I n t r oduc t i on :

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach . That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social system. Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives.

As you can see from the definition above, organizational

behavior encompasses a wide range of topics, such as

human behavior, change, leadership, teams, etc. Since many

of these topics are covered elsewhere in the leadership

guide, this paper will focus on a few parts of OB: elements,

models, social systems, OD, work life, action learning, and

change.

“Ab i l i t y ”

An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Ability may be:

aptitude ability to pay Intelligence physical ability skill expertise

I n t e l l e c tua l Ab i l i t i e s :

That required to do mental activities.

Intellectual Ability

Intellectual ability commonly refers to the ability measured by performance on an intelligence test. It is also sometimes used in the context of discussing the performance of someone in an academic or real world setting.

I n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y a n d c o r t i c a l

d e v e l o p m e n t i n c h i l d r e n a n d a d o l e s c e n t s

Children who are adept at any one of the three academic 'R's (reading, writing and arithmetic) tend to be good at the others, and grow into adults who are similarly skilled at diverse intellectually demanding activities1, 2, 3. Determining the neuroanatomical correlates of this relatively stable individual trait of general intelligence has proved difficult, particularly in the rapidly developing brains of children and adolescents. Here we demonstrate that the trajectory of change in the thickness of the cerebral cortex, rather than cortical thickness itself, is most closely related to level of intelligence. Using a longitudinal design, we find a marked developmental shift from a predominantly negative correlation between intelligence and cortical thickness in early childhood to a positive correlation in late childhood and beyond. Additionally, level of intelligence is associated with the trajectory of cortical development, primarily in frontal regions implicated in the maturation of intelligent activity4, 5. More intelligent children demonstrate a particularly plastic cortex, with an initial accelerated and prolonged phase of cortical increase, which yields to equally vigorous cortical thinning by early adolescence. This study indicates that the neuroanatomical expression of intelligence in children is dynamic

Phys i ca l Ab i l i t i e s :

That required to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

Fitness for the job Rejection of an applicant for failing a physical abilities test must be based on a determination of the individual's fitness for the job not on a general determination on the disabilities of the applicant.

Physical Abilities Tests: Tests typically test applicants on some physical requirement such as lifting strength, rope climbing, or obstacle course completion.

Advantages can idendentify

individuals who are physically unable to perform the essential functions of a job without risking injury to themselves or others

can result in decreased costs related to disability/medical claims, insurance, and workers compensation

decreased absenteeism

Disadvantages costly to administer requirements must be

shown to be job related through a thorough job analysis

may have age based disparate impact against older applicants

The Ab i l i t y - J ob F i t :

Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability - job fit

Individual Ability let’s see how an individuals ability is related to organizational behaviour;

Organizational behaviour is traditionally considered as the ‘ study of human behaviour in the work place’. According to this view organisations, representing collective entities of human actions and experiences, are dependent upon the extent to which such actions/ experiences, are effectively coordinated. To understand human action, one needs to have a fundamental understanding of human behaviours and the underlying stimuli. The behaviour of individuals are influenced significantly by their abilities. The following diagram presents the various individual factors affecting the final behaviour of a person. Figure 1.Behaviour of Individuals

ABILITY Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. An individual's overall abilities are essentially made up of the following factors: 1. Intellectual Abilities, and 2. Physical Abilities. Different Types of Abilities Figure 2. Various types of abilities INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES: Intellectual Abilities are those that are needed to perform mental activities. Mental activities can be measured by intelligent quotient (IQ) tests, that are designed to ascertain one's general Mental abilities. Some familiar examples of such tests in are Common Admission Tests (CAT), Management programs admission tests (GMAT), law (LSAT), and medical (MCAT), etc. Usually these tests try to measure and evaluate one’s mental abilities on various academic areas pertaining to the success in the relevant courses, such as mathematics, English, General knowledge etc.

It is believed that there are a few different dimensions of mental abilities. Some of the most frequently cited dimensions of intellectual capacities are:

1. Number Aptitude (Mathematics), 2. Verbal Comprehension (English), 3. Perceptual Speed, 4. Reasoning, 5. Deductive Reasoning, 6. Spatial Visualization, 7. Memory Generally speaking, the more information processing is required in a job, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to perform the job successfully. Of course, a high IQ is not a prerequisite for all. In Fact, for many jobs in which employee behavior is highly routine and there are little or no opportunities to exercise discretion, a high IQ may be unrelated to performance. On the other hand, a careful review of the evidence demonstrates that tests that assess verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual ability are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs. Therefore, tests measure specific dimensions of intelligence have been found to be strong predictors of future job performance. Exhibit 1: Different Types of Mental abilities Sr No. Dimension of intellectual abilities Description Job Example 1 :Number aptitude Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic

Accountant 2: Verbal Communication Read write speaking ability Senior managers 3: Perceptual Speed Identify similarities and differences quickly and accurately Investigators 4: Inductive reasoning Logical sequence drawing Market Researcher 5: Deductive reasoning Ability to use logic and assess the implications of the argument Supervisors 6: Spatial Visualization Ability to imagine Interior decorator 7: Memory Ability to retain and recall past experience Sales person-Rememberingcustomer’s name

PHYSICAL ABILITIES To the same degree that intellectual abilities play a larger role in complex jobs with demanding information-processing requirements, specific physical abilities gain importance for successfully doing less skilled and more standardized jobs. For example, jobs in which success demands stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength, or similar talents

require management to identify an employee's physical capabilities. Research on the requirements needed in hundreds of jobs has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. These are described in Exhibit 2. Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities. Surprisingly, there is also little relationship between them: A high score on one is no assurance of a high score on others. High employee performance is Likely to be achieved when management has ascertained the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and then ensures that, employees in that job have those abilities. The specific intellectual or physical abilities required for adequate job performance depend on the ability requirements of the job. So, for example, airline pilots need strong spatial-visualization abilities. Beach lifeguards need both strong spatial-visualization abilities and body coordination Senior Managers need verbal abilities; high rise construction workers need balance; and Journalists with weak reasoning abilities would likely have difficulty meeting minimum job-performance standards. What predictions can we make when the fit is poor? Quite obviously, if employees lack the required abilities, they are likely to fail. But When the ability-job fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job, our predictions would be very different. Job performance is likely to be adequate, but there will be organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction. Given that pay tends to reflect the highest skill level that

employees possess, if an employee's abilities far exceed those necessary to do the job, management will be paying more than it needs to, Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the employee's job satisfaction when the employee's desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the limitations of the job.

Exhibit 2: Different Types of Physical Abilities Nine Basic Physical abilities Strength factor 1: Dynamic Exerting muscular strength rapidly and repeatedly 2: Trunk Exerting muscular strength rapidly and repeatedly using the trunk muscle 3: Static Exert force against external object 4: Explosive Exert and expend all force in one or series of explosive acts. Flexibility factor 5: Extent Ability to bend trunk and back muscle 6: Dynamic Ability to bend trunk and back muscle rapidly and repeatedlyOther factor 7: Body Co-ordination Mind and body control 8: Balance Ability to maintain equilibrium against external force. 9: Stamina Ability to exert force persistently. • IINTELLECTUAL ABILITIESThe abilities that are needed toperform mental activities (such as logical reasoning, analysis) as per the

requirement of the job• PHYSICAL ABILITIES• some jobs demand certain specificphysical abilities for its success (such as stamina, physical dexterity, legstrengthability and Job Fit:Employee performance is enhanced when an employee and position are wellmatched—what we call a high ability–job fit. If we focus only on the employee’sabilities or the ability requirements of the job, we ignore the fact that employeeperformance depends on the interaction of the two.What predictions can we make when the fit is poor? If employees lack therequired abilities, they are likely to fail. If you’re hired as a word processor and youcan’t meet the job’s basic keyboard typing requirements, your performance is going tobe poor in spite of your positive attitude or your high level of motivation. When anemployee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job, our predictionswould be very different. The employee’s performance may be adequate, but it may beaccompanied by organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satis-faction because the employee is frustrated by the limitations of the job. Additionally,given that pay tends to reflect the highest skill level that employees possess, if anemployee’s abilities far exceed those necessary to do the job, management will bepaying more than it needs to pay.

Ability job fit?

what prediction can you make for an orginization where ablity-joby fit is poor?If people's abilities aren't suited for the job, the organization will likely suffer from:-- inefficiencies -- it will take a longer time frame for such employees to complete tasks, as compared with people who are suited for the job-- lack of innovation - employees who aren't suited for the job won't be able to make a strong impact through creative design, new ideas, etc.-- poor morale - people will be frustrated because they don't have the ability to do as good a job as they would like to do

This will result in inferior products and services, as well as decreased competitiveness. At the extreme, this could lead to bankruptcy, or at least lower share prices (if public), leadership change and / or restructuring.

o Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability - job fit.

o We need to keep this in mind from an HR perspective as well as an individual trying to make a job decision.

What predictions can we make if the fit is poor? o If employees lack the required abilities? o If employees abilities far exceed the requirements

of the job?

Physical Abilities Tests: Tests typically test applicants on some physical requirement such as lifting strength, rope climbing, or obstacle course completion.

Advantages can idendentify

individuals who are physically unable to perform the essential functions of a job without risking injury to themselves or others

can result in decreased costs related to disability/medical claims, insurance, and workers compensation

decreased absenteeism

Disadvantages costly to administer requirements must be

shown to be job related through a thorough job analysis

may have age based disparate impact against older applicants

Abi l i ty and Job F i t

physical Abilities: Specific physical abilities have importance to the same degree that intellecutual abilities do. Even though intellectual abilities play a larger role in complex jobs that have demanding information-processing requirements. Physical abililities do gain importance for the fact that they require less-skilled and more-standardized jobs successfully. Jobs in which success is due in part to and demands stamina, leg strength, manual dexterity, and or similar talents that require management to identify an employee’s physical capabilities.

According to research done on the requirements needed for hundreds of jobs. There are nine key basic abilities that are connected in the performance of physical tasks. Each individual is different to the extent in which they will possess each of these abilities. Surprisingly, there is very little relationship between them. Getting a high score one isn’t

assurance that a person will get a high score on others. Employee performance is more likely to be higher when management has determined the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities. It then ensures that employees in said job do have those abilities per se..

The major concern is with trying to explain and predict the behavior of people at work. In this section, it is being demonstrated that jobs do place differing demands on people, and that people are often different in their abilities in said relation to job. Employee performance is improved overall when there is the presence of a high ability-job fit.

Specific intellectual and or physical abilities that are required for proper job performance depend solely on the ability requirements of that job. For example, airline pilots should have strong spatial visualization abilities. Beach lifeguards also need strong spatial visualizaion and good body coordination. Senior executives should possess excellent verbal abilities. Journalists who don’t have strong reasoning abilities would surely have difficulty meeting their minimum job-performance standards. High-rise construction workers should have balance. If one directly focuses their attention only on the employee’s abilities or only on the ability requirements of the job alone. This will be ignoring the fact that employee performance does depend on the interaction of the two as one.

What predictions can be made when the fit turns out to be poor? Those employees who don’t have the required abilities are more likely to fail as a rule. If someone is hired as a word processor and cannot meet the basic keyboard typing requirments. Your performance will lack and be poor despite your positive attitude and level of motivation. If the ability job fit is totally out of sync. Due to the fact that the employee has abilities that go beyond the requirments of the job. Predictions would then be different per se. Though job performance is more than likely to be adequate. There will still be organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction. Pay usually tends to reflect the

highest skill level that an employee has. But if an employee’s abilities far exceed those necessary to perform the job. Management will then be paying more than it really needs to. Any abilities above those that are required can also help to reduce the employee’s job satisfaction whenever the employee’s desire to use his or her abilities are particularly strong and they do become frustrated by the confining limitations that the job has.

If you are a job seeker, you might not be considering the importance of "ability job-fit." This fit is critical. Without it, you become among the estimated 75 percent of the workforce who are dissatisfied with their jobs. Failure to match personal characteristics in the job process may result in unfavorable outcomes such as job lock, personal dissatisfaction, employment ceilings and the uncomfortable position of seeking a new job after a short period of time. If you achieve the ability jobfit, you are one of the few who is passionate about ...

Intellectual Ability and Job Fit:

Intellectual abilities are all those that are required to perform any and all specific mental activities per se. These mental activities are for thinking, reasoning, and problem solving as a rule. It is intelligence quotient (IQ) tests that are designed and used to determine one’s general intellectual abilities. Popular college admission tests such as the SAT and ACT and graduate admission tests in business (GMAT), common admission (CAT), law(LSAT), and medicine (MCAT).

There are seven frequently cited dimensions that make up intellectual abilities. These seven dimensions are number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory.

Demands differ with regards to jobs and the emphasis that is placed on incumbents to use their intellectual abilities. The more complex a job is in terms of information processing

demands. The more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary overall to perform the job successfully.

Having a high iQ isn’t always a prerequisite for a lot of jobs. A high IQ may very well be unrelated to performance in jobs where employee behavior is highly routine and there are little to no opportunities to exercise discretion. However, on the other hand, a careful review of evidence usually demonstrates that tests which assess verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are valid predictors of job proficiency. This is something that is at all levels of jobs.

Tests that do measure specific dimensions of intelligence have been discovered to be strong indicators of job performance in the future. This is mainly why top companies like Amazon.com and Microsoft do emphasize assessing candidates’ intelligence as the key element as part of their inititial hiring process.

Those companies who visit campus for recruiting MBAs in Asia prefer going only to business school that give CAT. CAT has three key components that are logical reasoning, quantitative analysis, and verbal ability..

One of the major dilemmas faced by employers who use ability tests for selection, promoting, training, and similar personnel decisions is that they may have a negative response with regards to racial and ethnic groups. For instance of this, some minority groups do score on the average, as much as one standard deviation lower than whites. These scores are tied to verbal, numerical, and spatial ability tests spefically as a rule. But after reviewing the evidence, researchers recently concluded that even though there are group differences in mean teast performance. There is very little evidence to support that well-constructed tests are more predictive of educational training, and or occupational training for those members of the majority group than members of minority groups.

Researchers have begun to expand the meaning of intelligence beyond mental abilities in the past ten years. Recent evidence of this suggests that intelligence can be more understood if it is broken down into four working parts. These four subparts are cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

Cognitive intelligence is all about the aptitudes that have long been a part of traditional intelligence tests. A person’s ability to relate effectively and well with others is called social intelligence. The ability to identify, understand and manage one’s emotions is known as being emotional intelligence. Cultural intelligence is the awareness of all cross-cultural differences and the overall ability to function positively in cross-cultural situations. This line of inquiry towards multiple intelligences is something that is still in its infancy. But it does have considerable promise. It may very well help us to explain why some so-called very smart people-those with high cognitive intelligence don’t readily adapt well to everyday life. As well as work well with others and succeed if placed in leadership roles.

What's more impressive to you, physical ability or intellectual prowess?

Super smart. The mind is an amazing thing and there is a real thrill for me to see how much a mind can do. The thing is ... a strong guy that can lift heavy things (as an example) can only do that. A smart person can figure out way to get the heavy things lifted in other ways and they are still smart on top of that. ;)

Persons with Intellectual Disability:

Individuals who demonstrate a slower rate of learning and a limited capacity to learn are identified as having an intellectual disability. Intellectual Disability is seven times more prevalent than deafness, nine times more prevalent

than cerebral palsy, 15 times more prevalent than total blindness and 35 times more prevalent than muscular dystrophy. Ninety percent of all persons with an intellectual disability have a mild intellectual disability and generally are outwardly indistinguishable from their peers without an intellectual disability. However, because of their learning limitations, certain teaching and coaching strategies are more successful than others. Specifically, demonstration, physical prompt, and manipulation of body parts are preferred to verbal instruction. Tasks to be learned should be divided into small meaningful steps, presented sequentially and then practiced in total with as little change in the order as possible. Feedback about an athlete's performance should be immediate and specific. Comments such as "you kept your eyes on the ball" are more meaningful and helpful than saying "good shot." Like most groups of people, athletes with intellectual disabilities will vary greatly in terms of their physical abilities and their sport skill proficiency. The degree of intellectual disability generally does not determine an athlete's performance level. However, athletes with severe intellectual disabilities will be more challenged by the tactical aspects of competition. These athletes will also experience a greater incidence of secondary impairments (such as cerebral palsy or other physical limitations) affecting motor skills. Yet, given proper coaching and sufficient practice time, most athletes with intellectual disabilities can successfully compete alongside or against many of their nondisabled peers. This Coaches' Guide is written for coaches, teachers, family members, peer coaches and others who train or assist in training athletes with intellectual disabilities. The task analyzed approach enables skills to be taught incrementally and customized for each athlete. The array of Special Olympics sports and events within each sport are designed

to ensure there is an appropriate opportunity for every Special Olympics athlete regardless of his/her learning or physical abilities and his/her sport skill proficiency.

W H O A R E P E R S O N S W I T H D I S A B I L I T I E S ?

Although there is no general consensus as to who are people with disabilities, comparable definitions of disability have been developed for a range of clinical, policy, demographic, and research purposes. Asch and Mudrick have found agreement that people with disabilities:

have a permanent or chronic physical or mental impairment or condition;

the impairment or condition may differ in degree of severity;

the impairment or condition may differ in degree of visibility to others; and

the age of onset of the impairment or condition varies by individual.1

Legal/policy definitions of disability have been developed in recent decades to protect individuals from discrimination in the most important components of American life -- employment, housing, and public accommodations that include schools and universities, settings for the delivery of health care and social services, business and commercial services, recreational/cultural programs, transportation, and telecommunications. Functional definitions of disability are provided by the Federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (for federal agencies) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 (for state and local governments and private entities). Although the parameters of these definitions have been expanded and narrowed by various court decisions, in essence:

The term ‘disability’ means, with respect to an individual: (A) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such individual; (B) a record of

such impairment; or (C) being regarded as having such an impairment.2

According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the ADA covers persons with impairments that:

Substantially limit major life activities such as seeing, hearing, speaking, walking, breathing, performing manual tasks, learning, caring for oneself, and working…[I]ndividual[s] with epilepsy, paralysis, HIV infection, AIDS, a substantial hearing or visual impairment, mental retardation, or a specific learning disability [are] covered.3

Furthermore, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, which applies to educational services for children requiring special instructional methodologies, provides definitional guidance on the conditions that affect a “child with a disability.” These conditions include children who need special education and related services due to: “mental retardation, hearing impairments (including deafness), speech or language impairments, visual impairments (including blindness), serious emotional disturbance, orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, or specific learning disabilities.”4 This illustrative listing of conditions in children might be used to apply to individuals throughout the lifespan.

Professional and consumer literature may use the following terms to characterize people with disabilities:

“Physical disability,” to describe orthopedic and mobility impairments, as well as sensory limitations such as vision and hearing, and speech impediments.

“Developmental disability,” defined as a “severe, chronic disability…that: (i) is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or a combination of mental and physical impairments; (ii) is manifested before that individual attains age 22; (iii) is likely to continue

indefinitely; (iv) results in substantial functional limitations in three or more…major life activit[ies].”5 More commonly, the term “developmental disability” is used to apply to people with intellectual disabilities as a result of mental retardation. In recent years, the terms “developmental” and “intellectual” disabilities are preferred as descriptive terms to “mental retardation.”6

“Cognitive disability,” resulting from neurological impairment at any age. Such a disability may be early onset and also called an intellectual or developmental disability, or later onset due to traumatic injury (such as head trauma from automobile or other accidents) or medical condition (such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s diseases).

“Psychiatric disability” to describe long-lasting behavioral, mental health, or emotional conditions.

Individuals may be “dually diagnosed;” in other words, have concurrent diagnoses or labels of multiple disabilities, such as intellectual and psychiatric disabilities.

Air Force Pararescue Physical Ability and Stamina Test (PAST)

The following Physical Ability and Stamina Test (PAST) is for new accessions for Pararescue. “New Accessions” means applicants who take the PAST before completing basic training and Technical School. Individuals who apply for Pararescue after completing basic training and technical school, and prior service applicants are considered “re-trainees,” and do not take the below PAST. Those individuals take the combined Pararescue/Combat Combat

Perceived Job Relatedness of Physical Ability Testing for Firefighters: Exploring Variations in Reactions

Although increasing research attention is being directed at applicant reactions to selection processes, little work has been directed at perceptions of physical abilities testing. This study examined the perceived job relatedness of physical abilities tests. Experience, self-efficacy, and consistency of test administration were found to be related to perceptions of job relevance. Implications for selection system design are discussed.

I n t e l l i g e n c e H a s T h r e e F a c e t s :

There are numerous intellectual abilities, but they fall neatly into a rational system

In this limited space I have attempted to convey information

regarding progress in discovering the nature of human intelligence. By intensive factor-analytic investigation, mostly within the past 20 years, the multifactor picture of intelligence has grown far beyond the expectations of those who have been most concerned. A comprehensive, systematic theoretical model known as the "structure of intellect" has been developed to put rationality into the

picture.

The model is a cubical affair, its three dimensions

representing ways in which the abilities differ from one another. Represented are: five basic kinds of operation, four substantive kinds of information or "contents," and six formal kinds of information or "products," respectively. Each intellectual ability involves a unique conjunction of one kind of operation, one kind of content, and one kind of product, all abilities being relatively independent in a population, but with common joint involvement in intellectual activity.

This taxonomic model has led to the discovery of many abilities not suspected before. Although the number of abilities is large, the 15 category constructs provide much parsimony. They also provide a systematic basis for viewing mental operations in general, thus suggesting new general psychological theory.

The implications for future intelligence testing and for education are numerous. Assessment of intellectual qualities should go much beyond present standard intelligence tests, which seriously neglect important abilities that contribute to problem-solving and creative performance in general. Educational philosophy, curriculum-building, teaching procedures, and examination methods should all be improved by giving attention to the structure of intellect as the basic frame of reference. There is much basis for expecting that various intellectual abilities can be improved in individuals, and the procedures needed for doing this should be clear