OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 1
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Transcript of OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 1
Module 2565 B2.1.1
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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OCR ExaminationsA Level Physical Education
A 7875
Module 2565 : Option B2part 1
Psychology of Sport Performance
Module 2565 B2.1.2
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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INDEX27 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS28 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION29 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES30 - MAJOR MOTIVES31 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS /
APPLICATION32 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION33 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - NACH / NAF34 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY
COMPONENTS35 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL
FACTORS36 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM37 - INVERTED U THEORY - OPTIMUM AROUSAL38 - CATASTROPHE THEORY39 - GROUPS40 - STEINER’S MODEL41 - SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION42 - COHESION - CARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL43 - LEADERSHIP - NATURE / NURTURE44 - FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS45 - LEADERSHIP STYLE - FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY
THEORY CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM46 - SITUATIONAL FACTORS - TASK / PERSON CENTRED47 - MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS48 - CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL49 - CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR50 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE51 - GOAL SETTING - GOAL STRUCTURE52 - SMARTER GOALS (NCF)
Index
3 - PERSONALITY4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT - CATTELL - EYSENCK 5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS6 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING
BANDURA / VICARIOUS CONDITIONING7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TYPE A / TYPE B9 - STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS10 - PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE / TYPICAL RESPONSES11 - EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL12 - SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY
SOMATOTYPE / PERSONALITY TYPE13 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION14 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE15 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) MOODS / ICEBERG PROFILE16 - THE SELF-CONCEPT - SELF-ESTEEM17 - STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT18 - FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT
OBJECTIVE SOURCES / SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS19 - THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL20 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT21 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES22 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL
COGNITIVE / AFFECTIVE / BEHAVIOURAL23 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 24 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT25 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE
DISSONANCE - PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION26 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES
OBSERVATION / PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS / QUESTIONNAIRES
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PERSONALITY
Personality
PERSONALITY• unique characteristics of an individual• knowledge about personality is important to
ensure optimum sporting performance
PER SONALI TYSOCI AL LEARN I N Gbehaviours learnt by
observation andcopying
TR AI Tinnate andenduring
I N TER ACTI ON I STm ixture of trait
and social learning
extroversionintroversion
neuroticstable
type Atype B
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAITTRAIT THEORIES• general (covering all situations)• underlying (inside of and part of the person)• enduring (long lasting)• predisposition (an inclination or motive formed earlier)
CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality
Personality
PER SONALI TY
EXTR OVER SI ON(deals w ith others
easily andcom fortably)
PR I MAR YTR AI T
I N TR OVER SI ON(prefers to rem ain
independent /iso lated from others)
STABI LI TY(behaviour
rem ains the sam eover tim e)
N EUR OTI C I SM(behaviours
changeunpredictably)
SECON D ARYTRAI T
im pulsivenesssociability activityliveliness excitability
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EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D?
Personality
A• stable extrovert• talkative, outgoing, easy going,
carefree, showing leader qualities
B• neurotic extrovert• restless, aggressive, excitable,
changeable
C• neurotic introvert• anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic
D• stable introvert• careful, thoughtful, controlled,
reliable, even tempered
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• explains behaviour in terms of the
reaction to specific situations• we learn to deal with situations by
observing others• or by observing the results of our
own behaviour on others• and by modelling our own behaviour
on what we have seen– athletes learn behaviour by
watching others
BANDURA• behaviour is determined by the
situation– social comparison– behaving the same way as the
peer group• social approval or disapproval
determines our responses– behaviour is reinforced or
penalised
VICARIOUS CONDITIONING• the learning of emotional
responses through observational learning
• example : – learning to become angry after
a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same
Personality
SOCIALISATION• sport has a socialising effect• participation in sport establishes
norms and values of our society
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST
INTERACTIONIST THEORIES• traits determine behaviour• but can be modified by situations
– traits– situations– behaviour
LEWIN• behaviour is a function of both the
person (personality P) and the environment (E)
• B = f(P,E)
Personality
TH E SI TUATI ON
THE PER SON(PER SONALI TY)
BEH AVI OUR
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
TYPE A• characterised by :• impatience• works at a rapid pace• higher levels of stress• easily aroused• strong desire to succeed• anxiety in stressful situations• lacking in tolerance• has a need to be in control• makes decisions quickly without
much preparation or thought
TYPE B• characterised by :• relaxed and patient• allow time for tasks to be
completed• tolerance of others’ mistakes• delegates easily• low personal stress• calm and unflappable in most
situations• less competitive• prepared to wait and assess all
options when decisions need to be made
Personality
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STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS
Personality
ROLERELATED
BEHAVI OURexam ple :
good captain
TYPI CAL RESPONSESexam ple : 'w in at all costs'- instrum ental aggression
PSYCHOLOGI CAL CORE :attitudes, values, beliefs, m otivesexam ple : achievem ent m otivation
EXTERNAL DYNAMI C
I NTERNAL CONSI STENT
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PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE• beliefs and values that remain more
or less permanent• example : a sportsman’s belief that
fair play underlies his attitude on the field of play
TYPICAL RESPONSES• the way in which an individual
responds in certain situations• example : stopping fighting at the bell
Personality
ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR• in other situations we may behave
differently• example : striking after the bell
when annoyed or frustratedSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT• how the behaviour and expectations
of others affect our role• example : a player argues with the
referee because others have done so and got away with it before
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EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL
Personality
exam plesEYSEN CK'SCATEGOR I ES
CATTELL'SCATEGOR I ES
PR I MAR YTR AI T
I N TR OVER SI ON(prefers to rem ain
independent /iso lated from others)
SUR FACETR AI TS
(secondaryfactors)
SECON D ARYTRAI T persistence shynessrigidity
etc
SO UR C E T R A I TS(prim ary facto rs)
avoidsgroups
inability to speakto strangers
no eyecontact
H ABI TUALRESPON SES
etc
BEHAVI OU RS
hates teamgam es
enjoys fellrunning
likes beingon his ow n
SPECI FI CRESPONSES
SPECI FI CRESPONSES
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SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY
SOMATOTYPE
• ectomorphy• linearity
• endomorphy• plumpness
• mesomorphy• muscularity
PERSONALITY TYPE
• cerebrotonia• tenseness• introversion
• viscerotonia• sociability• affection• comfort-loving
• somatotonia• risk taking• adventure seeking• extroversion
Personality
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MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
INTERVIEWS• before or after the
event• not directly related to
performance• open ended and
flexible• transient feelings or
attitudes may be expressed
• difficult to quantify accurately
• may be influenced by the interviewer
Personality
QUESTIONNAIRES• before or after the
event• not directly related to
performance• rigidly and
systematically set out• transient feelings or
attitudes may be expressed
• able to quantify accurately
• would not be influenced by another
• can be used to assess specific traits
OBSERVATION• made during an actual
event• directly related to
performance• varies according to the
competitive nature of the event
• difficult to quantify accurately
• may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes
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THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIREPersonality
suspecting - accepting
lax - controlled
relaxed - tense
adventurous - shy
m ature - im m ature
tim id - confident
sociable - aloof
aggressive - m ild
enthusiastic - prudent
self-suffi cient - grouporiented
sensitive - tough
im aginative - practical
sophisticated -unpretentious
conscientious - casual
m entally bright -m entally dull
radical - conservative
high anxietylow anxiety
extroversionintroversion
tough m indedtender m inded
independencesubduedness
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PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)
MOODS• are an important aspect of
personality which may influence sports performance
• tension• depression• anger• vigour• fatigue• confusion
• unsuccessful sportspeople show high– tension– depression– fatigue– confusion
• low– vigour
Personality
• elite sportspeople show low– tension– depression– confusion
• high– vigour
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THE SELF-CONCEPT
The SELF-CONCEPT • is the descriptive picture we
have of ourselves
• including :– physical attributes– attitudes– abilities– roles– emotions
• representing how we see ourselves
• which may not reflect reality or the way others see us
SELF-ESTEEM• the extent to which we value
ourselves
• this may or may not match up to the expectations of others
• example :– player may take pride in an
ability to tackle hard– the referee may see this as
unnecessary aggression
Personality
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STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT
Personality
social physicalacadem ic
etc
attitudes
physicalappearance
sportscom petence
physiquetennis ability
slim hipsserving ability
‘I look goodtoday’
‘I can get thisserve in’
GLOBALSELF-CON CEPTlevel 1
level 2
level 3
level 4
level 5
level 6
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FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT
OBJECTIVE SOURCES• photos• records• results• mirrors
SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS
• reaction of others• comparison with others• identification with
models
Personality
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPERIENCES AND SELF-
CONCEPT
positiveexperience of
sport or PE
existingpositive
self-concept
existingnegative
self-concept
negativeexperience of
sport or PE
self-conceptenhanced
self-conceptm ay becom e
negative
self-conceptm ay becom e
positive
self-conceptreinforced
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THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL
Personality
successfulexperience
positive feedbackfrom significant
others
developm entof positive self
esteem
continuedparticipation
high m otivationeffectivelearning
enhancedperform ance
continuedpositive
feedback
developm entof high self
esteem
anticipation offuture success
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ATTITUDES IN SPORT
ATTITUDES• a combination of beliefs and feelings about :
– objects– people– situations– (called attitude objects)
• this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them
• learned or organised through experience
• evaluative• they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively• about an attitude object
• tend to be deep seated• and enduring• but can change or be changed
Attitudes
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FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
Attitudes
FOR M ATI ON OFATTI TUD ES
friendsm edia
prejudice
pastexperiences
teacherscoaches
peers
fam ily
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COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL
Attitudes
ATTI TUD Eto regular exercise
COGNI TI VEknow ledge and beliefs
exam ple : fitness trainingkeeps m e fit
BEHAVI OURALintended behaviour
exam ple : I attend trainingsessions regularly
AFFECTI VEfeelings and em otions
exam ple : I enjoy training
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PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES
NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES • women in strength, endurance
and contact sports
• participation of the disabled in physical activity
• older age groups interest and ability at sport
• participation of particular ethnic groups in specific sports or positions within teams
• examples : – the black quarterback in
American Football– the black sprinter– the white skier / swimmer
Attitudes
PREJUDICE• a prejudgement of a person,
group, or situation• usually based on inadequate
information• or inaccurate or biased
information• which reinforces stereotypes
• example : – women are often excluded
from male dominated sports clubs or events
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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT
POSITIVE ATTITUDES• has a positive physical self-
concept• satisfaction from participation
in sport• believe sport promotes health• success at sport• willing to try new activities• encouraged by significant
others• participates regularly• opportunity to participate
Attitudes
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES• had negative experiences at
sport• have lifestyle which makes
regular sport difficult• find sport frustrating• lack encouragement• unlikely to participate in sport• have a negative self concept• find sport boring
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ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION• the person must
– pay attention– understand– accept– retain– the message being given
• the coach must– be expert– be trustworthy
• the message must– be clear– be unambiguous– be balanced between
emotion and logic– be balanced between pros
and cons
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE• the person must
– be consistent between• cognitive• affective• behavioural
components
• the person must be consistent between different elements
• cognitive dissonance occurs hence attitudes must change– if two factual elements of
attitude conflict– example : the smoker who
knows that smoking is bad for health
Attitudes
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MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES
BY OBSERVATION• related to actual events as
they are happening• difficult to quantify or
measure• open to interpretation by
observer
USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS• indicators such as
– blood pressure– skin conductivity– brain activity (ECG)
• can be interpreted to indicate telling the truth – about an attitude object
• measurable• independent of observer• but takes a long time to set up
requiring special apparatus
QUESTIONNAIRES• only as good as the questions
asked• measurable using
– Thurstone scale– Likert scale– Osgood’s Semantic
Differential Scale
Attitudes
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MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS
MOTIVATORS• the reasons why sportspeople
think and behave as they do
THEORIES
Motivation
MOTI VATI ON
perform ance
continuity
drive tostrive
persistence
intensity
direction
socialperception
goalorientation
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INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Motivation
MOTI VATI ONthe drive to
strive
EXTR I N SI CMOTI VATI ON
positive andnegative
reinforcem entcriticism
trophies
m oney badges
praise
fam e
I N TR I N SI CMOTI VATI ON
com petence m astery feeling goodINTRINSIC MOTIVATION
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EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES
EXTRINSIC REWARDS
INTRINSIC SOURCES
Motivation
I N TR I N SI CSOUR CES
satisfaction achievem ent feeling good
EXTR I N SI CR EW AR DS
certificates
trophies
m oney
badges
m edals
positivepraisefam e
w inning
negativecriticism
defeat
TAN GI BLE
I N TAN GI BLE
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MAJOR MOTIVES
FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION
• fun• being with friends• thrills• excitement• success• developing fitness• improving skills• being good at it
FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION
• health factors• weight loss• fitness• self-challenge• feeling better
Motivation
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
DISADVANTAGES• adding extrinsic reward to a situation which
already provided intrinsic motivation• decreases the intrinsic motivation• eventually replacing it• so when rewards are no longer available• interest in the situation (sports activity)
reduces
EXPLANATIONS• the reward acts as a distraction• to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to
work at his / her own pace• rewards may turn play into work• relationships with the person giving
rewards might change• the nature of the activity changes• people like to determine their own
behaviour• rewards may make them feel that
someone else is in charge
APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
• to attract youngsters to an activity
• to revive flagging motivation• to help a sportsperson over a
bad period in training• to provide information about
levels of achievement and competence
Motivation
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DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF• personal characteristics• situational aspects
MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN• the performer is keen to
participate• the performer is keen to learn• the performer is keen to perform• the performer is keen to perform
effectively• when the motivational climate is
right• when the training programme is
interesting and varied
MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY• routine• competition between motives
PEOPLE• have multiple motives• share motives• have unique motivational profiles• need variation in training and
competition• need variation in intensity and
competitiveness• need structured coaching and
teaching environments
MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME
TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS
Motivation
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION• the drive to achieve success for its
own sake• related to
– competitiveness– persistence– striving for perfection
• influenced by– personality factors
• need to achieve• need to avoid failure
– situational factors• probability of success• incentive value of success
NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)Tendency to approach success
(Ts)• this personality type likes a
challenge• likes feedback• is not afraid of failure• has high task persistence
NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)Tendency to avoid failure (Taf)• this personality type avoids
challenges• does not take risks• often gives up• does not want feedback
Motivation
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
A =• someone with a high need to
achieve• will probably have a low need to
avoid failure• will choose difficult or
demanding tasks which are more risky
• the hard route up a rock face
Motivation
B =• someone with a high need to
avoid failure• will probably have a low need
to achieve• will choose tasks which are less
risky and more easily achieved• the easy route up the rock face
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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS
A =• probability of success low• (competing against the world
champion)• therefore strive very hard to win• (incentive high)• (will be highly chuffed if win)
Motivation
B =• probability of success high• (competing in local club match)• therefore don’t need to try as
hard to win• (incentive low)• (and expect to win easily)• (not so pleasing)
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AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY
AROUSAL• this is the level of inner drives• which forces the sportsperson to
strive to achieve• it needs to be under control• and at the right level
depending on the task
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM• RAS is a system within the brain
which causes arousal• extroverts have lower levels
of intrinsic arousal than introverts
• hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal
• introverts seek low arousal situations
DRIVE THEORY• the higher the arousal level• the higher the achievement /
performance level• the more likely that a well learned skill
(a dominant response) will be produced
Motivation
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INVERTED U THEORY
INVERTED U THEORY• there is an optimum arousal level• if aroused more than this• performance will decline
OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ONtype of activity• gross skills (weight lifting) require
high arousal• fine skills (snooker) require low
arousal
skill level of the performer• the more skilful the performer • the higher the optimum arousal
could be
personality of the performer• the more extrovert the performer• the higher the arousal likely for
optimum performance• whereas introverts would
optimise performance at lower arousal levels
Motivation
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CATASTROPHE THEORY
CATASTROPHE THEORY• here performance increases as
arousal increases• but if arousal gets too high• a complete loss of performance
occurs (the catastrophe)
Motivation
• example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position
• example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well executed routine in a national final
• anxiety affects arousal
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GROUPS
A GROUP IS• two or more people• interacting with one another• so that each person influences and is
influenced by the others• has a collective identity• and a sense of shared purpose
• a social aggregate• involving mutual awareness• and potential interaction with
structured patterns of communication
• examples :– crowd at a soccer match– soccer team– parents watching their children
swim
Groups and Teams
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STEINER’S MODEL
• team success = potential for success - coordination and motivation problems• actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS• usually skilful individuals make the best team• usually individual success (of team members) correlates with overall team
successCOORDINATION PROBLEMS (for players)• occur if there is a high level of interaction between them• if one player is being selfish or aggressive• if a defence is not working together• hence overall team performance suffersMOTIVATION PROBLEMS• people seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their own• example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly faster
than single sculls• this is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’MOTIVATIONAL LOSSES• individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group cohesion• example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order to win
Groups and Teams
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SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION
SOCIAL LOAFING• individuals reduce their effort when in a group• and can hide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members• can be eliminated if the contribution of an individual can be identified• as with player statistics (American Football, Rugby League, Cricket, Basketball)• the need for interaction between players varies between sports• cooperation between players can be significantCOHESION• selection of less skilled but more cooperative players• the extent to which members of a group exhibit a desire to achieve common
goals and group identity• friendship groups can have negative effects• cohesion has both task and social elementsTASK COHESION• people who are willing to work together whether or not they get on personally• have the potential to be successfulSOCIAL COHESION• teams with high social cohesion but low task cohesion are less successful
Groups and Teams
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COHESIONCARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL• four factors affect the development of cohesion
Groups and Teams
COH ESI ON
environm entalfactors
personalfactors
leadershipfactors
teamfactors
ENVIRONMENTAL• factors binding members to a team
– contracts, location, age, eligibility• avoid star system, provide opportunities for socialising
PERSONAL• factors which members believe are important
– motives for taking part• give opportunities for motives to be realised• develop ownership feelings and social
groupings within the teamLEADERSHIP• the behaviour of leaders and coaches
– coaches should use all leadership behaviours to influence different individuals
TEAM• factors relating to the group
– team identity, targets, member ability and role• creation of team short and long-term goals• rewarding of individual and team efforts
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LEADERSHIP
A LEADER• can influence the behaviour of
others towards required goals • will influence effective team
cohesion• will help fulfil expectations of a
team• develops an environment in which
a group is motivated rewarded and helped towards its common goals
• emergent leaders come from within a group– because of their skill and abilities– or through nomination / election
• prescribed leaders– are appointed by a governing
body– or agency outside the group
LEADERSHIP• the ‘great man’ theory• NATURE• leaders are born not made• leaders have relevant innate
personality qualities
• social learning theory• NURTURE• leaders learn their skills through
watching and imitating models• leaders are formed throughout life
– by social or environmental influences
– observation of a model– high status of a model– imitation or copying of behaviour
Leadership
Module 2565 B2.1.44
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FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS
LEADER CHARACTERISTICS
THE SITUATION
MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS
LEADERSHIP QUALITIES• communication• respect for group
members• enthusiasm• high ability• deep knowledge• charisma
Leadership
LEADEREFFECTI VENESS
LEADERCHARACTER I STI CS
qualitiesstyles - autocratic,
dem ocratic, laissez- faire
MEMBER 'sCHARACTER I STI CS
expectationspreferred leadership style
THE SI TUATI ONindividuality
traditiontim e
size of group
Module 2565 B2.1.45
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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LEADERSHIP STYLE
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY
• there is a continuum between :
task-centred leadership• best for most favourable or• least favourable situations
person (or relationship) centred leadership
• best for moderately favourable situations
favourableness depends on• whether relationships are warm• if the task has a clear structure• if the leader is powerful• pressure of time
CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM• between :
autocratic authoritarian • leader who makes all the decisions
democratic • leader who shares the decisions• (with members of group or team)• seeks advice• is prepared to change his / her mind
based on advice
laissez faire • leader who lets others make
decisions
• each type can be effective depending on the situation
Leadership
Module 2565 B2.1.46
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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SITUATIONAL FACTORS
SITUATIONAL FAVOURABLENESS
• if things are going well for the team
• or things are going badly• (poor facilities, no support)• then a leader needs to be
TASK-ORIENTED
• if things are going moderately well
• then a leader needs to be PERSON-CENTRED
TEAM SPORTS• leader should be directive• and organises and structures group
tasks
INDIVIDUAL SPORTS• look for a person oriented leader
SIZE OF GROUP• affects leadership style• the more members in a group• the less likely individual needs will be
taken into account
DECISION NEEDS TO BE MADE QUICKLY• autocratic style of leader
TRADITION• members resent change
Leadership
Module 2565 B2.1.47
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS
A GOOD LEADER will adapt to– expectations– knowledge– experience– of group members
• if group is hostile• leader adopts autocratic style
• if group is friendly• leader adopts more democratic• person-centred style
• problems arise if strategies for preparation used by leader do not match group expectations
Leadership
Module 2565 B2.1.48
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL
Leadership
SI TUATI ONCHARACTER I STI CS
MEMBER 'sCHARACTER I STI CS
LEADERCHARACTER I STI CS
REQUI REDBEHAVI OUR
w hat is expected by teamm anagem ent of the coach
ACTUAL LEADERBEHAVI OUR
the w ay in w hich the coachnorm ally goes about his job
PR EFER R ED LEADERBEHAVI OUR
the w ay in w hich m em bers prefertheir coach to relate to them
perform ance /satisfaction
Module 2565 B2.1.49
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR
TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION• behaviour aimed at improving performance• strong on technical and tactical aspects
DEMOCRATIC APPROACH• allows decisions to be made collectively
AUTOCRATIC APPROACH• personal authority• least preferred if coach does not show he /
she is aware of athlete’s needs and preferences
SOCIAL SUPPORT• concern shown for well-being of others• preferred by youngsters
REWARDS• leader uses positive reinforcement
Leadership
Module 2565 B2.1.50
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE
Mental Preparation for Sport Performance
COMMI TMENT
SELF-CONFI DENCE
CONCENTRATI ON
EMOTI ONALCONTROL
Module 2565 B2.1.51
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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GOAL SETTING
GOAL STRUCTURE• easily attained initially• progressively more difficult• training goals should be planned
around overall goals• short-term / medium-term / long-
term• goal setting as a means of
managing anxiety / stress• goal setting to increase motivation
GOALS ARE EITHER• outcome oriented
– towards the end result of the sporting activity
– example : to win a race• performance oriented
– judged against other performances
– example : to beat best time• process oriented
– improvement in techniques
GOALS SHOULD BE• stated positively• specific to the situation and the
performer• time phased• challenging• achievable• measurable• negotiated between sportsperson
and coach• progressive, from short-term to
long-term• performance oriented rather
than outcome oriented• written down• reviewed regularly (with
downward adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury)
Commitment
Module 2565 B2.1.52
OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875
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SMARTER GOALS (NCF)SPECIFIC• directly related to sporting situation
MEASURABLE• progress can be assessed
ACCEPTED• by both performer and coach
REALISTIC• challenging but within capability of
performer
TIME PHASED• a date is set for completion
EXCITING• inspiring and rewarding to the performer
RECORDED• written down
Commitment