Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a...

9
Behavioural Neurology (1992), 5, 3-10 Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S. George, J.A. Melvin and C.H. Kellner Departments of Neurology, and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425-0742, USA Correspondence: Dr M.S. George, Senior Staff Fellow, NIMH, Bldg 10, Rm 3N212, 9000 Rockville Pike Road, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an increasingly recognized disorder with a prevalence of 2-3% (Robins et al., 1984). Once thought to be psychodynamic in origin, OCD is now generally recognized as having a neurobiological cause. Although the exact pathophysiology of OCD in its pure form remains unkown, there are numerous reports of obsessive-compulsive symp- toms arising in the setting of known neurological disease. In this paper, we review the reported cases of obsessive-compulsive symptoms associated with neurologic diseases and outline the known facts about the underlying neurobiology ofOCD. Finally, we synthesize these findings into a proposed theory of the pathophysiology of OCD, in both its pure form and when it accompa- nies other neurological illness. INTRODUCTION Sigmund Freud in his legendary case, The Rat Man, described a patient with obsessive-compulsive symp- toms. Freud speculated that these symptoms arose from some underlying neurotic conflict (Freud, 1959). How- ever, OCD has proven to be refractory to individual psychotherapy (Jenike et al., 1986). Within the past dec- ade substantial evidence has emerged that OCD can be effectively treated with behavioral therapy and potent new serotonergic agents. Concurrently there has been a resurgence of interest in the underlying neurobiOlogy of this interesting disorder. It is likely that patients who suffer from OCD symptoms represent a spectrum of diseases, much as the symptoms of parkinsonism can arise from Parkinson's disease (idio- pathic) or other brain pathology. In one form, OCD is idio- pathic, has a marked genetic component, and is sometimes associated with tics or Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Other patients with OC symptoms suffer from various neurologic and metabolic illnesses (symptomatic OCD). The literature reports of OCD or obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic diseases are examined below. The underlying pathophysiology of OCD is explored in light of these associations and case reports. DESCRIPTION OF OCD As described by DSM III-R, obsessive-compulsive dis- order occurs in patients with recurrent obsessions or com- pulsions severe enough to cause marked distress and © 1992 Rapid Communications of Oxford Ltd interference with their normal routine (APA, 1987). Obsessions are persistent ideas, thoughts, impulses, or images that are intrusive and senseless. The person recog- nizes that the obsessions stem from his own mind and are not imposed from without. Commonly, these obsessions consist of repetitive thoughts of violence, contamination or doubt. Compulsions are repetitive, purposeful and intentional behaviors that are often performed in response to an obsession. The patient normally recognizes that this behavior is excessive or unreasonable. Compulsions com- monly involve handwashing, counting, checking, or touching. As a person attempts to resist a compulsion, a sense of mounting inner tension arises. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS ASSOCIATED WITH MASS LESIONS OR INFARCTS What areas of the brain are important in regulating this abnormal behavior? To begin to answer this question one can study the case reports of OCD patients who had con- commitant brain tumors or infarcts--clear evidence of focal CNS damage that might explain the OCD behavior. There are several reported cases of patients who develop- ed obsessive-compulsive symptoms and were later found to have cerebral tumors. Brickner et al. (1940) described patients with temporal and frontal lobe tumors and seiz- ures who developed obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Seibyl et at. (1989) recently reported an OCD patient with Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 . 1992 3

Transcript of Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a...

Page 1: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

Behavioural Neurology (1992), 5, 3-10

Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review

M.S. George, J.A. Melvin and C.H. Kellner

Departments of Neurology, and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425-0742, USA

Correspondence: Dr M.S. George, Senior Staff Fellow, NIMH, Bldg 10, Rm 3N212, 9000 Rockville Pike Road, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an increasingly recognized disorder with a prevalence of 2-3% (Robins et al., 1984). Once thought to be psychodynamic in origin, OCD is now generally recognized as having a neurobiological cause. Although the exact pathophysiology of OCD in its pure form remains unkown, there are numerous reports of obsessive-compulsive symp­toms arising in the setting of known neurological disease. In this paper, we review the reported cases of obsessive-compulsive symptoms associated with neurologic diseases and outline the known facts about the underlying neurobiology ofOCD. Finally, we synthesize these findings into a proposed theory of the pathophysiology of OCD, in both its pure form and when it accompa­nies other neurological illness.

INTRODUCTION

Sigmund Freud in his legendary case, The Rat Man, described a patient with obsessive-compulsive symp­toms. Freud speculated that these symptoms arose from some underlying neurotic conflict (Freud, 1959). How­ever, OCD has proven to be refractory to individual psychotherapy (Jenike et al., 1986). Within the past dec­ade substantial evidence has emerged that OCD can be effectively treated with behavioral therapy and potent new serotonergic agents. Concurrently there has been a resurgence of interest in the underlying neurobiOlogy of this interesting disorder.

It is likely that patients who suffer from OCD symptoms represent a spectrum of diseases, much as the symptoms of parkinsonism can arise from Parkinson's disease (idio­pathic) or other brain pathology. In one form, OCD is idio­pathic, has a marked genetic component, and is sometimes associated with tics or Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Other patients with OC symptoms suffer from various neurologic and metabolic illnesses (symptomatic OCD). The literature reports of OCD or obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic diseases are examined below. The underlying pathophysiology of OCD is explored in light of these associations and case reports.

DESCRIPTION OF OCD

As described by DSM III-R, obsessive-compulsive dis­order occurs in patients with recurrent obsessions or com­pulsions severe enough to cause marked distress and

© 1992 Rapid Communications of Oxford Ltd

interference with their normal routine (APA, 1987). Obsessions are persistent ideas, thoughts, impulses, or images that are intrusive and senseless. The person recog­nizes that the obsessions stem from his own mind and are not imposed from without. Commonly, these obsessions consist of repetitive thoughts of violence, contamination or doubt. Compulsions are repetitive, purposeful and intentional behaviors that are often performed in response to an obsession. The patient normally recognizes that this behavior is excessive or unreasonable. Compulsions com­monly involve handwashing, counting, checking, or touching. As a person attempts to resist a compulsion, a sense of mounting inner tension arises.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS ASSOCIATED WITH MASS LESIONS OR INFARCTS

What areas of the brain are important in regulating this abnormal behavior? To begin to answer this question one can study the case reports of OCD patients who had con­commitant brain tumors or infarcts--clear evidence of focal CNS damage that might explain the OCD behavior. There are several reported cases of patients who develop­ed obsessive-compulsive symptoms and were later found to have cerebral tumors. Brickner et al. (1940) described patients with temporal and frontal lobe tumors and seiz­ures who developed obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Seibyl et at. (1989) recently reported an OCD patient with

Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 . 1992 3

Page 2: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

a right frontal meningioma. A patient with a frontal callo­sal tumor developed obsessive-compulsive symptoms consisting of excessive writing (Cambier et al., 1988). Thus, tumors of the frontal or temporal lobes can some­times produce OC symptoms.

The same is true for infarcts and atrophy. Tonkonogy and Barriera (1989) described a patient with progressive right-frontal lobe and bilateral caudate atrophy who had fears of contamination and compulsive hand-washing. Weilburg et al. (1989) reported a patient with obsessive­compulsive disorder who, on MRI scan, had a unilateral left-sided abnormality in the head of the caudate nucleus and putamen. This was accompanied by EEG slowing. The presumed etiology of this abnormality was ischemia secondary to perinatal anoxia. McKeon et al. (1984) described four cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder following head injury. Hillbom (1960) described a series of closed head injury patients who later developed OCD. Neither of these latter two studies found localizable brain pathology on cranial CT scans.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS FOLLOWING INFECTIONS

Infections directly or indirectly involving the basal gan­glia have been reported in association with obsessive com­pulsive behavior. The most notable examples are the Von Economo's encephalitis cases of the 1920s and 1930s (Jel­life, 1929). Schilder (1938) described several patients recovering from this encephalitis of unknown etiology. During recovery, patients developed obsessions and com­pulsions accompanied by various movement disorders. They had facial rigidity and mask-like faces with accompanying flexor rigidity in the arms. This led Schil­der (1938) to speculate that "it is obvious that the organic disease of the central nervous system is an indispensable factor in the genesis of the psychic symptoms which have been mentioned". In looking at the spectrum of obsessive compulsive disorder, Schilder speculated that approxi­mately one-third of OCD patients had a structural brain etiology. In another third there was a strong hint of an organic background and in the final third there was an unknown cause of the OCD symptoms. Wohlfart et al. (1961) reported a case of compulsive shouting (klazoma­nia) that was associated with oculogyric spasms in a patient who had suffered epidemic encephalitis. The shouting attacks lasted an hour and were accompanied by a normalEEG.

Recently, Swedo et al. (1989a) interviewed rheumatic fever patients with or without Sydenham' s chorea. Syden­ham's chorea is a movement disorder which follows rheu­matic fever (10-30%) presumably when anticaudate antibodies are formed (Husby et al., 1976). When com­pared with patients who only had rheumatic fever, the

4 Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 • 1992

M.S. GEORGE ET AL.

Sydenham's chorea patients scored significantly higher on criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder. The authors argue that this lends evidence to a basal ganglia dysfunc­tion theory of the etiology of OCD. A case report by Laplane et aI., (1981) follows this same thinking of infec­tion causing damage to the basal ganglia with resultant OC behavior. Their patient developed obsessive-compulsive symptoms following a wasp sting which produced second­ary necrosis of the basal ganglia.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS ARISING IN THE SETTING OF METABOLIC DISORDERS

In addition to OC symptoms associated with known infec­tions or CNS lesions, there are many examples of obsess­ive-compulsive symptoms arising in the setting of other systemic neurologic disorders. George et al. (1989) reported a patient with multiple sclerosis and obsessive­compulsive disorder. The patient's cranial CT scan showed diffuse peri ventricular white matter lesions. Schwab et al. (1951) noted that many of their Parkinso­nism patients, some of whom had post-encephalitic Par­kinsonism, also had obsessive-compulsive disorder. Their obsessions were often sudden and paroxysmal and subsided after 15-30 min. Lees et al. (1989) recently reviewed the neurobehavioral abnormalities found in Par­kinson's disease and concluded that there was a strong relationship between Parkinson's disease and some of the psychomotor retardation seen in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

ANTECEDENT ILLNESS AND OCD

Some authors have examined whether there is an increased rate of perinatal abnormalities in patients who develop obsessive-compulsive disorder. For example, Capstick and Seldrup (1977) compared 33 OCD patients to 33 psychiatric controls. Eleven OCD patients self­reported a history of abnormal birth, whereas only two from the other group gave a similar story. These findings are interesting, but hard to assess due to the problems of being retrospective self-report studies, with mixed psychi­atric patients as controls.

OC SYMPTOMS ASSOCIATED WITH EPILEPSY

Some authors have remarked that many of the interictal personality changes seen in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) resemble behaviors seen in obsessive compulsive disorder (Bear and Fidio, 1977; Blumer, 1975; Bruens, 1969; Waxman and Geschwind, 1975; Ciesielski et al., 1981; Epstein and Bailine, 1971). They proposed that obsessionalism might be a specific consequence of a repeatedly-firing temporal epileptic focus. Kettle and

Page 3: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

OBSESSIVE--cOMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS

TABLE I. Obsessive--compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease

References ------.----Lesions Tumors Temporal lobe

Right Frontal Frontal Caudate

Brickner et al. (1940) Seibyl et al. (1989) Cambier et al. (1988) Tonkonogy and Barreira (1989) Weilburg et al. (1989) Infarction Striatum

Closed head injury

Post-infectious

Others

Post-encephalitic Parkinson's Wasp sting Von Economo's encephalitis Sydenham's chorea Multiple sclerosis Parkinson's disease Hypoglycemia Tourette's syndrome

Perinatal complications

Temporal lobe epilepsy Diabetes insipidus Manganese poisoning Amphetamine psychosis

Marks (1986) reported two cases of OCD developing in teenage patients soon after the onset of epilepsy. One woman with OCD had worsening obsessive--compulsive symptoms corresponding with increasing spike and wave discharges on her EEG (Gibson and Kennedy, 1960). Yaryura-Tobias and Neziroglu (1983) have described further cases of epilepsy with ictal or interictal OC symptoms.

To complete the survey, Barton (1965) noted that a patient with diabetes insipidus had obsessive--compulsive disorder. Rippere (1984) described two patients with hypoglycemia who had obsessive--compulsive symptoms. Obsessive--compulsive symptoms have also been reported in manganese poisoning (Mena et al., 1967) and ampheta­mine psychosis (Ellinwood, 1967; Koizumi, 1985).

GILLES DE LA TOURETTE DISEASE

By far the most imporant neurologic illness associated with obsessive--compulsive disorder is Gilles de la Tou­rette's syndrome (GTS) (Cummings and Frankel, 1985; Pitman et al., 1987; Robertson et al., 1988). The funda­mental connection between obsessive--compulsive dis­order and de al Tourette' s was first recorded by Gilles de la Tourette (1885) who, in his original paper, noted that the Marquisa de D had obsessive--compulsive symptoms. The relation between obsessive--compulsive disorder and Tou­rette's has been neglected and rediscovered throughout recent neurologic history. Lees et al. (1984) recently reviewed this fundamental link. Reports of the comorbid­ity between OCD and GTS vary between 90% (Nee et al.,

McKeon et al. (1984) Hillbom (1960) Schilder (1938) Laplane etal. (1981) Wohlfart etal. (1961) Swedo (1989a, b) George et al. (1989) Schwab etal. (1951) Rippere (1984) Gilles de la Tourette (1885) Lees et al. (1989) Capstick and Seldrup (1977) Bear and Fedio (1977) Barton (1965) Mena et al. (1967) Ellinwood (1967)

1984),67% (Montgomery et aI., 1982) and 51 % (Frankel et al., 1986). Recent genetic studies have shown that OCD and GTS may be different phenotypic expressions of the same gene (Pauls, 1986). Patients with OCD are known to have higher rates of tic and movement disorders. The occurrence of OCD and GTS within the same families, the clinical similarities between OCD and GTS, and the fact that both syndromes can stem from basal ganglia pathol­ogy argue that GTS and OCD might have similar neurobi­ological mechanisms.

SUMMARY

Obsessive--compulsive symptoms arise in conjunction with numerous neurologic illnesses (Grimshaw, 1964; Jenike, 1984; Ketti and Marks, 1986; Rapoport, 1988, 1989; Wexberg, 1938). Mass lesions or infarcts, particu­larly in the striatum or frontal or temporal lobes can cause OC symptomatology. There is an increased rate of obsess­ive--compulsive disorder in patients who have had closed head injury. Some infections (Sydenham's chorea, Von Economo's encephalitis, a wasp sting) cause secondary brain damage, particularly in the basal ganglia, which later results in obsessive--compulsive disorder. Obsessive­compulsive disorder patients self-report higher rates of previous neurologic illness. OCD also occurs with Parkin­son's disease, multiple sclerosis, and most importantly, Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Additionally a funda­mental link exists between Gilles de la Tourette's syn­drome, tics, and obsessive compulsive disorder. Clearly, OCD can arise from focal neurologic disease (sympto-

Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 . 1992 5

Page 4: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

M.S. GEORGE ET AL.

TABLE II. Neuroanatomic and neurophysiologic studies in OCD

Study Finding Reference

tCaudate volume Imaging

CT MRI PET

Prolonged T" in right frontal white matter torbital-frontal metabolic rates

Luxenburg et al. (1988) Garber et al. (1990) Baxter et al. (1988) Swedo et al. (1988a)

Electrophysiological EEG Left frontal dysfunction with power-spectral

analysis Flor-Henry et al. (1979)

3/12 OCD with temporal sharp waves 2/18 OCD with abnormal EEG

Jenike and Brotman (1984) Insel et al. (1983)

Electrical simulation studies tStereotyped behavior with cingulate

stimulation Grey-Walter (1979) Talairach et al. (1973)

matic OeD). But, what is happening in the brains of patients with idiopathic OeD, or OeD in the absence of detectable brain pathology?

NEUROBIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF IDIOPATHIC OCD

Autopsy data As yet, there have been no exhaustive studies of autopsy findings in OCD patients. This is partly due to the resurgence of interest in OCD and the lack, until recently, of good clinical criteria for the definition of the disease. A well-controlled autopsy study of properly diagnosed OCD patients would add immensely to our understanding.

Imaging data Cranial CT scans on patients with idiopathic OeD are essentially normal with no pathognomonic lesion (Insel et aI., 1983). However, a study by Luxenburg et al. (1988) showed decreased caudate nuclei volume in 10 OCD patients compared with controls. Garber et al. (1989) found that the spin lattice relaxation time (T1) for the right frontal white matter was prolonged on MRI scans of OCD patients compared with controls. Additionally, they found that right minus left Tl differences in the orbital frontal cortex were strongly related to OCD severity. Kellner et al. (1991) failed to find any differences on MRI scans be­tween OCD patients and a group of normal controls.

To date there have been at least three positron emission tomography (PET) studies of obsessive--compulsive dis­order which have shown similar but not identical results (Baxter et al., 1988; Nordhal et al., 1989; Swedo et al., 1989b). Baxter et al. (1988) reported 10 OC subjects who showed increased absolute metabolic rate in the heads of the caudate nuclei and orbital gyri when compared to con­trols, using J-2-deoxy-2-fluro-D-glucose. In a second, more carefully designed study, Baxter et al. (1990) repli-

6 Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 • 1992

cated this initial finding in 10 additional OCD subjects in a medication-free, age and sex matched controlled study. Only the orbital gyri metabolic rate was increased when compared to the ipsilateral hemisphere metabolic rate. Nordhal et al. (1989) reported that eight OeD subjects in an age- and sex-matched control study had increased glu­cose metabolic rates in their orbital gyri relative to the whole brain metabolic rate. Swedo et al. (1989b) described 18 childhood-onset OCD subjects in an age- and sex-matched controlled study. They found prefrontal and basal ganglia abnormalities in the OCD subjects, with elevated absolute glucose metabolism in the left orbital frontal, right sensory motor and bilateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate regions. The right prefrontal and left anterior cingulate regions showed relatively increased glucose metabolism. In addition, Swedo et al. reported a significant positive correlation between the right orbital glucose metabolic rate and the severity of the OCD.

In summary, most imaging modalities (some CT, MRI, and PET scans) indicate that in idiopathic OCD there are abnormalities in metabolism and underlying brain pathol­ogy in the caudate and orbital frontal gyri.

EEG data Much of the EEG literature on OCD is dated and was per­formed when the diagnostic criteria for OCD were not clearly defined. Thus there are numerous reports of "abnormal" EEGs in OCD patients. However, it is diffi­cult to decide how much weight to place on these studies. Flor-Henry et al. (1979) reported left frontal dysfunction in OCD under power spectral EEG analysis. These EEG data correlated with neuropsychological testing showing left frontal impairment in OCD patients. This data gives further weight to the theory that perturbations of the cingu­late-orbital-frontalloop might modulate obsessive com­pulsive symptomatology. Insel et al. (1983) reported 2 of 18 OCD patients with abnormal EEGs. One patient had

Page 5: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS

CINGULATE GYRUS Fornix

Mamillary Body

Ant. Commissure

Subcallosal Gyrus--+-........ ~

Fascicular Gyrus

U

Amygdaloid Nucleu

FIG. 1. Line drawing of the cingulum (cingulate gyrus), with the anterior portion highlighted.

left temporal sharp wave activity and the other had a pre­dominance of beta activity over the left hemisphere. These patients' CT scans as a group were indistinguishable from matched non-psychiatric control subjects. lenike (1984) reported on 3 of 12 patients with OCD who had temporal sharp wave activity. These three patients were tried on anti-seizure medications and only one improved. Thus far, EEG data in studies of OCD are inconclusive with several studies reporting mild temporal sharp wave activity in OCD patients.

Psychosurgery Imaging data and case reports indicate that the cingulum, an area of the brain just dorsal to the corpus callosum, is intricately involved in obsessive-compulsive disorder (Fodstad et aI., 1982; Tan et al., 1971)(see Fig. 1). Grey­Walter (1979) reported the case of a university professor who was compelled to confess to local crimes and was cured when surgical lesions were placed in the cingulum. Grey-Walter theorized that overactivity of the cingulum therefore led to obsessive compUlsive behavior. Talairach et al. (1973) reported 52 drug-resistant epileptics who had electrodes implanted while being examined for possible lobectomy for seizure management. These patients had stereotypic repetitive motions similar to compulsive rit­uals when the cingular region was electrically stimulated. Mitchell-Heggs et al. (1977) demonstrated that surgery with two small lesions in the cingulum and three small lesions in the lower medial frontal lobe resulted in clinical improvement in 24 of 27 obsessional patients. Recently, Tippin and Henn (1982) described five obsessional patients who improved with modified leukotomy and

lesioning of the medial 2-3 cm of white matter coming through the anterior cingulate gyrus.

UNIFYING THEORY OF THE NEUROBIOLOGY OFOCD

OCD is a syndrome that may be caused by numerous central nervous system insults. Brain tumors and trauma to frontal and temporal regions, as well as basal ganglia infarcts, infections, or trauma can all cause symptomatic OCD. Imaging studies of OC patients without obvious neurologic causes (idiopathic OCD) have shown decreased caudate nuclei volume and hyperactivity of cau­dal-frontal regions. OCD, whether symptomatic or idio­pathic, almost always involves dysfunction in the basal ganglia and frontal cortical projections.

There is an interesting correlation between OCD and diseases of the basal ganglia, particularly Gilles de la Tou­rette's syndrome (Devenport et at., 1981; Schneider, 1984). It remains to be seen what a putative OCD-Gilles de la Tourette' s syndrome gene might do that would prod­uce the symptoms seen in these disorders. Treatment with serotonergic agents such as fluoxetine (Fontaine and Chouinard, 1989; lenike et al., 1989), fluvoxamine, and clomipramine (Insel et aI., 1985; Pato et at., 1988) tend to decrease OC symptoms. Similarly, psychosurgery with lesions in the cingulum can markedly improve patients with refractory OCD.

A truly unified theory of the neurobiology of OCD remains to be found. An adequate theory must take into account the neuroanatomic data presented above where symptomatic OCD is cased by lesions in the caudate and

Behavioural Neurology. VolS . 1992 7

Page 6: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

orbital frontal gyri. It must additionally account for the known response of OCD patients to both antiserotonergic agents and psychosurgery involving lesions in the cingu­lum. Several authors have attempted putative theories (Baxter, 1990; McDougle et ai., 1989; Modell et ai., 1989). Baxter argues that the orbital cortex has been associated with the mediation of anxiety, with impulse control, and with meticulousness in hygiene. Using animal data, he also argues that behavioral inhibition and extinc­tion as well as perseverative behaviors can be caused by stimulation or lesions of the orbital cortex. Because of the complex enervation of the striatum, pathology scattered throughout the striatum could produce different symptoms (tics, simple obsessive disorder, Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome) depending upon where the lesions are placed. This is an interesting theory which can theoretically be proved or disproved with available imaging techniques.

The neurosciences are at an exciting part of history. Imaging techniques such as MRI, PET, and SPECT will allow us to test putative hypotheses ofthe neurobiology of OCD and come to a better understanding of this interest­ing' complex and devastating human illness.

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Stat­istical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd Edn, revised. Washington, DC.

Barton, R. (1965). Diabetes Insipidus and obsessional neurosis: a syndrome. Lancet, 1, 133-135.

Baxter, L.R (1990). Brain imaging as a tool in establishing a theory of brain pathology in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51 (Suppl.), 22-25.

Baxter, L.R, Schwartz, J.M., Guze, B.H., Bergman, K. and Szuba, M.P. (1990). PET imaging in obsessive-compulsive disorder with and without depression. Journal ofC linical P sy­chiatry, 51, 61-69.

Baxter, L.R., Schwartz, J.M., Maziotta, J.C. et al. (1988). Cer­ebral glucose metabolic rates in nondepressed patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psy­chiatry, 145, 1560-1563.

Bear, D.M., and Fedio, P. (1977). Quantitative analysis of inter­ictal behavior in temporal lobe epilepsy. Archives of Neurol­ogy, 34, 454-467.

Blumer, D. (1975). Temporal lobe epilepsy and its psychiatric significance. In Psychiatric Aspects of Neurological Disease (Eds D.F. Benson and D. Blumer). Grune & Stratton, New York.

Brickner, RM., Rosner, AA and Munroe, R (1940). Physiolog­ical aspects of the obsessive state. Psychosomatic Medicine, 2, 369-383.

Bruens, J.H. (1969). Psychoses in epilepsy. In Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Eds P.J. Vincker and AW. Gruyn), Vol. 15, pp. 593-610. Wiley, New York.

Cambier, J., Masson, c., Benammous, S. and Robine, B. (1988). La graphomanie. Activite graphique compulsive manifes­tation d'un gliome fronto-calleux. Revue Neurologic, 144, 158-164.

Capstick, N. and Seldrup, J. (1977). Obsessional states: a study in

8 Behavioural Neurology. VolS • 1992

M.S. GEORGE ET AL.

the relationship between abnormalities occurring at the time of birth and subsequent development of obsessional symptoms. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 56, 427-431.

Ciesielski, K.T., Beech, H.R. and Gordon, P.K. (1981). Some electrophysiological observations of obsessional states. British Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 479-484.

Cummings, J.L. and Frankel, M. (1985). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and the neurological basis of obsessions and com­pulsions. Biological Psychiatry, 20, 1117-1126.

Devenport, L.D., Devenport, J.A and Holloway, F.A (1981). Reward-induced stereotypy: modulation by the hippocampus. Science, 212; 1288-1289.

Epstein, AW. and Bailine, S.H. (1971). Sleep and dream studies in obsessional neurosis with particular reference to epileptic states. Biological Psychiatry, 3,149-158.

Ellinwood, E.H. (1967). Amphetamine psychosis: description of the individuals and the process. I. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 144, 273-283.

Flor-Henry, P., Yeudal, L.T., Koles, J.Z. and Howarth, B.G. (1979). Neuropsychological and power spectral EEG investi­gations of the obsessive-compulsive syndrome. Biological Psychiatry, 14, 119-130.

Fodstad, H., Strandman, E., Carlsson, B. and West, K.A. (1982). Treatment of chronic obsessive-compulsive states with ste­reotaetive anterior capsulotomy or cingulotomy. Acta Neuro­surgica, 62, 1-23.

Fontaine, R and Chouinard, G. (1989). Fluoxetine in the long­term maintenance treatment of obsessive-compulsive dis­order. Psychological Annals, 19, 88-91.

Frankel, M., Cummings, J.L., Robertson, M.M., Trimble, M.R, Hill, M.A and Benson, D.F. (1986). Obsessions and compul­sions in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neurology, 36, 378-382.

Freud, S. (1959). Collected Papers, Vol III. Basic Books, New York.

Garber, H.J., Ananth,J.V., Chiu, L.C. etal. (1989). Nuclear mag­netic resonance study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146,1001-1005.

Gibson, J.G. and Kennedy, W.A (1960). A clinical EEG study on a case of obsessional neurosis. Electroencephography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 12, 198-201.

George, M.S., Kellner, C.H. and Fossey, M.D. (1989). Obsess­ive-compulsive symptoms in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 177,304-305.

Gilles de la Tourette, G. (1885). Etude sur une affection nerveuse caractarisee par l'incoordination motrice accompagnee d'echolalic et de coprolalic. Archives Neurologie, 9, 19-42, 158-200.

Grey-Walter, W.G. (1979). Viewpoints of mental illness: neu­rophysiologic aspects. Seminars in Psychiatry, 14, 1.

Grimshaw, L. (1964). Obsessional disorder and neurological ill­ness.]ournal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 27, 229-231.

Hillbom, E. (1960). After effects of brain injuries. Acta Psychi­atrica Neurologica Scandinavia, 35, (Suppl.), 42.

Husby, G., van de Ryn, I., Zabriskie, J.B. et al. (1976). Anti­bodies reacting with cytoplasm of subthalamic and caudate nuclei neurons in chorea and rheumatic fever. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 144, 1094-1110.

Insel, T.R, Donnelly, E.F., Lalakea, M.L., Alterman, I.S. and Murphy, D.L. (1983). Neurological and neuropsychological studies of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Bio­logical Psychiatry, 18, 741-751.

Insel, T.R., Mueller, B.A, Alterman, I., Linnoila, M. and Mur-

Page 7: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOMS

phy, DL (1985). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and sero­tonin: is there a connection? Biological Psychiatry, 20, 1174-1188.

Jellife, S.E. (1929). Psychologic components in postencephalitic oculogyric crises. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 21, 491-532.

Jenike, M.A. (1984). Obsessive-compulsive disorder: a question of neurologic lesion. Comparative Psychiatry, 25, 298-304.

Jenike, M.A., Baer, L. and Minichiello, W.E. (1986). Obsessive­Compulsive Disorders: Theory and Management, pp 171-177. Yearbook Medical, Littleton, MA.

Jenike, M.A. and Brotman, A. W. (1984). The EEG in obsessive­compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 45, 122-124.

Jenike, M.A., Buttolph, L., Baer, L., Ricciardi, J. and Holland, A. (1989). Open trial of fluoxetine in obsessive-compulsive dis­order. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 909-911.

Kellner, C.H., Jolly, RR., Holgate, R.C., Austin, L., Hydiard, R.B. and Laraia, M. (1991). Brain MRI in OCD. Psychiatry Resarch, 36, 45-49.

Kettle, P.A. and Marks, I.M. (1986). Neurological factors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: two case reports and a review of the literature. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 315-319.

Koizumi, H.M. (1985). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms fol­lowing stimulants. Biological Psychiatry, 20,1332-1337.

LaPlane, D., Widlocher, D., Pillon, B., Baulac, M. and Binoux; F. (1981) Comportement compulsif d' allure obsessionalle par necrose circonscite bilaterale pallido-striatale. Revue Neurol­ogie, 137, 269-276.

Lees, AJ. (1989). The neurobehavioural abnormalities in Par­kinson's disease and their relationship to psychomotor retar­dation and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Behavioural Neurology, 2, I-II.

Lees, A.J., Robertson, M., Trimble, M.R. and Murray, N.M.F. (1989). A clinical study of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in the United Kingdom. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 47, 1-8.

Luxenberg, J.S., Swedo, S.E., Flament, M.F. et al. (1988). Neu­roanatomic abnormalities in obsessive-compulsive disorder detected with quantitative X-ray computed tomography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145,1089-1093.

McDougle, c.J., Goodman, W.K., Delgado, PL and Price, L.H. (1989). Pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1350--1351.

McKeon. 1, McGuffin, P. and Robinson, P. (1984). Obsessive­compulsive neurosis following head injury: a report of four cases. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 190--192.

Mena, I., Marik, 0., Fuenzalida, S. and Cotzias, A.C. (1967). Chronic manganese poisoning. Neurology, 17,128-136.

Mitchell-Heggs, N., Kelly, D. and Richardson, A.E. (1977). Ste­reotactic limbic glucotomy: clinical, psychological and physi­ologic assessment at sixteen months. In Neurosurgical Treatment in Psychiatry, Pain and Epilepsy (Eds Sweet and Obrador), pp. 367-379. University Park Press, Baltimore.

Modell, J.G., Mountz,J.M., Curtis, G.C. and Greden,J.F. (1989). Neurophysiologic dysfunction in basoganoglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical circuits as a pathogenetic mechanism of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 1,27-36.

Montgomery, M.A., Clayton, P.J. and Friedhoff, A.J. (1982). Psychiatric illness in Tourette syndrome patients and first­degree relatives. In Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (Eds A.J. Freidhoff and T.N. Chase), pp. 335-339. Raven Press, New York.

Nordahl, T.E., Benkelfet, c., Semple, W.E. et al. (1989). Cer­ebral glucose metabolic rates in obsessive-compulsive dis­order. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2, 23-28.

Nee, L.E., Caine, E.D., Polinsky, R.I., Eldridge, R. and Ebert, M.H. (1984). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in the United Kingdom. Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgical Psy­chiatry,47, 1-8.

Pato, M.T., Zohar-Kadouch, R, Zohar, J. and Murphy, D.L. (1988). Return of symptoms after discontinuation of clomi­pramine in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 1521-1525.

Pauls, DL, Towbin, K.E., Leckman, J.F., Zahner, G.E.P. and Cohen, DJ. (1986). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psy­chiatry,43, 1180--1182.

Pitman, R.K., Green, R.C., Jenike, M.A. and Mesulam, M.M. (1987). Clinical comparison of Tourette's disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psy­chiatry, 144,1166--1171.

Rapoport, J.L. (1989). The biology of obsessions and compul­sions. Scientific American, 3, 83-89.

Rapoport, 1L. (1988). The neurobiology of obsessive compul­sive disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association, 260,2888-2889.

Ripperre, V. (1984). Can hypoglycemia cause obsessions and ruminations? Medical Hypotheses, 15, 3-13.

Robertson, M.M., Trimble, M.R and Lees, AJ. (1988). The psy­chopathology of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a phenom­enological analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 283-390.

Robins, L.N., Helzer, 1.1., Weissman, M.M. et al. (1984). Life­time prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders in three sites. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 949-958.

Schilder, P. (1938). The organic background of obsessions and compulsions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 94, 1398-1413.

Schneider, J.S. (1984). Basal ganglia role in behavior: import­ance of sensory gauging and its relevance to psychiatry. Bio­logical Psychiatry, 19, 1693-1710.

Schwab, RS., Fabing, H.D. and Prichard, J.S. (1951). Psychi­atric symptoms and syndromes in Parkinson's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 107,901-907.

Seibyl, J.P., Krystal, 1H., Goodman, W.K. and Price, L.H. (1989). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in a patient with a right frontal lobe lesion. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 1, 295-299.

Swedo, S.E., Rapoport, JL, Cheslow, B.S. et al. (1989a). High prevalence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in patients with Syderham's chorea. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 246--249.

Swedo, S.E., Shapiro, M.B., Grady, C.L. et al. (1989b). Cerebral glucose metabolism in childhood onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 518-523.

Talairach, 1, Bancaud, J., Geir, S. et al. (1973). The cingulate gyrus in human behaviour. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 34, 45-52.

Tan, E., Marks, I.M. and Marset, P. (1971). Bimedialleucotomy in obsessive-compulsive neurosis: a controlled serial enquiry. British Journal of Psychiatry, 118, 155-164.

Tippin, J. and Henn, F.A. (1982). Modified leukotomy in the treatment of intractable obsessional neurosis. American J our­nal of Psychiatry, 139,1601-1603.

Tonkonogy, G.A. and Barriera, P. (1989). Obsessive-compul­sive disorder and caudate-frontal lesion. Neuropsychiatry,

Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 . 1992 9

Page 8: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 2, 203-209. Waxman, S.G. and Geschwind, N. (1975). The interictal beha­

vior syndrome of temporal lobe epilepsy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 1580-1586.

Weilburg, J.B., Mesulam, M.M, Weintraub, S. et al. (1989). Focal striatal abnormalities in a patient with obsessive-com­pulsive disorder. Archives of Neurology, 46, 233-235.

Wexberg, E. (1938). Comments on the organic background of

10 Behavioural Neurology. Vol 5 • 1992

M.S. GEORGE ET AL.

obsessions and compulsions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 94, 1415-1416.

Wohlfart, G., Ingvar, D.H. and Gelberg, A.M. (1961). Compul­sory shouting (Benedek's "klazomania") associated with oculogyric spasms in chronic epidemic encephalitis. Acta Psy­chiatrica Scandinavia, 36, 369-377.

Yaryura-Tobias, J.A. and Nezirogrn, F.A. (1983). Obsessive­Compulsive Disorders. Marcel Dekker, New York.

Page 9: Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a reviewdownloads.hindawi.com/journals/bn/1992/303985.pdf · Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in neurologic disease: a review M.S.

Submit your manuscripts athttp://www.hindawi.com

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Disease Markers

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Diabetes ResearchJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Research and TreatmentAIDS

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Gastroenterology Research and Practice

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014

Parkinson’s Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttp://www.hindawi.com