication is that women engaged in cassava processing more than men in the state. This finding

agrees with koledoye, Deji, Owombo and Toromade (2012) who reported that women are more in

cassava processing than men. This is probably why cassava is stereotyped or considered as

woman’s crop. But, Nweke (2004) contends that this is an important half-truth. He argues that men

are increasingly involved in cassava production, processing and marketing as the cassava

transformation unfolds in Africa.

4.1.2. Marital status of processors

Majority (62.50%) of the men and women cassava processors were married, which means that

cassava processing was in the hands of married people. This will have a significant effect on the

participation of family members in cassava processing activities. From the Table 4.1, 5.42% and

9.17% of men and women processors were single respectively. The result further shows that about

2.5% of men and 4.58% of women were divorced while 2.5% and 13.33% of men and women were

widow/widower respectively.

4.1.3. Age of processors

The age structure of respondents has a significant influence on people’s decision, ambition, attitude

and aspiration. The result in Table 4.1 showed that 11.66% and 24.58% of men and women

processors respectively are between 41-50 years of age. A similar result was obtained by Odebode

(1997) who reported that the majority of cassava and soybean processors in Oyo state were in the

age bracket of 31-50 years. This is an indication that majority of the cassava processors were in

their middle and active age. Furthermore, 5.41% of men and 13.33% of women were ≤ 30 years of

47

age, 8.75% and 18.33% of them respectively were between the age bracket of 31-40 years while

1.67% of men and 16.25% of women were the age of 51 years and above.

4.1.4. Educational status

An examination of the level of formal education is necessary because, it determines to what

extent the processor could imbibe new ideas as well as innovations. Table 4.1 shows that 28.75%

of women processors had no formal education while 10.83% of men attended primary education.

The higher percentage of educated men processors can also affect the reason why more men are

involved in operation of cassava machines especially in grater, hydraulic and screw press. This

could even affect them in adopting innovations that involved in cassava processing activities. From

Table 4.1, 7.92% of men had no formal education, 21.67% of women attended primary education

while 7.08% of men and 11.67% of women had their secondary education respectively. Also, only

1.67% and 4.58% of men and women cassava processors respectively attended tertiary education.

4.1.5. Experience among processors

The study of years of processing experience is considered important because most often, it

gives an idea of processors managerial ability. Table 4.1 shows that majority 9.58% and 23.33% of

men and women processors respectively had between 16-20 years of experience; the implication is

that both men and women in the study area are familiar with cassava processing activities. The

result further shows that 3.75% of men and 7.16% of women had an experience of less than or equal

to 5 years, 5.0% of men and 13.75% of women indicated between 11-15 years while 2.5% and 10%

of men and women cassava processors respectively had an experience above 20 years.

48

4.1.6. Household Size

The study of household size was essential as this influences the availability and supply of unpaid

labour especially in cassava processing were labour is intensive. The result showed that majority

(40.83%) of women processors have a household size of five or less than while majority (15%) of

men have between 6-10 members in their family. From Table 4.1, 10.83% of men had a household

size of less than or equal to 5 members, 27.50% of women had between 6-10 members while 1.67%

of men and 4.16% of women respectively had between 11- 15 members.

4.1.7. Annual income among processors

From table 4.1, the Annual income shows that 10% of men earn annual income of between

N61,000-80,000 while 28.75% of women indicated annual income between N41,000-60,000. This

shows that men earn a significant income than women in the area. Furthermore, 1.67% of men and

8.75% of women indicated less than or equal to N40, 000, 20% of women and 7.08% of men earn

annual income of between N61,000-80,000 and between N41,000-60,000 respectively. About

8.75% of men and 15% of women indicated annual income of above N 81,000.

49

4.2. Cassava processing activities undertaken by men and women and their level of

participation.

4.2.1. Type of cassava processed products obtained by the respondents.

The percentage distribution of men and women based on the cassava processed product(s) obtained is shown in Table 4.2

Table 4.2 Distribution of respondents based on the cassava processed products obtained.

Processed products Men Women

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Garri 54 22.5 123 51.25

Akpu 18 7.5 86 35.83

Chips 4 1.67 17 7.08

Abacha 14 5.83 74 30.83

** Multiple responses Source: Field survey, 2013. From table 4.2 above, cassava processing into garri seems to be higher with majority 73.75% of

men and women respondents producing it. This was followed by akpu, abacha and chips with

percentage mean of (7.5% and 35.83%), (5.83% and 30.83) and (1.67% and 7.08%) for men and

women processors respectively. Majority of the respondents produced garri probably because of its

position in their food habit, tastes and preference of the people as well as its keeping quality. Many

respondents did not process cassava tubers into chips. This may probably be that chips processing,

is largely depends on the weather condition. It could also be their cultural affinity as a result of

which, they are not fully aware of its techniques for processing and its uses as food.

50

4.2.2. Level of participation in cassava processing activities by men and women.

The participation index in cassava processing activities by men and women is shown in Table 4.3

Table 4.3 Participation index of men and women in cassava processing activities Gender Men (mean score) Women (mean score)

Processing activities

Peeling 1.95 3.00

Washing 2.60 3.00

Grating 2.94 1.66

Bagging 2.55 2.99

Pressing 2.91 2.83

Sieving 2.23 3.00

Fire preparation/boiling 1.80 2.99

Frying 1.56 3.00

Slicing 1.95 2.93

Sun-drying 2.88 2.98

Soaking 1.59 2.98

Grand total 24.96 32.36

Grand mean 2.25 2.94

N/B 1-1.99=Never involved, 2-2.90= Sometimes involved, >2.90=Always involved

The result in Table 4.3 shows that women participate actively in most of the cassava

processing activities in the study area. The table further showed that their most significant

participation in cassava processing activities was in peeling, washing, sieving, boiling,

soaking, slicing, sun-drying and frying with mean score of 3.00, 3.00, 3.00, 2.99, 2.98, 2.93,

2.98 and 3.00 respectively. More so, men actively participate in grating (2.94) and pressing

(2.91), and sometimes participate in washing, bagging, sun-drying with mean score of 2.60,

2.55 and 2.88 respectively. This finding support the view of Jacques (2010), who reported

that throughout the entire cassava productive process, women typically carry out 70 percent

of the work including among others: transporting of cassava, peeling, soaking, bagging and

selling while men carry out approximately 30 percent of the work like transporting and

51

4.2.3: Student’s T-test analysis

T-test analysis showing the difference in the level of participation in the cassava processing activities by men and women is shown in Table 4.4

Table 4.4: Test of difference in the level of participation in cassava processing activities by men and women.

Variables Men Women t-value Diff; in mean Remarks

X1 X2

Processing activities 2.2691 2.8509 -2.419 -0.58509 0.036**

Source: Field survey, 2014. N/B: ** significant at 5% level of probability

Table 4.4 shows that the difference in the level of participation on cassava processing

activities between men processors (2.2691) and women processors (2.8509) is significant

at 5% level of probability, with the mean difference of (-0.58182). This implies that the

level of women participation in cassava processing activities was higher than that of men

processors and was in line with a priori expectation. Thus, the implication of these finding

is that women cassava processors in the area have more significant influence on the

grating. The table further showed that women sometimes participate in pressing with mean

score of 2.83 while men never participated in peeling (1.95), boiling (1.80), slicing (1.95) and

soaking (1.59).

The grand mean for the participation index of men was 2.25 while that of women was 2.94.

This implies that men sometimes participate in cassava processing activities while women

always participate in virtual all the activities of cassava processing. This agrees with the

finding of Okorji (1985) and Okola (1986) that cassava is a women’s crop. This result is

further reinforced by t-test analysis which showed that there was significant difference at

(P<0.05) in the participation of men and women in cassava processing activities.

52

processing of cassava tubers into various product(s).

4.3. Type of technologies adopted in cassava processing activities and their output

4.3.1. Type of technologies adopted in cassava processing activities

The percentage distribution of the cassava processors based on the type of technologies adopted is shown in table 4.5

Table 4.5 Distribution of respondents based on the type of technologies adopted Men Women

Types of technologies Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Traditional 26 10.83 134 55.53

Trado-modern 62 25.83 143 59.53

*Multiple responses Source: Field survey, 2013. Cassava processing involves the transformation stages which cassava tubers pass through before

arriving at the desired products. The study examines the methods employed by the respondents to

enable such transformation to take place. The result showed that both traditional and modern

methods of cassava processing were adopted by men and women processors. Table 4.5 shows that

majority (25.83%) of the men respondents participated in processing operation that involves trado-

modern techniques like in garri processing while a significant number (55.53% and 59.53%) of

women involved in both trado-modern and traditional methods respectively. This result agrees with

Davies et al, (2008) who reported that men predominantly engaged in machine operations while

women undertook cassava operations that were prominently manual such as peeling, washing,

frying, sifting and drying.

However, traditional methods of cassava processing is labour intensive, though

intermittently requires the assistance of human labour. Modern method considerably reduced the

cost of human labour; time spent on those operations and generally produced cheaper products by

53

reducing the cost of processing. The result further showed that, no products was processed in a

modern way only in the study area. This could be non availability of the modern techniques from

the first stage of processing to the final stage or due to technical know-how by the processors.

Products such as akpu, chips and abacha can be processed using only traditional method for all

their operations while product like garri can be processed using a combination of traditional and

modern methods. The use of traditional method for some operation may be due to the fact that

machines for such operations have not been developed or that machines have been developed but

are not efficient or available in the study area.

4.3.2. Output of technologies adopted in cassava processing activities.

The output of technologies adopted in cassava processing activities which measured in terms of man hours spent in using either traditional or modern technologies is shown in table 4.6

Table 4.6. Average hours spent in processing 335kg of cassava tubers using either traditional or modern technologies. Garri Akpu Chips Abacha Processing Operations

Traditional

Modern

Traditional

Traditional

Traditional

Peeling 3hrs 34mins __ 3hrs 34mins

3hr 34mins 2hrs 14min

Washing 46mins __ 46mins 46mins 28mins Grating __ 32mins __ __ __ Dewatering 5hrs 22mins 3hrs 44mins 4hrs

42mins __ __

Sieving 3hrs 23mins __ 3hrs __ __ Sun-drying __ __ __ 5hrs

43mins 6hrs

Soaking __ __ 72hrs 48hrs 7hrs 3mins Frying 4hrs 3hrs 5mins __ __ __ Slicing __ __ 4hrs

11mins 6hrs 10min __

Parboiling __ __ __ __ 1hrs 21mins

Decanting __ __ 24mins __ __ Total 16.25 11.06 87.57 63.33 16.9 Source: Field survey, 2013 Analyzing the type of technologies adopted in cassava processing and their output required an

examination of the actual time spent by the processors for each processing operation involved in

obtaining the desired product(s). These was found to depend mainly on the type of technologies

54

(traditional or modern) methods adopted, nature of cassava tubers used, quantity of cassava tubers

processed and the quantity and quality of labour used in achieving those product(s).

For the purpose of this particular analysis, attention was paid on processing 335kg of cassava

tubers by the processors. Table 4.6 shows that some cassava products involved both traditional and

modern technologies while some are traditional method only. Also, the result showed that with the

exception of grating, frying and dewatering/draining, other operations can be done using traditional

method. There was no case in the study area where grating of cassava tubers was done traditional.

From the result on table 4.6, processing of garri, akpu, chips and abacha took an average time of

about 16hrs 25mins and 11hrs 6mins (traditional and modern), 87hrs 57mins, 63hrs 33mins,

and16hrs 95mins respectively. The use of modern technique reduces the processing of garri from

an average hours of 16hrs 25mins to 11hrs 6mins. Also, result further shows that all the operations

involved in producing akpu, chips and abacha in the study area was traditionally done. This shows

that no alternative technique was employed to reduce the time spent in obtaining those products.

The finding agrees with Okorji (1985), who reported that processing of akpu was traditionally done.

This may be as a result of non availability of modern technologies for the processing operations or

due to the nature of the product(s) being processed. Also, Ifediora (1992) reported that, it is

important that many of the operations be mechanized because it will lead to reduction in the time

spent and cost of labour on operations for the processors. This will attract some benefit such as

ensuring that processing operations are completed in the shortest possible time and money saved

can put into other economic uses.

However, most of the cassava processors reported that the time spent on soaking depends on

those who add potash or kerosene while soaking in processing of akpu. The time spent on sun-

drying of cassava chips depends on the surface area of the chips, weather condition as well as the

rate of turning. In recording the time spent in operations such as grating and frying, attention was

55

paid only on the time spent on feeding the grater or frying pan with the material and that spent in

collecting the processed material.

4.4. Cost and returns analysis and comparison of various cassava processing products.

4.4.1. Cost and return analysis of various cassava processing products

This was done to determine the costs and returns of cassava processors for effective comparative

analysis of processing cassava in the study area. For the purpose of uniformity and ease of

comparison of the products, 335kg (a barrow full load of fresh cassava tubers), was used as a

computing quantity for one processing season of each product.

4.4.1.1 Equipments used in Processing Cassava Tubers into Various Products

The depreciated values of equipment used in processing cassava tubers is shown in Table 4.7

Table 4.7. Depreciated values of equipment used in processing cassava tubers

Processing equipments Fixed costs

Average

number/processors

(Number)

Average unit

price (N)

Average total price

(N)

Average life span

(years)

Depreciated

values(N)

Knives 3 150 450 3 150

Basin 1 1400 1400 4.5 311.1

Tripod stand 1 940 940 9 104.4

Wooden sieves 1 240 240 1 240

Metal sieves 1 866 866 2.5 346.4

Frying pan 1 4200 4200 6.5 646.1

Wooden stirrers 1 140 140 1 140

Bags (fertilizer) 3 100 300 2 150

Clay pot 2 980 1960 5.5 356.3

Aluminium tank/pot 1 1480 1480 5 296

Graters 1 250 250 2 125

Pressing rope 1 60 60 0.5 120

Source: Field survey, 2013.

56

The equipment used by respondents for processing cassava tubers includes: knives, basins, tripod

stand, wooden sieves, metal sieves, frying pan, wooden stirrers, bags (fertilizer), clay pot,

aluminium tank/pot, graters and pressing rope. The value of these equipments was calculated by

getting the average number of this equipment owned per household. The straight line method of

depreciation was used in calculating their depreciated values, assuming a zero salvage value at the

end of useful life. Total fixed cost of each product was obtained by adding each depreciated values

of equipment used in producing it.

4. 4.1.2 Cost and return analysis of garri processing.

To estimate the net revenue for processing garri using 335kg of fresh cassava tubers, cost-return

analysis was conducted. The result of the analysis showed that after processing 335kg of cassava

tubers using a standard conversion ratio of 0.25, 83.75kg of garri was produced. Inputs cost

amounted to N2213 which is equivalent to 40% of the total cost; labour cost amounted to N1050,

about 19% of the total cost; transportation cost amounted to N120 and constituted about 2% of the

total cost. The total fixed cost (depreciated amount of equipment used for garri processing)

amounted to N2208 and was about 39% of the total cost. One kilogram of garri was sold at N71.3.

This brought an estimated return of N6332.26. The total cost which is the combination of total

variable cost and fixed cost amounted to N5591. Net revenue per 335kg of cassava tubers processed

to garri, defined as the difference between total revenue and total cost. The estimated net return for

garri was N741.26. The analysis is presented in Table 4.8

57

Table 4.8. Average cost and return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to garri Item Unit measurement (N) Unit price (N) Qty (kg) Total value (N) 1. Revenue Garri (kg) 71.43 83.75 5982.26 Chaff 350 Total Revenue 6332.26 2. Variable cost a) Inputs

Cassava tubers (kg) 23 335 2150 Palm oil (litre) 250 ¼ 63 b) Labour

Labour for various processing Operation of garri 1050 c) Transportation

Conveying cassava tubers to the processing centres and back home

120

Total variable cost 3383 3. Fixed cost Depreciated values (N) 2208 Total fixed cost (N) 2208 Total cost (N) 5591 Net revenue (N) 741.26 Source: Field survey, 2013 4. 4.1.3 Cost and return analysis of akpu processing

The results of the analysis showed that after processing 335kg of cassava tubers using a standard

conversion ratio of 0.75, 251.25kg of akpu was produced. Input cost amounted to N2150, which is

equivalent to 43% of the total cost. Labour cost amounted to N980 equivalent to 19% of the total

cost; transportation cost was N200 and constituted about 4% of the total cost while total fixed cost

was N1714.2 or 34% of the total cost. One kilogram of akpu was sold at N21.3.This brought an

estimated return of N5601.63. The total cost which is the combination of total variable cost and

fixed cost amounted to N5044.2. Net revenue per 335kg of cassava tubers processed to akpu,

defined as the difference between total revenue and total cost. The estimated net return for akpu

processing was N557.43. The analysis is presented in the table 4.9

58

Table 4.9. Average cost and return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to akpu Item Unit measurement (N) Unit price (N) Qty (kg) Total value (N) 1. Revenue Akpu (kg) 21.3 251.25 5351.63 Chaff 250 Total Revenue 5601.63 2. Variable cost

a) Inputs Cassava tubers (kg) 335 2150 b) Labour

Labour for various processing Operation of akpu production 980 c) Transportation

Conveying cassava tubers and akpu

200

Total variable cost 3330 3. Fixed cost Depreciated values (N) 1714.2 Total Fixed Cost (N) 1714.2 Total Cost (N) 5044.2 Net Revenue (N) 557.43 Source: Field survey, 2013 4.4.1.4 Cost and return analysis of chips processing.

To estimate the net revenue for using 335kg of cassava tubers to produce chips, cost and return

analysis was conducted. The result of the analysis showed that after processing 335kg of cassava

tubers using a standard conversion ratio of 0.61, 204.3kg of chips was produced. Out of the total

cost, input cost constituted N2150 or 48% of total cost; labour cost N870 or 20% of total cost;

transportation cost N160 or 3% while total fixed cost amounted to N1263.4 or 28% of total cost.

One kilogram of chips was sold at N42. The total revenue from the sales of chips for the processors

who processed it amounted to N8582.7 per 335kg of fresh cassava tubers processed. The total cost

of processing 335kg of cassava tubers into chips was estimated as N4443.4. Therefore, the

estimated net revenue for chips processing which is the difference between the total revenue and

total cost was N4139.3. The analysis is shown in the table 4.10.

59

Table 4.10. Average cost and return analysis for processing 335kg cassava tubers to chips Item Unit measurement (N) Unit price (N ) Qty (kg) Total value (N) 1. Revenue Cassava chips (kg) 42 204.35 8582.7 Total Revenue 8582.7 2. Variable cost

a) Inputs Cassava tubers (kg) 335 2150 b) Labour

Labour for various processing various Operations to cassava chips. 870 c) Transportation

Conveying cassava chips 160 Total variable cost 3180 3. Fixed cost Depreciated values (N) 1263.4 Total Cost (N) 4443.4 Net Revenue (N) 4139.3 Source: Field survey, 2013 4.4.1.5 Cost and return analysis of abacha processing.

The result of the analysis showed that after processing 335kg of cassava tubers using a standard

conversion ratio of 0.50, 204.3kg of abacha was produced. Input cost amounted to N2150

equivalent to 47% of total cost; labour cost amounted to N1210 or 26% of total cost; transportation

cost was N100 and constituted about 2% of total cost while total fixed cost amounted to N1131.5 or

25% of total cost. One kilogram of abacha was sold at N33.33. The total revenue from the sales of

abacha for the processors who processed it amounted to N5582.78 per 335kg of fresh cassava tubers

produced. The total cost of processing 335kg of cassava tubers into abacha was estimated as

N4571.5. Therefore, the estimated net revenue for abacha processing which is the difference

between the total revenue and total cost was N1011.28. The analysis is shown in the table 4.11

below.

60

Table 4.11 Average cost and return analysis for processing 335kg of cassava tubers to Abacha Item Unit measurement (N) Unit price (N ) Qty (kg) Total value (N) 1. Revenue Abacha (kg) 33.33 167.50 5582.78 Total Revenue 5582.78 2. Variable cost

a) Inputs Cassava tubers (kg) 335 2150 b) Labour

Labour for various processing various Operations to cassava chips. 1210 c) Transportation

Conveying cassava tubers and Abacha 100 Total variable cost 3460 3. Fixed cost Depreciated values(N) 1131.5 Total Fixed Cost 1131.5 Total Cost (N) 4571.5 Net Revenue (N) 1011.28 Source: Field survey, 2013

4.4.2. Comparison of cost and return analysis of various processed cassava products.

In trying to determine the most profitable cassava product in the study area, cost and return items of

various products were compared as well as their net revenue as shown in table 4.12 below.

Table 4.12: Comparison of cost and return items of processing 335kg of cassava tubers into

various products.

Cost and return items

Garri Akpu Chips Abacha

Total Revenue 6332.26 5601.63 8582.7 5582.78 Variable cost Input 2213 2150 2150 2150 Labour 1050 980 870 1210 Transportation 120 200 160 100 Total variable cost 3383 3330 3180 3460 Total fixed cost 2208 1714.2 1263.4 1131.5 Total cost 5591 5044.2 4443.4 4571.5 Net revenue 741.26 557.43 4139.3 1011.28 Source: Field survey, 2013

61

When inputs and labour costs are compared for various products, it is seen that all the products

are input intensive compared to labour cost. Though, cost of input is comparatively high especially

for garri. The transportation costs are comparatively small except in akpu processing, which could

be the level of water content in it. This shows that processors did not travel far distances in the

process of obtaining their inputs as well as distributing their products. Total fixed cost which is the

depreciated values of equipment used in producing those product(s) and total variable cost were

small in chips and abacha when compared to garri and akpu. This implies that chips and abacha do

not required several operations before obtaining them.

From table 4.12 above, the net revenue estimate shows that processing cassava tubers into various

products is profitable. Among the products (garri and akpu) that gave low net revenue, which could

be a reflection of small quantity of cassava tubers processed. They will attract a higher net return,

should their processing capacity increased. This indicates that at the present level of processing,

their profit levels are comparatively low. The fact that the by-products such as sifting (chaff) and

cassava peels from garri and akpu processing were not sold by majority of the respondents in the

study area, may have contributed to the low profit. Also, the number of processing equipments

involved in processing them as well as various operations performed to obtain the products (garri

and akpu), could have resulted to low returns. This finding agree with the view of Amoah, Sam-

Amoah, Adu Boahen and Duah (2009) who reported that traditional cassava processing into garri is

however, very labour intensive and productivity is often too low to justify the investment of labour,

time and money.

Among the products (chips and abacha) that gave high returns are those that their total fixed cost

are comparatively low. The high returns could be attributed to low wastages that associated with the

processing of chips and abacha when compared to garri and akpu.

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Although, chips and abacha turned out to be more profitable in this analysis, but majority of the

processors engaged more in garri processing when compared to other products. This probably

because garri stores longer and also have a higher market demand than other products.

4.4.3. Utilization of cassava by-products by the processors

The percentage distribution of cassava processors according to the utilization of the by-products is shown in table 4.13

Table 4.13. Percentage distributions of processors according to utilization of the by-products. By-products Uses Frequency Percentage

Chaff Discarded 132 55.00

Animal feed 64 26.67

Cassava peels Sale 44 18.33

Discarded 179 74.58

Animal feed 46 19.67

Farm yard manure 57 23.75

**Multiple responses Source. Field survey, 2013 In the process of obtaining the main products from cassava processing, by-products such as peels

and chaff from grated cassava were obtained. The table 4.13 shows that majority (55%) of the

respondents discarded the by-product from cassava. This implies that they are not aware of the

economic uses to which they can put them into. The result also shows that none of the respondents’

sales cassava peels while a small portion (18.33%) sales chaff. This could mean that chaff has more

economic value than cassava peels or the people does not aware of what cassava peels can be used

for. Meanwhile, the use of cassava by-products as animal feed and farmyard manure by significant

number of the respondent shows that the by-products from cassava have some economic value in

the study area.

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4.5. Factors affecting the level of profit in processing cassava tubers into various products.

In determining the factors affecting the level of profitability in processing cassava tubers into

various products, a structural relationship was specified. The level of profitability was regressed

against various independent variables specified in the model. Four functional forms (linear, semi-

log, exponential and double log) were used, though the double log was chosen as lead equation.

This was because of its confirmation to a priori expectation in terms of signs and magnitude of the

co-efficient, the number of significant variables, lowest standard error and highest co-efficient of

multiple determination (R2). The determinant of profit in cassava processing activities is shown in

the table 4.14

Table 4.14. Determinant of profit in processing cassava tubers into various products Variable Linear Exponential Semi-log Double log Constant -0.509 -2.552 -0.575 -2.095 (-3.091) (-11.707) (-2.097) (-8.257)*** Age(x1) -0.038 0.000 0.405 -0.021 (-4.382) (-0.204) (2.209) (-3.312)*** Experience (x2) 0.718 -0.032 0.875 0.020 (4.995) (-3.619) 7.727 2.497** Educational level (x3) 0.026 0.017 0.011 0.11 (2.279) (0.017) (1.413) (1.943)*** Extension contact (x4) 0.273 0.555 0.004 0.556 (3.711) (15.478) (0.419) (15.202)*** Access to credit (x5) -0.743 -2.189 -8.986 0.002 (-5.803) (-4.630) (-1.449) (-5.149)*** Processing capacity (x6) 0.033 0.014 0.043 0.021 (3.076) (2.109) (4.775) (2.993)*** Cooperative membership (x7)

-0.009 -0.018 -0.239 -0.025

(-0.577) (-1.792) (-1.280) (2.680) Access to labour (x8) 0.784 0.330 0.053 0.185 (9.717) (5.682) (0.484) (3.898)*** R2 = 0.477 0.716 0.525 0.712 Adj R2= 0.458 0.706 0.509 0.706 F-Ratio= 26.286 0.72.714 31.978 71.549 Source: Field survey, 2013. NB: ***,** and * stands for significant at 1%,5% and 10% level of probabilities

64

The R2 for the estimated regression showed that about 71% of total variation in profit of processing

cassava tubers into various products in the study area was explained by the explanatory variables

while the remaining 29% unexplained, this is due to random variables (ui). The F-statistics was

significant at one percent depicted the significance of the estimated R2 and the goodness of fit on

the estimated model. All other explanatory variables in the model had positive influence on the

level of profit in processing cassava tubers except age and co-operative membership. The negativity

of age(x1) is in consonance with a priori expectation of the study. In order words, increase in age

reduces the level of profit from processing cassava tubers. This means that, as cassava processors

ages on, he/she will have less zeal to participate in various processing activities thereby reducing

the profitability levels.

The variable for level of experience(x2) was positively signed and significant at 5% level. This is in

confirmation with the a priori expectation because as cassava processors acquire more experience,

he/she will able to plan and organize their processing in more efficient way in order to boost

processing capacity, thus enhances improvement in the level of profit. This is in concurred with the

finding of Mafimisebi (2007) who reported a positive relationship with profit in the level of

experience. The educational level(x3) revealed a positive relationship with the level of profit and

statistical significant at 10% level. Education increases exposure to useful information and this will

likely enhance their level of knowledge and adoption of improved cassava processing techniques

that makes processing easier. The implication is that a unit increase in the level of education will

definitely increase the probability to acquire more profit in processing various cassava products.

The variable for extension contact(x4) was found to be positive and significantly related to the level

of profit in the study area. This means that processors who were visited by extension officers/agents

will be more knowledgeable than those who were not visited. This is because, extension agents

were charged with the responsibilities of disseminating information’s/innovations as well as solving

processors problem, thereby improving their level of profit in processing cassava tubers. Access to

65

credit(x5) revealed positive and significant at 1% level. This implies that, the more access a cassava

processor has in obtaining credit either formal or informal, the more profit he/she will make in

processing cassava tubers into various products. This finding agrees with the a priori expectation.

Processing capacity(x6) was positively signed and significant at 1% level. This means that the more

quantity of cassava tubers processed by the processors, the more profit he/she will acquire.

The variable for co-operative membership(x7) revealed a negative sign and statistical not significant

with the level of profit in processing cassava tubers. The a priori expectation of the study was not

met, since as cassava processors get him/her self into co-operative societies, there will be a

corresponding increase in their profit earning in cassava processing. This is because co-operative

membership enables processors to acquire more ideas, experience, and also afford them access to

information and credit facilities. Access to labour (x8) showed a positive relationship and significant

at 1% level. This means that, the more access to hired labour, the high the profit. It is true, because

processing of cassava tubers into various products is a tedious task especially peeling, thus require

more hands to achieve that, since there is no mechanized way of peeling. The equation for double

log is shown below:

Y= -2.095-0.021x1+0.020x2+0.011x3+0.556x4+0.002x5+0.020x6-0.025x7+0.185x8+et

Where Y=level of profitability, x1-x8= parameter estimate, et= Error terms

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4.5.1 Chow Test

The result of chow test on the significant relationship between the socio-economic and other

attributes of the cassava processors and their level of profitability is shown in table 4.15

Table 4.15: Chow test result showing significant relationship between the socio-economic and other attributes of the cassava processors and their level of profitability.

X*calculated X* tabulated Decision rule Remark 71.549 *** 3.09 Reject the null hypothesis,

If X cal > Xtab and conclude that Significant relationship exist

there is a significant relationship between the socio-economic and other attributes of the cassava processors and their level of profitability in the area

Source: Field survey, 2014. N/B: *** significant at 1% level of probability

4.6 Constraint faced by cassava processors in the study area.

Factor analysis was used to determine the constraints militating cassava processors in the study

area. The result of factor analysis is shown in the table 4.16 below.

Table 4.16 Varimax Rotated component matrix on the constraints faced by cassava processors. Variable code

Variable Names Factor 1 Financial Constraints

Factor 11 Institutional Constraints

Factor 111 Infrastructural Constraints

Vo1: Inadequate capital 0.687 -0.083 -0.001 Vo2: High cost of processing of labour

In processing 0.725

-0.017

0.013

Vo3: Inadequate marketing -0.786 0.886 -0.157 Vo4: Absence of modern technologies -0.514 0.653 0.038 Vo5: High cost of processing equipment 0.710 0.222 -0.018 Vo6: Lack of extension services -0.506 0.742 -0.402 Vo7: High cost of transportation 0.010 -0.206 0.822 Vo8: Poor infrastructural facilities 0.146 0.187 8.044 Vo9: Low returns from small scale

processing 0.552 -0.878 -0.083

Vo10: Lack of government support 0.281 0.829 0.11 Vo11: Poor storage of cassava tubers 0.079 0.250 0.580 Source: Field survey, 2013.

67

From the data collected through field survey, three major constraints were identified and named

according to the variables that loaded high in each component matrix. According to Kessler (2006)

and madukwe (2004), the variables that load up to 0.30 at 10% overlapping matrix have high

loading and were used in naming the factors. Those that loaded lower than 0.30 were discarded.

Based on this, result identified the following constraints: Factor 1(Financial constraints), Factor

11(Institutional constraints) and Factor 111(Infrastructural constraints).

Financial constraints are the constraint that limited cassava processing due to inadequate fiancé.

These were Vo1- inadequate capital (0.687), Vo2- high cost of processing equipment (0.725), Vo5-

high cost of labour in processing (0. 710) and Vo9- low returns from small scale processing(0.552).

All these were identified and grouped as financial constraint.

In addition, after careful examination, factor 11 was named institutional constraints because of

the variables that loaded high under it. Institutional constraints are the constraints that resulted due

to inefficiencies of established institutions. These include: Vo3- inadequate marketing of processed

cassava products (0.886), Vo4- absence of modern technologies (0.653), Vo6- lack of extension

services (0.742) and Vo12-lack of government support (0.829).

More so, factor 111 was critically examined and named infrastructural constraints because the

variables that loaded high under this component matrix resulted due to inadequate infrastructures.

These includes: Vo7- high cost of transportation (0.822), Vo8- poor infrastructural facilities (8.044)

and Vo13- poor storage facilities (0.580). All these loaded high and were grouped and named

infrastructural constraints.

Thus, based on the result of this factor analysis; Financial, institutional and infrastructural barriers

limited cassava processing in the study area.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Summary

The broad objective of the study was to analyze the role of gender in cassava processing in Enugu

state. In order to achieve this objective; it specifically entailed the description of selected socio-

economic characteristics of the processors; ascertain various cassava processing activities

undertaken by men and women and their level of participation; identify and describe the type of

technologies adopted in cassava processing and their output; analyze and compare costs and returns

of processing cassava tubers in various products; identify the factors affecting the profitability of

cassava processing and identify the major constraints faced by cassava processors in the area.

A multi-random sampling technique was employed to select the men and women cassava

processors. Of the three Agricultural zones in Enugu state, two zones were randomly selected. In

the second stage, three L. G. As from each Agricultural zones were randomly selected, giving a

total of six L. G.As. The third stage involved the selection of four communities from each of the

selected L. G.As, making a total of 24 communities. Lastly, ten men and women involved in

cassava processing were randomly selected from each of the communities, making a total of two

hundred and forty respondents (comprising men and women processors in garri, akpu, chips and

abacha). This was possible with the help of two-trained and resident’s enumerators from each of the

sampled L.G As. Primary data were obtained using structured questionnaire and oral interview.

The result was analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics, budgeting techniques, participation

index analysis, Ordinary least square model (OLS), and exploratory (principal component) factor

analysis, paired t- test and chow test statistics.

69

The result revealed that 25.3% of the respondents were men while 73.4% of them were women.

Majority (62.50%) of the processors were married with household size of less than or equal to 5 and

between 6-10 members for women and men cassava processor respectively.

The result further revealed that 11.66% and 25.50% of men and women processors were between

41-50 years of age. The study showed that majority 28.75% of women have no formal education

while majority 10.83% of men attended primary education. Also, majority 9.58% and 23.33% of

men and women processors had between 16-20 years of processing experience. The result shows

that men earn an annual income higher than women with majority 10% and 28.75% of men and

women cassava processors respectively.

Data analysis using participation index revealed that men sometimes participate in cassava

processing activities while women always participate in virtual all the activities of cassava

processing with a grand mean of 2.25 and 2.94 for men and women processors respectively. The

result further revealed that among the four (4) cassava processed products studied, garri processing

seems to be higher with majority (73.75%) of men and women respondents producing it. Most of

the respondents do not process cassava tubers into chips.

It was discovered from the analysis that majority 25.83% of the sampled men processors participate

in processing operation that involved trado-modern technique like in garri processing, while a

significant number (55.53% and 59.53%) of women involved in both trado-modern and traditional

methods respectively. The analysis on the average time spent by the processors in processing a

cassava tubers, which was found to depend on the type of technologies (traditional and modern)

methods adopted, quantity of cassava tubers processed and quantity and quality of labour used in

achieving this products. The result revealed that processing of 335kg of cassava tubers of garri,

akpu,chips and abacha took an average time of 16hrs 39mins and 11hrs 6mins (traditional and

modern), 63hrs 33mins, 87hrs 57mins and 16hrs 95mins respectively.

70

However, comparison of cost-return items analysis of processing 335kg of cassava tubers into

garri, akpu, chips and abacha revealed net revenue of N741.26, N557.43, N4139.3 and N1011.28

respectively. The result revealed that processing of cassava tubers into chips is more profitable

when compared to other processed products in the area.

Regression analysis on the determinant of profit in cassava processing revealed that double log was

chosen among the four functional forms specified in the model. The result showed that, there was

impact of prediction variables on the level of profit in processing cassava tubers into various

products based on the co-efficient of those inputs variables included in the model. The result of the

model revealed that 71% of total variation in profit was explained by the explanatory variable while

29% was unexplained due to random variables. The prediction variables were significant at

different alpha level of probabilities, which implies that any change in these variables will result to

a change in the level of profit in processing of cassava tubers

Finally, the result on the exploratory (principal component) of factor analysis identified three (3)

major constraints that militating against cassava processors in the area. It was identified and

grouped based on the factors that loaded high under them. This includes factor 1 (Financial

constraints; factor 11 (Institutional constraints) and Factor 111(Infrastructural constraints).

5.2. Conclusions

This study concluded that there is a substantial difference in the level of men and women

participation in cassava processing and whenever men are involved, they play complementary roles.

Cassava processing into garri and akpu were the most common processed amongst the products.

Also, processing of cassava tubers into various products seems not to be too profitable, but men and

women processors are increasing involved in its operations. However, education, age, processing

capacity, access to labour and credit played a leading role in the level of profit in processing of

cassava tubers into various products.

71

Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following recommendations were made;

1. Gender sensitive analysis policies should be vigorously pursued by government and Non-

governmental organization in Enugu state and Nigeria at large, if self- sufficiency in cassava

production is to be achieved.

2. Agricultural extension agencies should intensify more efforts in disseminating improved

processing technologies to processors especially women as well as the economic uses of by-

products from cassava.

3. Technology developers should put into considerations; the financial capacities of the

intended users of this techniques in order to produce ones that are within their reach.

4. Government should provide financial and infrastructural assistance by given loans to

processors with little or no interest to enable them break-even.

5. Processors should form an association to enable them have a uniform standard measurement

in disposing their products, since most of them sale their products on discretion. This will

help them to make more profit.

6. Government should address the problem of illiteracy among processors especially women

with emphasize on adult literacy programmes in order to encourage them to use improved

technologies.

72

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