OF I -I A I - NCERTI N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India....

IN the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towardsSpain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslimmerchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage ofsix hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslimshad begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in theearly thirteenth century that large-scale building activity begununder the Delhi Sultanate, established after the Turkish conquestof northern India.

By the twelfth century, India was already familiar withmonumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certaintechniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, suchas trabeation (brackets, pillars and lintels) to support a flat roof ora small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood andstone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top structure.Now, however, the archuate form of construction was introducedgradually in which arches could support the weight of the domes.Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs (series ofinterlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes, restingon pendatives and squinches enabled spanning of large spacesleaving the interiors free of pillars.

A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests wasthat Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures andtraditions and combined them with their own architecturalpractices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of manystructural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorationscame about through constant interventions of acceptance,rejection or modification of architectural elements. Thesearchitectural entities or categories showcasing multiple stylesare known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.

Hindus conceived manifestations of god everywhere in multipleforms as part of their religious faith, whereas, Muslims thought ofonly one with Muhammad as their Prophet. Hence, Hindus adornedall surfaces with sculptures and paintings. Muslims, forbidden toreplicate living forms on any surface, developed their religious artand architecture consisting of the arts of arabesque, geometricalpatterns and calligraphy on plaster and stone.

SOME ASPECTS OF

INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

8

Qutub Minar, Delhi

2020-21

AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART110

TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES

Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architecturalbuilding like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed overa period of time. These were thus additions in the existing typesof buildings in the sub-continent.

Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewherein the world, were constructed by wealthy people. They were, indescending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of theobvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamicstructures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities ofIndian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on theavailability of materials, limitations of resources and skills andthe sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion andreligiosity were very important to people of medieval India, aselsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.

CATEGORIES OF STYLES

The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionallycategorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the ProvincialStyle (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,Golconda). These categories help in understanding better thespecificities of architectural styles rather than putting them inimmutable slots.

Intricate jali work,Amer Fort, Jaipur

2020-21

SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111

ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES

Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpuris regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedlyregional character for patrons borrowed elements from regionaltemple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings ofbell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargahof Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincialstyle and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughaltombs.

DECORATIVE FORMS

These forms included designing on plaster through incision orstucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifsincluded varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent andplaces outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was usedto great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls werealso decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also withflower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decoratingthe ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In thefourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also usedto surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques oftessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use offor surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high andlow relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carvinghas a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squatand sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth centuryonwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with aninverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.

Pietra dura work, Agra

Dado panel on the wall,

Agra

2020-21


MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largelyconstructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. Thesewalls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster ordressed stone. An amazing range of stones were utilised forconstruction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were alsoused for construction and these imparted greater flexibility tothe structures. In this phase there was more reliance on localmaterials.

FORTS

Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regularfeature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power ofa king. When such a fort was captured by an attacking army thevanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty.This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victoriousking. Some examples of strong, complex edifices which stillexercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.

Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage toconstruct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of theregion, strategic advantage for security, unfettered andunhindered space to make residential and official complexes whilesimultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. Othercomplexities woven into such topography were concentric circlesAerial view,

Daulatabad Fort

2020-21


of outer walls as in Golconda, so that the enemy had to breachthese at all stages before getting in.

Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound theenemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could not beopened even with the help of elephants. It also had twin forts,one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by acomplex defence design arrangement. One wrong turn in thelabyrinth or complex pathway could lead to the enemy soldiergoing in circles or falling to his death several hundred feet below.

The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height madeit impossible to scale. It had many habitations and usages. Babur,who did not find much merit in many things he saw in Hindustan,was said to have been overawed at the sight of the Gwalior Fort.Chittorgarh bears the distinction of being the largest fort in Asiaand was occupied for the longest length of time as the seat ofpower. It has many types of buildings including stambhas or towersto signify victory and bravery. It was replete with numerous waterbodies. Innumerable acts of heroism have been associated withthe principal people in the fort, forming the substance of many alegend. An interesting aspect associated with forts is that withinthe palace complexes stylistic and decorative influences wereabsorbed most liberally.

MINARS

Another form of stambha or tower was the minar, a common featurein the sub-continent. Two most striking minars of medieval timesare the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad

Gwalior Fort

2020-21


Fort. The everyday use of the minar was for theazaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height,however, symbolised the might and power of theruler. The Qutub Minar also came to be associatedwith the much revered saint of Delhi, KhwajaQutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.

The Qutub Minar, built in the thirteenthcentury, is a 234-feet-high tapering tower dividedinto five storeys. The minar is a mix of polygonaland circular shapes. It is largely built of red andbuff sandstone with some use of marble in theupper storeys. It is characterised by highlydecorated balconies and bands of inscriptionsintertwined with foliated designs.

Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century,is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided intofour storeys. Painted peach now, its façade onceboasted of chevron patterning on the encaustictile work and bold bands of Quranic verses.Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it

was the combined handiwork of local architects with those fromDelhi and Iran.

TOMBS

Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was apopular feature of medieval India. Some well-known examples ofsuch tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, AbdurRahim Khan-i-Khanan in Delhi, Akbar and Itmaduddaula in Agra.According to Anthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternalparadise as a reward for the true believer on the Day ofJudgement. This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb

Tomb of Itmaduddaula,

Agra

Chand Minar,

Daulatabad

2020-21


construction. Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verseson the walls, the tomb was, subsequently, placed withinparadisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of water orboth, as is in the case of the Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal,which follows the charbagh style. Surely though, such vastexpanses of structured and stylised spaces could not have beenintended only to signify peace and happiness in the next worldbut to also showcase the majesty, grandeur and might of theperson buried there.

SARAIS

A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais whichringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian sub-continent. Sarais were largely built on a simple square orrectangular plan and were meant to provide temporaryaccommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims,merchants, traders, etc. In effect, sarais were public domainswhich thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. Thisled to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretictendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level ofthe people.

STRUCTURES FOR COMMON PEOPLE

One of the architectural features of medieval India was also acoming together of styles, techniques and decorations in publicand private spaces of non-royal sections of the society. Theseincluded buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques,khanqahs (hermitage of Sufi saints) and dargahs, commemorativegateways, pavilions in buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.

2020-21

MAN

DU


2020-21

117SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Th

e c

ity o

f M

an

du

is locate

d s

ixty

miles fro

m In

dore

, at

an

ele

vati

on

of over

2000

feet

an

d o

verl

ooks t

he M

alw

a P

late

au

to t

he n

ort

h a

nd t

he N

arm

ada v

alley t

o t

he

sou

th.

Man

du

’s n

atu

ral

defe

nce e

ncou

raged c

on

sis

ten

t h

abit

ati

on

s b

y P

arm

ara

Rajp

uts

, A

fgh

an

s a

nd M

ugh

als

. A

s th

e c

apit

al cit

y o

f G

hau

ri D

yn

asty

(1401–1561)

fou

nded b

y H

osh

an

g S

hah

it

acqu

ired a

lot

of

fam

e.

Su

bsequ

en

tly,

Man

du

was

associa

ted w

ith

th

e r

om

an

ce o

f S

ult

an

Baz

Bah

adu

r an

d R

an

i R

upm

ati

. Th

eM

ugh

als

resort

ed t

o it

for

ple

asu

re d

uri

ng t

he m

on

soon

season

.M

an

du

is a

typic

al re

spre

sen

tati

on

of th

e m

edie

val pro

vin

cia

l sty

le o

f art

an

darc

hit

ectu

re. It

was a

com

ple

x m

ix o

f off

icia

l an

d r

esid

en

tial-

cu

m-p

leasu

re p

ala

ce,

pavilio

ns, m

osqu

es, art

ific

ial re

serv

oir

s, b

aolis, em

batt

lem

en

ts, etc

. In

spit

e o

f th

esiz

e o

r m

on

um

en

tality

, th

e s

tru

ctu

res w

ere

very

clo

se t

o n

atu

re, desig

ned in

th

esty

le o

f arc

hed p

avilio

ns,

ligh

t an

d a

iry,

so t

hat

these b

uildin

gs d

id n

ot

reta

inh

eat.

Local sto

ne a

nd m

arb

le w

ere

used to g

reat advan

tage. M

an

du

is a

fin

e e

xam

ple

of arc

hit

ectu

ral adapta

tion

to t

he e

nvir

on

men

t.Th

e R

oyal E

ncla

ve locate

d in

th

e c

ity c

om

pri

sed th

e m

ost com

ple

te a

nd r

om

an

tic

set of b

uildin

gs, a c

luste

r of pala

ces a

nd a

tten

dan

tstr

uctu

res, offic

ial an

d r

esid

en

tial, b

uilt aro

un

d tw

oart

ific

ial

lakes.

Th

e H

indola

M

ah

al

looks like a

railw

ay v

iadu

ct

bri

dge w

ith

its

dis

pro

port

ion

ate

lyla

rge b

utt

resses s

upport

ing th

e w

alls. Th

is w

as th

eau

die

nce h

all o

f th

e S

ult

an

an

d a

lso th

e p

lace w

here

he s

how

ed h

imself to h

is s

ubje

cts

. B

att

er

was u

sed

very

eff

ecti

vely

to g

ive a

n i

mpre

ssio

n o

f sw

ingin

g(H

ind

ola

) w

alls.

Jah

aaz

Mah

al

is a

n e

legan

t tw

o-s

tore

y ‘

sh

ip-

pala

ce’ b

etw

een

tw

o r

eserv

oir

s, w

ith

open

pavilio

ns,

balc

on

ies overh

an

gin

g th

e w

ate

r an

d a te

rrace.

Bu

ilt

by S

ult

an

Gh

iyasu

ddin

Kh

ilji it

was p

ossib

lyu

sed a

s h

is h

are

m a

nd a

s t

he u

ltim

ate

ple

asu

rea

nd

recrea

tio

na

l reso

rt.

It

h

ad

a

co

mp

lex

Hin

dola

Ma

ha

l

Hosh

an

g S

ha

h’s

tom

b

2020-21


Jama Masjid, Mandu

arrangement of watercourses and a terraceswimming pool.

Rani Rupmati’s double pavilionperched on the southern embattlementsafforded a beautiful view of the Narmadavalley. Baz Bahadur’s palace had a widecourtyard ringed with halls and terraces.

A madrasa called Asharfi Mahal nowlies in ruins. Hoshang Shah’s tomb is amajestic structure with a beautiful dome,marble jali work, porticos, courts andtowers. It is regarded as an example ofthe robustness of Afghan structures, butits lattice work, carved brackets andtoranas lend it a softer hue.

The Jama Masjid of Mandu was built on a large scale to accommodatemany worshippers for Friday prayers. It is entered through a monumentalgateway, topped with a squat dome, beyond which lies an open courtyardflanked with columned cloisters on three sides, also topped with smallerdomes. The building is faced with red sandstone. The mimbar in the QiblaLiwan is supported on carved brackets and the mihrab has a lotus budfringe.

Provincial style architecture of Mandu is regarded as too close to thestructures of Imperial Delhi to make a bold statement of local traditions.Nevertheless, the so-called robust, austere Pathan architecture of Manduwith its surface embellishments of jalis, carved brackets, etc., and thelightness of the structures was an important intervention in the narrativeof the Indo-Islamic architectural experience.

Jahaaz Mahal , Mandu

2020-21


From 1632 onwards it took nearly twenty years

and 20,000 specialised workers to complete this monument.

TAJ MAHAL

2020-21


Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as

a mausoleum for his deceased wife MumtazMahal. Taj Mahal was the apogee of theevolutionary architectural process in medievalIndia.

The sublimity of the building comes fromits orderly, simple plan and elevation,amazingly perfect proportions or symmetry, theethereal quality marble has lent to it, theperfect setting of bagh and river and the pureoutline of the tomb silhouetted against the sky.The patina the Taj has lends it a different hueat various times of day and night.

The Taj complex is entered through amonumental red sandstone gateway theopening arch of which beautifully frames themausoleum. The tomb is laid out in a ChaharBagh, criss-crossed with paths and watercourses, interspersed with pools and fountains.The structure is placed on the northernextremity of the bagh instead of the middle totake advantage of the river bank.

2020-21


A straight path through the baghreaches the plinth of the tomb from whereis accessed the floor terrace of the edifice.At the corners of the terrace stand four tall,tapering minarets, one hundred and thirty-two feet high. The main body of the buildingis topped with a drum and dome and fourcupolas forming a beautiful skyline. Theplinth, the walls of the structure and thedrum-dome are in perfect proportion to oneanother. Towards the west of the whitemarble-faced tomb lies a red sandstonemosque and a similar construction in theeast to maintain balance. Marble for thebuilding was quarried from the Makranamines in Rajasthan and this white edificeis contrasted with the red sandstone of thesurrounding structures.

The tomb structure is a square withchamfers forming eight sides, recessed withdeep arches. This structural stylisationproduces in the elevation of the building avariety of contrasting planes and shade andsolids and voids effects. All sides of thebuilding, the twin elevations of floor to roofand roof to pinnacle, atop the foliated crestof the dome, measure 186 feet each.

The interior arrangements of themausoleum consist of a crypt below and avaulted, octagonal tomb chamber above, witha room at each angle, all connected withcorridors. Light to every part of the buildingis obtained by means of carved andperforated jalis, set in the arched recessesof the interior. The ceiling is as high as thefaçade creating a void with the help of adouble dome.

Four types of embellishments have beenused with great effect for the interior andexterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal. Theseare stone carvings in high and low reliefon the walls, the delicate carving of marbleinto jalis and graceful volutes (spiralornament on the pillar), and the creationof arabesques with pietra dura (yellowmarble, jade and jasper) on walls andtombstones and geometric designs withtessellation. Lastly, the art of calligraphyis used with the inlay of jasper in whitemarble to write Quranic verses. Calligraphyprovided a decorative element on the wallsand a continuous connection withthe Almighty.

2020-21

AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART122G

OL G

UM

BA

D

2020-21


Gu

mbad i

s s

itu

ate

d i

n B

ijapu

r in

th

e B

ijapu

r D

istr

ict

of

Karn

ata

ka.

It i

s t

he

mau

sole

um

of M

uh

am

mad A

dil S

hah

(1626–1656), th

e s

even

th S

ult

an

of th

e A

dil

Sh

ah

i D

yn

asty

of B

ijapu

r (1

489–1686). B

uilt

by t

he r

ule

r h

imself, it

is a

str

ikin

gedific

e in

spit

e o

f bein

g u

nfin

ish

ed. Th

e t

om

b is a

com

ple

x o

f bu

ildin

gs s

uch

as a

gate

way,

a N

aqqa

r K

ha

na,

a m

osqu

e a

nd a

sa

rai

locate

d w

ith

in a

larg

e-w

alled

gard

en

.Th

e G

um

bad is a

mon

um

en

tal squ

are

bu

ildin

g t

opped w

ith

a c

ircu

lar

dru

mover

wh

ich

rests

a m

aje

sti

c d

om

e, giv

ing t

he b

uildin

g its

nom

en

cla

ture

. It

is b

uilt

of dark

gra

y b

asalt

an

d d

ecora

ted p

laste

rwork

. E

ach

wall o

f th

e tom

b is o

ne h

un

dre

dan

d t

hir

ty-f

ive f

eet

lon

g a

nd o

ne h

un

dre

d a

nd t

en

feet

hig

h a

nd t

en

feet

thic

k.

Wit

h t

he d

rum

an

d t

he d

om

e, th

e b

uildin

g r

ises t

o a

heig

ht

of over

two h

un

dre

dfe

et.

Th

e tom

b h

as o

nly

on

e s

qu

are

ch

am

ber

an

d th

e d

om

e, w

ith

a d

iam

ete

r of on

eh

un

dre

d a

nd t

wen

ty-f

ive f

eet,

it

covers

an

un

inte

rru

pte

d f

loor

space o

f 18,3

37

squ

are

feet,

th

e s

econ

d larg

est

in t

he w

orl

d.

Th

e t

om

b c

ham

ber

con

tain

s t

he b

uri

al

pla

ce o

f th

e S

ult

an

, h

is w

ives a

nd

oth

er

rela

tives, w

hile th

eir

real gra

ves lie

perp

en

dic

ula

rly b

elo

w in

a v

au

lt, accessed

by s

tair

s. Th

e h

em

isph

eri

cal m

ason

ry d

om

e o

ver

a s

qu

are

base w

as c

on

str

ucte

d w

ith

th

e h

elp

of pen

den

tives. Th

ese p

en

den

tives

not on

ly len

t sh

ape to th

e d

om

e b

ut als

o tra

nsfe

rred its

weig

ht to

th

e w

alls b

elo

w. N

ew

vau

ltin

g s

yste

ms c

on

sis

tin

g o

f arc

h-n

ets

or

ste

llate

form

s in

squ

inch

es w

ere

cre

ate

d t

o c

over

an

gle

s form

ed b

y in

ters

ecti

ng a

rch

es.

Th

e b

uildin

g h

as a

n a

mazi

ng a

cou

sti

cal syste

m. A

lon

g t

he d

rum

of th

edom

e th

ere

is a

wh

isperi

ng g

allery

wh

ere

sou

nds g

et m

agn

ifie

d a

nd e

ch

oed

man

y t

imes o

ver.

At

the fou

r corn

ers

of th

e b

uildin

g a

re s

even

-sto

reyed o

cta

gon

al spir

es

or

min

are

t-like t

ow

ers

. Th

ese t

ow

ers

hou

se s

tair

cases l

eadin

g t

o t

he t

op

dom

e. Th

e d

rum

of th

e d

om

e is d

ecora

ted w

ith

foliati

on

. A

heavily b

rackete

dcorn

ice r

esti

ng o

n c

orb

els

is a

dis

tin

cti

ve featu

re o

f th

e facade.

Gol

Gu

mbad i

s a

fin

e c

on

verg

en

ce o

f m

an

y s

tyle

s l

ocate

d i

n m

edie

val

Ind

ia.

Mon

um

en

tali

ty,

maje

sty

an

d gra

nd

eu

r, in

tegra

l asp

ects

of

the

arc

hit

ectu

ral experi

en

ce in

In

dia

, are

associa

ted w

ith

bu

ildin

gs o

f B

ijapu

r.W

hile its

str

uctu

ral part

icu

lari

ties o

f dom

e, arc

hes, geom

etr

ic p

roport

ion

san

d load b

eari

ng tech

niq

ues s

uggest T

imu

rid a

nd P

ers

ian

sty

les, it

is m

ade

of lo

cal m

ate

rial an

d is d

ecora

ted w

ith

su

rface e

mbellis

hm

en

ts p

opu

lar

inth

e D

eccan

. F

ou

r to

wers

at

the c

orn

ers

are

rem

inis

cen

t of tu

rrets

att

ach

ed

to m

osqu

es s

uch

as Q

ila-i

Ku

hn

a M

asjid a

nd t

he P

ura

na Q

ila in

Delh

i.

Dru

m o

f th

e D

om

e

Wh

isper

Ga

llery

2020-21


JAMA MASJID

Large mosques, spanning hugespaces, also dotted the landscape ofthe Indian sub-continent in medievaltimes. Congregational prayers wereheld here every Friday afternoonwhich required the presence of aminimum of forty Muslim maleadults. At the time of prayers(on Fridays) a Khutba was read outin the name of the ruler and his lawsfor the realm were also read out. Inmedieval times, a city had one JamaMasjid, which along with itsimmediate surroundings became the

focus of the lives of the people, both Muslim and non-Muslim.This happened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchangeswere concentrated here besides religious and indirect politicalactivity. Generally, such a mosque was large with an opencourtyard, surrounded on three sides by cloisters and the QiblaLiwan in the west. It was here that the mihrab and the mimbar forthe Imam were located. People faced the mihrab while offeringprayers as it indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.

Jama Masjid, Delhi

Minaret

Mihrab

Qibla

Aisles Tank

Maqsur

Screen

Courtyard

(Sahn)

Colisters

(Liwan)

Main

Entrance

Plan of Jama Masjid

N

S

EW

2020-21

ART OF THE INDUS VALLEY 125

EXERCISE

1. What do you understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo-

Saracenic’ architecture? Can you think of another nomenclature?How did this architecture evolve in India?

2. What types of buildings were added in India in the thirteenthcentury?

3. Name four styles of Indo-Islamic architecture.

4. What was the significance of a fort in medieval India? What werethe strategic devices adopted in the construction of forts to confuseor defeat the enemy?

5. Which forms of secular architecture evolved during medievaltimes? What significance did these buildings have in the socio-cultural lives of contemporary people?

6. How does Mandu showcase the fact that humans adapt to theirenvironment?

7. In spite of being unfinished how does Gol Gumbad symbolise thegrandeur and majesty of Indo-Islamic architecture?

8. Which are the places where the dead are buried? How do thesediffer from each other?

9. Why is the word ‘perfection’ associated with the Taj Mahal?

PROJECT

A. Period-Region-Political Association

E. Decorative formson the structure

Have you

visited any

medieval structure

in your locality/

region/country?

Document the

following aspects

of the structure:

F. Materials usedfor constructionof the structure

D. Architecturalforms locatedin the structure

C. Purpose ofthe structure

B. Typology of thestructure–Secular/Religious

H. The presentlocation andstatus of thestructure.

G. Is it conserved?Should it beconserved?

SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

2020-21


GLOSSARY

Agate A fine-grained variegated chalcedony, itscolours arranged in stripes, blended in clouds,or showing moss like forms

Amalaka Ribbed, lenticular or globoid part resembling theamala (Indian gooseberry fruit) crowning the topof the North Indian style shikhara

Anda Semi-circular structure typically used forBuddhist stupa

Arabesque An ornamental design consisting of intertwinedflowing lines, leaves and flowers, a feature ofthe Indo-Islamic architecture

Ardhmandap Semi-hall in front of garbhagriha of the temple

Ashtadikpalas Guardians of the eight directions

Ayudhas Weapons

Batter Slope in the wall

Bodhisattva In Buddhism, Bodhisattva refers to the previousbirths of Gautam Buddha

Bosses Circular embossed decorations, usually in stoneof contrasting colours located on either side ofan arch and within the spandrels

Buddhism A religion originated in the sixteenth centuryBCE with the preachings of Buddha

Burin A pointed tool of flint or stone with a transverseedge made by the removal of one or more flakes.Used for working bone, antler and ivory, and,perhaps, for engraving

CE Common Era, replacing AD or Anno Domini(Era of the Lord)

Calligraphy The art of producing decorative handwriting

Caturasra Square

Chhatra Umbrella-like structure on top of the stupa

Chhatri Cupola resting on four pillars with a dome orpyramid-shaped roof

Chahar Bagh A square, walled garden divided into four byintersecting water channels

Chaitya Arch Semi-circular arch with pointed tip in the centretowards the top

Chaitya Place of congregation and worship

Chakra Wheel, a symbol used for Buddha’s first sermonat Sarnath

Chamfer To cut off the edge or corner, thereby, increasingthe number of sides

2020-21

GLOSSARY 127

Chert A flint-like material, usually black or darkbrown in colour. Although it has a conchoidalfracture like flint it is not so fine-textured

Chevron Patterning V-shaped patterns

Corbel The stone or wooden bracket laid horizontallyto support a cornice or an arch

Cornice A moulded roof-line

Crystal A high quality, clear, colourless glass or anobject, especially a vessel or ornament, madeof such glass

Dado panel Lower part of the interior wall when it is finisheddifferently from the rest of the wall. Someexcellent examples are Hoyasal temples ofHalebid, Jamali Kamali tomb in Mehrauli andTurkish Sultan’s palace in Fatehpur Sikri, Agra

Dargah Shrine of a Sufi saint, where the saint’s gravecalled mazar is located

Dhammachakrapravartan First sermon by Buddha at Sarnath nearVaranasi

Dravid Normally used for people, culture, language andarchitectural style of South India

Dressed stone Stone which is cut to size and polished

Encaustic tile work Inlay in ceramics

Faience Blue-coloured artificial glass-like material.Faience was used in a variety of ornaments andpieces of jewellery

Gahapati Big land-owner or big farmer involved in farmingand trade

Garbhgriha Sanctum sanctorum

Gopuram Main gateway; the storeyed structure over theentrance or entrances through the enclosingwalls to the premises of a temple

Harmika Small square fencing atop the anda orsemi-circular dome of stupa

Imam The person who leads a Muslim congregationin prayers. Over a passage of time, this positionbecame hereditary

Intaglio The process of cutting a design into the surfaceof a small hard stone or gem

Jagmohan Rectangular or square hall in front of asanctuary or main temple — a term used fortemple architecture of Odisha

Jainism One of the most ancient religions, it is a path ofvictory (jina) over life’s stream of rebirthsthrough ethical and spiritual practices.

2020-21


Jali Ornamental, perforated lattice screens witharabesques, star motifs and other geometricdesigns such as pentagons, hexagons, octagonsand circles

Jasper A variety of quartz that may be red, yellow orbrown; long used for jewellery andornamentation

Jataka Stories of the previous births of Buddha

Jati Caste

Kalash Wide-mouthed pot; ornamental pot-designdecorating the shikhara of a temple

Keystone A central stone at the summit of an arch

Kos minar Distance marker or milestone in the shape andsize of a tower

Kuta A shrine of square plan

Lapis lazuli A rich blue semi-precious stone. The mainsource in the ancient world was the mountainsof Badakshan, northern Afghanistan, fromwhere it was traded widely. Lapis lazuliwas used as inlay in ornaments, jewellery,seals, etc.

Linga Phallus, the form in which Lord Shiva is beingworshipped

Mahamandapa Big hall in the temple

Mahaparinibban Death of Lord Buddha — liberating him fromthe cycle of life and death

Mandap Hall

Maqbara Mausoleum or tomb

Medallion Circular discs in the spandrels of archesdecorated with motifs or calligraphy

Mihrab Prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca

Mimbar Stepped pulpit in the Jama Masjid or Fridaymosque from where the Khutba was read

Mukhlinga Phallus with face

Multiple foliations Many curves in an arch

Mural Paintings made on the walls of caves, buildingsor temples in Fresco or any other style

Nagara North Indian style temple architecture

Naqqar khana Drum house from where ceremonial music wasplayed which was usually situated over the gate.It was a popular feature in Mughal palace-complexes

Natyamandapa Dancing hall in front part of the temple

or Rangmandapa

Panchayatana Main temple surrounded by four sub-shrinesin each corner

2020-21

GLOSSARY 129

Pendentive A triangular bracket in the angle of two walls,connecting the base of the dome to itssupporting arches

Phamsana A buildings/ temple which tends to be broaderand shorter than Latina type

Pietra-dura Pictorial mosaic work using semi-preciousstones. Found on walls, cenotaphs and marblejalis in the Taj Mahal

Polychrome An object or a work composed of or decorated inmany colours

Pradakshina Circumambulation

Qibla Liwan The wall of the mosque in the direction of Mecca

Qila-i Kuhna Masjid Built by Humayun or Sher Shah between 1530and 1545, it is located inside Purana Qila inDelhi

Quartz A variety of stone found in many parts of theworld and variously used for toolmaking and inceremonial contexts. Varieties of quartz includeagate, chalcedony, chert, flint, opal and rockcrystal

Rekhaprasad or This type of temple has square shikhar at theLatina base and its walls curve slowly inward towards

the top

Rupkar/Shilpi Artisan

Sabha Mandapa Assembly hall

Saracenic A style of architecture popular with Muslims inWest Asia particularly from the eleventh to thefourteenth century

Sarai Dharamshala or a traveller’s lodge

Shala ayatasara Elliptical

Shikhar Superstructure above the garbhagriha in thenorth Indian style of temple

Shilpa texts Ancient Indian texts/manuals describing theelements and principles of art and architectureto be practised by artists

Shraman A Buddhist or Jain sect, whose followers usedto wander from place to place

Sovereignty The authority of a ruler/state to govern himself/itself absolutely independently

Spandrels The almost triangular space between two sidesof the outer curves of an arch and a rectangularenclosure

Squinch An arch spanning the corners of a squarechamber and acting as support for a dome

Steatite A greyish or greenish stone, which is generallysoft and can easily be worked to make figurines,vessels, seals and other objects

2020-21


Stellate Arch nets arranged in a radiating pattern likethat of a star

Sthapati Architect

Stupa A mound-like structure containing relics ofBuddha or Buddhist monks worshipped byBuddhists

Stucco A fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces

Suzerainty A sovereign/state having some control overanother ruler/state who/that is internallyautonomous

Tablet A regularly shaped, separate panel, or arepresentation thereof, often bearing aninscription or image

Terracotta Literally, ‘baked earth’ mainly used to refer tofairly coarse, porous clay that, when fired,assumes a colour ranging from dull ochreto red

Tessellation Decoration on walls and floors with mosaic

Torans Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonialgateways

Trefoil Three curves in an arch

Turquoise A semi-precious stone, sky blue to pale greenin colour, highly prized for its use in jewelleryby many ancient cultures

Valabhi Sub-type of nagara temple

Vanga Ancient name of the Bengal region

Varna Four-fold division of the society based onprofession i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya,Shudra during ancient India

Vesara Term used for the independent style of thetemple during the time of the Chalukyas ofKarnataka. It consists of a combination of thenorthern (nagara) and southern (dravida) styles

Vihara Place of residence of Buddhist monk

Vijanain Temples having a rectangular building with aroof that rises into a vaulted chamber

Viman Superstructure over the garbhagriha of shrinein the south Indian temples

Volute A scroll or spiral ornament on a pillar

Voussoir A wedge-shaped or tapered stone used toconstruct an arch

Vritta Circular

Yakshas/Yakshanis Demi-gods and demi-goddesses — protectors of

nature and resources

2020-21

GLOSSARY 131

NOTES

2020-21

NOTES

2020-21

Ch-8Ch-8A

OF I -I A I - NCERTI N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India....

Documents

Transcript of OF I -I A I - NCERTI N the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India....