Nutrition of Canines

8/6/2019 Nutrition of Canines

1/23

Nutrition and feeding of dogs & common faults in dog

nutrition

Key words:

1. Introduction on canine digestion physiology

2. Nutritional requirements

3. Common Faults in canine nutrition

1. Introduction on canine digestion physiology:

Canines are monogastric animals (one compartment stomach) their digestive

system anatomy:

a) Mouth cavity

b) Esophagus

c) Stomach

d) Small and Large intestine

Esophagus

The esophagus is a small hose-like tube, which

connects the mouth to the stomach. As it leaves themouth, the esophagus follows a straight path through

the neck and chest, passing near the heart through the

diaphragm muscle and finally entering the stomach.

The walls of the esophagus are composed of muscles,

which move in wave-like contractions to push food

into the stomach. When there is no food in the

esophagus, the walls of the esophagus collapse in on

each other, making a closed space. Surgery on the

esophagus is always difficult because of its location

within the chest and its slow rate of healing.

Stomach

The dog's stomach is a sac-like structure designed to store large volumes of food and

continue the digestive process. The esophagus carries food to the stomach, where it

enters via a valve-like structure called the cardiac sphincter. On the interior surface of

the stomach is a series of folds called gastric folds. These folds function to help grind

and digest food. The inner stomach lining secretes acids and enzymes to break down

food. Once the initial stomach digestive process is complete, the partially digested

food exits the stomach through the pyloric sphincter area and then enters the

duodenum (the first segment of the small intestine). Once eaten, most food leaves the

stomach within twelve hours after entering.
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Small intestine

The small intestine is a tube-like structure, which extends between the stomach and

large intestine. It is the longest portion of the intestinal tract and is about two and a

half times the animal's total body length. An animal twenty-four inches long would

have about sixty inches of small intestine.

The small intestine in the dog has three parts. The first portion, which attaches to the

stomach, is the duodenum. In a forty-pound dog it is roughly ten inches long. The

middle (and longest) portion is called the jejunum. The shortest part is the ileum,

which connects to the large intestine.

The duodenum attaches to the stomach and is relatively short. It does, however, have

very important functions. The gallbladder and pancreas connect to the duodenum by

thebile and pancreatic ducts respectively. Enzymes and other secretions that are

important for digestion are produced by the liverand pancreas and pass through these

ducts to mix with the food in the duodenum.

The jejunum is the longest area of the small intestine and is rich in small, finger-like

projections called villi. Villi protrude inward into the food contents and provide a

large surface area to absorb nutrients. Intestinal contents of the jejunum empty into

the ileum and from there pass into the large intestine.

Diseases of the small intestine are usually not confined to just one area and are

therefore simply discussed as small intestinal disorders.

Large intestine

The large intestine of the dog basically connects the small intestine to the anus. The

large intestine is about sixteen inches in length in a forty-pound dog and is larger in

diameter than the small intestine. Its primary function is to absorb water from feces as

needed, thus keeping the hydration level of the body constant. Its other function is to

store fecal matter awaiting passage from the body.

The large intestine has several distinct parts. The cecum is a small, finger-like

projection near the junction with the small intestine. Its true function is unknown. The

colon is the longest portion of the large intestine and terminates just inside the anus to

the final portion of the large intestine called the rectum. The terms 'colon' and 'largeintestine' are commonly used interchangeably.

Physiology of digestive system in canines differ than the others animals as

The first step in the digestion of food is the secretion of saliva during mastication.

Amount and composition of the saliva are dependent on the type of food (especially

the water content) ingested. Enzyme activity levels are usually not influenced by the

rate of secretion.

The dog lacks the starch digesting enzyme a-amylase in its saliva; this lack is

reflected in the eating behaviour of dogs, which tend to bolt all but the toughest foods.
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Digestion in the stomach is determined by physical and chemical properties of

ingested food and by the concentrations of electrolytes and activity of enzymes.

Gastric emptying and pH are of major importance because they play a role in the

activity of enzymes. Also the contact time of the food with the enzymes is determined

by these factors.

The major enzymes present in the lumen of the stomach are lipase and pepsin.

Dog gastric lipase is a 49 kDa glycoprotein containing 13 % carbohydrate which is

formed by a single polypeptide chain of 377-379 amino acid residues, acting on both

long and short chain triglycerides. At pH 4 this lipase is 13 times more active on long-

chain than on short- chain triaceylglycerols. The lipase is irreversibly inactivated

below pH 1.5, its activity also decreases significantly above pH 6.0, and it is

completely inactivated at pH 7.0. At pH values below 6.0, which normally prevail in

the duodenum after ingestion of a liquid meal, a gastric lipase activity ofc. 90 % is

recovered.

Gastric secretion is influenced by the amount of protein in a meal and by the volume

of the meal. Some hormones will indirectly affect the acidity of the stomach contents.

ACTH increases hydrochloric acid production and secretin decreases production

through suppression of the release of gastrin. The nervous system also plays a role in

the secretion of hydrochloric acid as shown by Lawson etal. (1994): gastric acid

secretion is doubled when a calcitonin gene-related peptide antagonist is infused.

A very important aspect in the digestion of food is the secretion of pancreatic juice

into the proximal small intestine mainly due to the action of electrolytes and digestive

enzymes.

Composition ofpancreatic juice

The electrolyte composition ofthe pancreatic juice released into the intestine varies

among animal species and, in most animal species, with flow rate. Intermittent feeders

(eating at intervals), such as the dog, mainly secrete the juice during the digestive

phase after the ingestion of a meal .Because the amount and type of food play a role in

the composition and secretion rate of the pancreatic juice secreted, the range of the

values is very wide .

Dog pancreatic lipase and its catalytic properties are very similar to those of humans

and pigs. The lipase activity is stable above pH 4.0. The concentration slowly

decreases in the duodenum and jejunum between meal ingestion and at the end of

digestion.

Besides lipase, chymotrypsin is also an important pancreatic enzyme with significant

activity. A very high induction of chymotrypsin activity is caused by feeding protein-

rich meals (especially animal protein) whereas lactose meals produce a very low

chymotrypsin activity (1.45 f 0.66 U/kg wet weight).

Although the dog has no amylase activity in saliva, there is amylase activity in

pancreas secretions. The amylase activity in pancreatic tissue of an adult dog has been

reported to be 2316 f 2017 (383 to 6625 U/g wet weight) (n = 16). As for

chymotrypsin, maximum levels of amylase activity were found in the jejunum as well

as in the ileum. In contrast to chymotrypsin activity, the activity of amylase is

relatively high in carnivores.


4/23

The amylase output is increased by wheat bran supplementation in the diet, as well as

bicarbonate output and pancreatic juice flow. Pancreatic enzyme levels can adapt to

the type of food available; this is a physiological advantage that allows animals to

digest food components and energy for metabolism as efficiently as possible.

Besides food, hormones, such as pentagastrin, can also stimulate the exocrine

secretion of the pancreas: directly, resulting in a protein-rich secretion, and indirectly

by virtue of their effect on gastric acid secretion and consequently the release of

secretin and cholecystokinin when acid gains access to the duodenum.

Bile is continuously produced in the liver and is partly stored in the gall bladder

between meals or between periods of ingestion. In fasting dogs 29 to 53 % (median 42

%) of newly produced bile is stored in the gall bladder. The remainder is directly

released into the duodenum. Bile is stored in a concentrated form and is actively

evacuated into the duodenum in response to the ingestion of a meal. Therefore bile

from the gall bladder differs in concentration from bile directly secreted from theliver.In the dog, more than 99 % of the bile acids are conjugated with taurocholic

acid, taurodeoxycholic acid and taurochenodeoxycholic acid.

In response to food ingestion the gall bladder contracts and the pressure and the rate

of emptying of the gall bladder increase. Emptying peaks are found at 30 min after a

meal and the emptying decreases 2 h after food ingestion.

Digesta are rapidly neutralized as they pass from the stomach into the duodenum. The

average pH in the proximal duodenum is 6.2 (6.0-7.2) with diets based on cereal or

meat, the mean pH of the duodenal discharge during one activity period without the

administration of a test meal was 7-7. The pH was maintained between 7 and 8 after

the administration of volumes up to 1OOml.

The movement of digesta along the GIT is regulated via structural and physiological

properties of the digestive tract. It is also influenced by physical as well as nutritional

characteristics of the diet. Chyme is usually propelled through the small intestine

mainly by the direction of propagation of the small intestinal pacesetter potentials.

The motility of the intestine can be distinguished in different phases and can be

influenced by several factors, such as food components, hormones and the nervous

system.


5/23

2 Nutritional requirements and feeding of canines:

The nutritional requirements are classified according to age, breed as there is no one

food that is best for every dog. There is no single food that will give every dog the

brightest eyes, the shiniest coat, the most energy, and the best digestion. Dogs are

individuals just like people, which means that you could feed a brand of very well-formulated food to a group of dogs and find that most of them do great on it, some not

as well, and it may actually cause some gastrointestinal upset in a few dogs. Luckily,

there are many well-formulated dog foods to choose from today, and it is fine to try

several to determine which one works best for your dog.

First step is to make sure that the food you choose is appropriate for your dog's stage

of life. A puppy eating an adult food will not get the higher amounts of calories,

protein, vitamins, and minerals he needs for proper growth. An adult dog eating

puppy food is likely to become overweight. An older dog may need a senior food that

is more easily digested. When it comes to nutrition, one size does not fit all. Also the

selection of food type depends on the individual animal (dry food, semi-moist orcanned) although dry food is recommended most often.

High-quality ingredients are essential for a healthy food. Some economy brands of

dog food are made from inexpensive ingredients that are not easily digested, and

therefore, do not provide the best nutrition. While they may technically meet the legal

specifications for percentages of protein, fat, carbohydrates, etc., these foods have

lower energy values and lower-grade proteins. Because of this, many health-building

nutrients may pass right through your dog's system without being absorbed. It also

means that you have to feed larger amounts of that lower quality food to provide your

pet with the same nutrition as a smaller amount of premium food. When you compare

the cost of these foods on a per-serving basis, and realize how quickly you go through

a bag, economy foods may actually cost more in the long run.

When you are looking for a healthy food for your dog, reviewing the list of

ingredients on the back of the bag is a good place to start. By law, pet food labels

must list their ingredients by weight. Look for meat, fish, egg, or some type of meat

meal or fish meal as the first or second ingredient. Meat, fish, and eggs all have a high

biological value, which means they have a high percentage of protein in the form of

digestible, usable amino acids.

When you have done some comparison and picked out a well-formulated food, makesure you allow ample time for your dog to make the transition from his current food to

the new one. Normal bacteria in the intestine help your dog digest food. A sudden

change in food can lead to changes in the number and type of these bacteria, making it

harder for food to be digested, and resulting in intestinal upset. To avoid problems,

switch to a new food slowly, over the course of at least 7-10 days. Start by mixing

25% new and 75% old food, and feed that for at least 3 days. If all goes well, go to

50% of each type of food for 3 days, then 75% new and 25% old for 3 days. By now,

your pet should be ready to eat only the new food. If problems occur, consult your

veterinarian for advice.

After you have done all you can to make sure a food is nutritionally sound, take a lookat your dog after he has been on the new food for at least a month. Bright eyes, a

shiny coat, goodbody condition (not too thin or overweight), and good energy will let

you know you are doing a good job with your pet's nutrition.
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6/23

Dog foods labeled as 'complete and balanced' must meet standards established by the

Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) either by meeting a

nutrient profile or by passing a feeding trial. In 1995, the AAFCO's Canine Nutrition

Expert Subcommittee revised their Dog Food Nutrient Profiles.

There are now two separate nutrient profiles for dogs - one for growth (puppies) andone for adult maintenance. Maximum levels of intake of some nutrients have been

established for the first time because of concern that over nutrition, rather than under

nutrition, is a bigger problem with many pet foods today. The standards include

recommendations onprotein,fat, fat soluble vitamins,water soluble vitamins, and

mineral content of foods.

The levels of nutrients in the table below are expressed on a 'dry matter' (DM) basis.

On mostpet food labels, the levels listed in the guaranteed analysis are expressed on

an 'as fed' basis. To convert 'as fed' to 'dry matter' a simple conversion is necessary. If

a dry food has 10% moisture we know that it has 90% dry matter. So we look at the

label and check the protein level. That reads 20%. Next, we divide the 20 percentprotein by the 90% dry matter and we get 22%, which is the amount of protein on a

dry matter basis. Does this make sense so far? Good. Now let us compare this to

canned food that has 80% moisture. We know that with 80% moisture we have 20%

dry matter. The label shows 5% protein. So we take the 5% and divide it by 20% and

we get 25% protein on a dry matter basis. So the canned food has more protein per

pound on a dry matter basis after all the water is taken out. We can do the same for

fat, fiber, etc.
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AAFCO Dog Food Nutrient Profiles Published in 2008a

Nutrient

Units

DM

Basis

Growth and

Reproduction

Minimum

Adult Maintenance

MinimumMaximum

Protein % 22.0 18.0 -

Arginine % 0.62 0.51 -

Histidine % 0.22 0.18 -

Isoleucine % 0.45 0.37 -

Leucine % 0.72 0.59 -

Lysine % 0.77 0.63 -

Methionine-cystine % 0.53 0.43 -

Phenylalanine-

tyrosine

% 0.89 0.73 -

Threonine % 0.58 0.48 -

Tryptophan % 0.20 0.16 -

Valine % 0.48 0.39 -

Fatb % 8.0 5.0 -

Linoleic acid % 1.0 1.0 -

Minerals

Calcium % 1.0 0.6 2.5

Phosphorous % 0.8 0.5 1.6

Ca:P ratio % 1:1 1:1 2:1

Potassium % 0.6 0.6 -

Sodium % 0.3 0.06 -

Chloride (Cl) % 0.45 0.09 -

Magnesium % 0.04 0.04 0.3

Ironc mg/kg 80.0 80.0 3,000.0

Copperd mg/kg 7.3 7.3 250.0

Manganese mg/kg 5.0 5.0 -

Zinc mg/kg 120.0 120.0 1,000.0

Iodine mg/kg 1.5 1.5 50.0Selenium mg/kg 0.11 0.11 2.0

Vitamins

Vitamin A IU/kg 5,000.0 5,000.0 250,000.0
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Vitamin D IU/kg 500.0 500.0 5,000.0

Vitamin E IU/kg 50.0 50.0 1,000.0

Vitamin B1

(thiamin)

e

mg/kg 1.0 1.0 -

Vitamin B2

(riboflavin)

mg/kg 2.2 2.2 -

Vitamin B5

(pantothenic acid)

mg/kg 10.0 10.0 -

Vitamin B3 (niacin) mg/kg 11.4 11.4 -

Vitamin B6

(pyridoxine)

mg/kg 1.0 1.0 -

Folic Acid mg/kg 0.18 0.18 -

Vitamin B12

(cyanocobalamin)

mg/kg 0.022 0.022 -

Choline mg/kg 1200.0 1200.0 -

a Presumes an energy density of 3.5 kcal ME/g DM (metabolizable energy/gram dry matter), as

determined in accordance with Regulation PF9, which is based on the 'modified Atwater'

values of 3.5, 8.5, and 3.5 kcal/g for protein, fat, and carbohydrate (nitrogen-free extract, NFE),

respectively.

Rations greater than 4.0 kcal/g should be corrected for energy density; rations less than 3.5

kcal/g should notbe corrected for energy.

Rations of low-energy density should not be considered adequate for growth or reproductive

needs based on comparison to the Profiles alone.

b Although a true requirement for fat per se has not been established, the minimum level was

based on recognition of fat as a source of essential fatty acids, as a carrier of fat-soluble

vitamins, to enhance palatability, and to supply an adequate caloric density.

c Because of very poor bioavailability, iron from carbonate or oxide sources that are added tothe diet should not be considered as components in meeting the minimum nutrient level.

d Because of very poor bioavailability, copper from oxide sources that are added to the diet

should not be considered as components in meeting the minimum nutrient level.

e Because processing may destroy up to 90 percent of the thiamin in the diet, allowance in

formulation should be made to ensure the minimum nutrient level is met after processing.
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9/23

Feeding of Puppies:

Puppyhood is a time of rapid growth and development. Puppies require different

levels ofnutrients than do older dogs. Because of their special nutritional needs, yourpuppy should only receive puppy food for the first year. Most dog food manufacturers

offer a special formula for puppies and sometimes, large breed puppies, for whom the

protein, calcium, and phosphorus levels may be more critical.

Feeding the first few days

For the first few days you have your new puppy home, it is a good idea to continue

feeding the same type and brand of puppy food and use the same feeding schedule the

puppy was on before he came to you. Then you can slowly start using the food you

have chosen based on information you received from the breeder and veterinarian. A

pet needs to be switched to a new food slowly to prevent intestinal upset. By 'slowly'we mean over the course of 7-10 days go from feeding 100% of the previous food to

100% of the new food. For example, make a mixture that contains 25% of the new

food and 75% of the old food and feed that for several days. Then make it 50-50 for

several days, then 75% new food to 25% old food for several days. Then you can start

feeding 100% new food. If at any time your puppy starts vomiting, or has loose stools

or appears constipated, slow the rate at which you are switching him over.

Type of food

There are three forms of commercially produced dog foods: dry kibble, semi-moist(sealed packages), and moist (canned). Most trainers and veterinarians recommend

dry kibble food. We rarely recommend canned or the semi-moist foods. Canned foods

are typically higher in fat and are usually 80 to 83 percent water. That makes them

pretty expensive if you squeeze out the top 4/5 of the can. The semi-moist foods are

about 55% water and use high salt or sugar levels for preservation. Again, you are

paying too much for water and puppies do not need the salt and sugar. Dry foods are

only 9 to 11 percent water and are made of the same quality ingredients as the other

types. They are more economical, easier to use, and in our opinion, better for your

dog.

With dog food, you pretty much get what you pay for. Economy brands are cheap andare made of the cheapest ingredients available. As such, their energy values are lower,

and most importantly they often use poorer-grade proteins with lowerdigestibility,

which means much of the food passes right through their system and is not absorbed.

Premium brands, which include those classified as Super Premium and Performance,

use higher quality ingredients from sources with higher biological values. Because

better quality ingredients mean better digestibility, your puppy does not need to eat as

much and less waste is produced (which means less to pick up in the yard). Regular

brands, as you could guess, fall somewhere in between.

Remember, the back of the dog food bag does not tell the entire story, including

important information like percent digestibility - how much of the food your puppy'sbody will actually use. Talk to your veterinarian about the best food for your dog.
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10/23

Table scraps are a No-No

The only thing we dislike more than canned or pre-moistened foods for dogs is table

scraps. We strongly recommend never starting because once you do, it never stops.Most nutritionists believe that dogs that are on a good quality commercially prepared

dry food are nutritionally better off than their owners are. This has been shown in

many studies. Table scraps are usually higher in calories and certainly are not

balanced. Neither are they fortified with the vitamins and minerals that dogs require.

Table scraps could cause diarrhea or other gastrointestinal problems. Table scraps fill

them up, but do not provide the nutrients their rapidly-growing bodies need. Feeding

them from the table teaches them the bad habit of begging and may make house

training more difficult for you.

Cow's milk can cause problems

Cows milk has the sugar lactose. Dogs do not have the enzyme lactase that is

necessary to digest it. That is why they often develop diarrhea or softer stools when

fed milk. Most humans produce this digestive enzyme. Those that do not are said to

suffer from milk intolerances. Dogs do not need fresh milk.

Feeding schedule

The puppys feeding schedule will be somewhat dictated by your own personal

schedule. We do not want to leave food out for the puppy so that he can eat it

whenever he wants. You need to be there for the feedings because you want the puppyand his entire body on a set schedule. This is best accomplished by feeding the pup

what he will eat at specific times on a specific schedule. Puppies under six months of

age should be fed three times daily; after 6 months they may be fed twice daily.

By feeding on a set schedule, the dog will then go to the bathroom on a more set

schedule and make housetraining easier and faster.

Make it a habit to give the puppy some quiet time after the meal. Do not let the

children romp and play with him for the first hour to an hour and a half after eating.

This can lead to some stomach upsets that can sometimes be very serious. The puppy

will probably need to go to the bathroom, however.

Amount to feed

The amount of food given with each meal should never be dictated by what is on the

back of the puppy food bag. That is a good place to start, but from our experience,

many puppies need less than what is on the bag, and a few may need more. Adjust the

amount fed to maintain your puppy at an optimal weight. Your veterinarian can help

you determine the proper amount to feed to keep your puppy at optimal condition.

Remember to have water available with or immediately following the meal.

One of the common complaints that veterinarians hear from dog owners, especiallythose with animals less than 18 months of age, is that they never eat enough. The

owners feel the dog is not putting on weight or growing as fast as they think she

should. They are tempted to somehow encourage their animals to eat more. Do not do

it. The growth rates and appetites of young animals on a good quality food are

primarily dictated by their genetics. Do not try to make your dog grow faster than she
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11/23

should or into something she is not. This will only cause problems. Artificially

accelerated growth leads to bone and joint disorders. Feed them the amounts they

want and let their bodies dictate their needs.

Treats

Treats should never account for more than 10% of your puppy's caloric intake (which

is not much in Toy breeds). Your puppy's food is his sole source for the nutrition he

needs, so do not 'fill up' your puppy on treats before meal time.

Hard chew treats keep your puppy entertained and may improve dental health by

exercising the gums and scraping the teeth. It also satisfies your teething pup's need to

chew.

Treats can be used during training to reward good behavior, but be careful not to

overdo it.

Water

Puppies may seem to drink large quantities ofwater. They need water and cannot be

deprived of it. A dog or cat can lose almost all of his body fat and half of his protein

mass (muscle) and still survive. However, if this same animal loses 15% of his body

water, he will die. Water is the most important nutrient of all.

For dogs of any age that eat dry food, water will be needed to rehydrate it in their

stomachs for digestion. Puppies also need more water per pound than adults do

because they are growing. Growth comes through very active metabolism at thecellular level. These processes produce many wastes and by-products that are excreted

into the blood. It requires plenty of water to carry these substances to and be flushed

through the kidneys. It is okay to schedule when your puppy drinks, but on a daily

basis you must allow her to consume what she wants and needs.

Providing fresh water is important. Infectious agents and diseases such as

leptospirosis, Giardia, E. coli, and Cryptosporidium can be transmitted through

contaminated water sources. Providing fresh water greatly reduces the risk of disease

and therefore keeps your pet happy and healthy.

Nutrient requirement for adults:

1. Water

2. Fiber

3. Carbohydrate

4. Protein

5. Fat

6. Vitamins and Minerals
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1. Water requirement:

Water is the most important of all the nutrients. An animal can loose all of its fat and

half of its protein and survive, but only a 10% loss of body water causes seriousillness. Water constitutes 84% of a newborn puppy and 60% of an adult dog. Water is

necessary for almost every function the animal body performs. While critical in life,

some animals have adapted to having very little of it around. Some northern sled dogs

will go months without any liquid water, surviving on consumed snow and ice. Lions

in the Kalahari Desert will go up to four months, surviving on only the moisture

derived from their prey. Hibernating bears will sometimes go for six months or longer

without taking in any water and deliver and nurse cubs at the same time! Yet on a hot

day, the average dog or cat can become dehydrated in only a few hours if fresh water

is not present. Water is so essential that it is often taken for granted. Considering the

huge quantity and importance of water consumed in a lifetime it is important that the

quality of the water is the best possible.

A general rule of thumb is that an animal needs to consume 2.5 times the amount of

water, as its daily intake of food. If an animal eats 2 lbs. of dry food it should

consume 5 lbs. of water. (There are 8 lbs. in a gallon.) If he eats 4 oz. of dry food, he

should drink 10 ounces of water (1 cup). Factors such as high heat and exercise or

lactation can increase the needed amount two or three times above normal. Most

animals consume more than their daily requirement. A little extra water consumption

never hurts, but too little can be catastrophic. Animals that eat canned foods get most

of their moisture from the food and may drink much less than an animal on dry food.

Not all water is created equal. The amount of total dissolved solids is a useful overall

index to the quality of drinking water. Water containing less than 5000 parts per

million of total dissolved solids is considered acceptable for pets. Water containing

more than 7000 parts per million is considered unacceptable for livestock. All

untreated water can harbor bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Giardia is one of the most

common problems acquired through untreated water. Household tap water is

considered to be very safe, though just as with people, water that is high in nitrates,

iron, or magnesium can pose long term health risks.

Water consumption is closely related to performance. Sled dog racers have known

this for years. They will go to great measures to ensure that their dogs consume wateron a very regular basis and will stop frequently to warm and flavor the water with

beef broth to ensure that the animals stay well hydrated. Dogs that drink during

exercise stay cooler and are able to burn glucose more effectively. One study showed

that dogs that were given water during exercise increased working ability by 80%.

2. Fiber:

Sources

Fiber is found in a variety of sources, but in pet foods, it comes primarily from the

cell walls of plants and grains present in the food. Almost all carbohydrate sourceswill contain some fiber. Some of the most common sources of fiber in pet foods

include rice hulls, corn and corn by-products, soybean hulls, beet pulp, bran, peanut

hulls, and pectin.
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Requirements and function

Fiber is not considered an essential nutrient in the diets of cats and dogs, but it is

present in almost every commercial pet diet. Dogs and cats do not derive any energyfrom fiber, however, improved colon health is a benefit of having fiber in the diet, and

therefore, its presence in pet food is often considered beneficial. There are several

medical conditions that are greatly improved by the addition of fiber in the diet and

they will be discussed in depth later in the article.

The function of fiber in the diet is to increase both bulk and water in the intestinal

contents. Fiber will shorten intestinal transit time in pets with fast transit times, and

speed up the transit times in animals with slow transit times. What this means is that

fiber will help treat both diarrhea and constipation. Fiber absorbs extra water in

diarrheic stools, and it helps hold onto water, which prevents constipation. Some fiber

is broken down in the intestine into fatty acids. These fatty acids will aid in preventingthe overgrowth of harmful bacteria. They will also help the colon cells to recover

from injury and possibly help reduce the risk of colon cancer.

3. Carbohydrate:

The value of carbohydrates in dog and cat foods is often debated among nutritionists.

Despite the debate, most commercial dry foods contain between 30% and 70%

carbohydrates. If we examine the diets of the wild canines and felines that most

closely resemble our domestic pets, we recognize that the wild canines do eat some

carbohydrates through the consumption of berries and intestinal contents of their prey.

However, it would rarely constitute even 30% of their diet, and in wild felines, the

carbohydrate intake would be less than 5%, if any at all. This then raises the question

as to why we feed our domestic pets so much carbohydrate, when it appears to be an

unnatural food source.

Canines and felines have the ability to consume large quantities of protein and then

convert that protein into energy in addition to muscle. They also have the ability to

convert many carbohydrate sources into the same kind of energy. This ability to

utilize both carbohydrates and proteins as an energy source explains how we are able

to feed our pets a high carbohydrate diet, particularly when we feed processed

carbohydrates that are easily digested by canines. While cats are similar to dogs intheir ability to utilize some carbohydrates, cats need a much higher level of protein

and fat to remain healthy. So, essentially we are meeting the dog's or cat's protein

requirement with meat, and then meeting their energy and fiber requirements with

carbohydrates instead of the protein they would often use in the wild.

Using carbohydrates as an energy source has benefits for the manufacturer and

consumer. Carbohydrates are less expensive and more readily available as an energy

source than proteins. Carbohydrates are also essential in the formation of dry pet food.

The starchy carbohydrates are used to add structure, texture, and form to kibbled food

helping to create a product that is stable and easy to feed. Canned foods could be

composed without the addition of carbohydrates, but dry kibble could not exist in itscurrent form without carbohydrates.


14/23

Soluble carbohydrates used in pet foods

Soluble carbohydrates are the starchy portion of a plant that can be easily broken

down in the digestive tract of the dog or cat. Soluble carbohydrates are found in highconcentrations in cereal grains such as rice, wheat, corn, barley, and oats. The cooked

or extruded forms of soluble carbohydrates found in most pet foods are easily and

rapidly digested.It should be noted that not all forms of starch are easily digested by

dogs and cats. Raw cereal grains are digested much more slowly in the intestine and

there are some starchy carbohydrates, including raw potatoes and bananas, that are

completely resistant to digestion in pets.

Health problems related to carbohydrates

While carbohydrates are an important part of dry commercial pet foods, they can

occasionally cause medical problems in dogs and cats including obesity andmaldigestion. Obesity occurs when an animal's energy needs are exceeded and the

extra glucose created by the digestion of the carbohydrates is stored as fat. Realize

that an excess of carbohydrates, fats, or proteins can all lead to obesity, but

carbohydrates are often the most common energy source and are easily converted to

glucose.

Signs of maldigestion can range from mild to severe and often include excessive gas,

bloating, and diarrhea. As carbohydrates pass through the digestive tract, enzymes

such as amylase, lactase, maltase, sucrase, and disaccharidase break them down into

usable forms. Animals that have deficiencies in these enzymes will be unable to

adequately break down these carbohydrates. The undigested carbohydrates will then

ferment and create bacterial overgrowth resulting in the production of gas and excess

water creating the symptoms of maldigestion. In some animals, the lack of enzymes

may be due to an actual deficiency, in others, infections orinflammation in the

intestinal tract may result in a breakdown of the normally available enzymes.

Lactose intolerance is a common form of maldigestion. Young animals have the

enzyme lactase, which breaks down the sugar in milk called lactose. Often, as an

animal age, it stops producing lactase. When that animal consumes milk products, the

lactose is not digested and the symptoms of maldigestion occur. We also recognize

that animals have different tolerances for the amount of carbohydrates that they candigest. Whereas, many dogs can tolerate the level of carbohydrates found in most

commercial dog foods, there are some dogs that will develop maldigestion when fed

these foods. If these dogs are fed a lower carbohydrate diet, or if they are fed a

digestive enzymatic supplement, they can usually tolerate the carbohydrates that are

present.

4. Protein:

Protein requirements vary from species to species and can vary greatly during the

rapid growth stages and for elderly animals with compromised kidneys. I will explain

some of the special circumstances that require altered levels of protein but as a rulethe following levels apply.
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15/23

Species and

Growth Stage

Recommended

Protein %

Puppy 28%

Adult dog 18%

Performance dog 25%

Racing sled dog 35%

Lactating dog 28%

Pregnant and lactatingdogs may need to be fed puppy chow to give them the

necessary protein. Sick, weak, and debilitated animals also need extra protein.

Animals with kidney disease may need to be on a protein-restricted, but highbiological value diet to lessen the effects of the kidney disease.

5. Fat requirement:

Fats are concentrated forms of energy. Per unit of weight, they contain approximately

two-and-one-fourth times the energy as an equivalent weight of protein or

carbohydrates. Since fats are abundantly available in both plants and animals, they are

an economical source of productive energy and fatty acids. Fats can also be

synthesized in the body from fatty acids in the diet, from carbohydrates, and from

metabolites of protein. Fats serve many functions. They supply energy, contribute to

palatability, influence the texture of foods, and carry fat soluble vitamins. The type

and quantity of fats in the diet are extremely important since they can influence

appetite and food intake, the ability to perform muscular work, haircoat condition, and

the type of fat deposited in the body.

Sources of fat

Many common fats and oils can be utilized effectively by dogs and cats. Some

common forms of fats used commercially are lard, tallow, poultry fat, cottonseed oil,

and hydrogenated vegetable oils. Highly unsaturated fats such as fish oil may produce

a relative dietary Vitamin E deficiency if fed in high concentrations. Hydrogenatedcoconut oil is poorly digested and can lead to hepatic lipidosis in cats. Neither of these

oils are commonly used in commercial diets. The fats that are found in commercial

dog foods are around 90% digestible and just slightly less in cat foods.

Essential fatty acids

Essential fatty acids are the fatty acids present in fats that are required by the body.

The three most important are linoleic, alpha-linolenic, and arachidonic. In dogs,

arachidonic acid can be synthesized from linoleic acid. Cats, however, cannot

synthesize arachidonic and need it in their diet along with linoleic acid and alpha-

linolenic. Essential fatty acids should constitute at least 2% of the daily caloric intaketo prevent deficiencies. The percentage of linoleic acid varies greatly depending on

the fat source.
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16/23

Fat/Oil Linoleic Acid Arachidonic Acid

Safflower Oil 72.7% -

Corn Oil 55.4% -

Poultry Fat 22.3% 1%

Tallow 4.3% 0.2%

Fish Oil 2.7% 25%

Fat requirements

The requirements for fat in the diet are very different from what is actually fed or

present in most commercial foods. Because it is a good source ofcaloriesandincreases palatability, most foods contain more than required. Some weight-reducing

or homemade diets can be deficient especially in linoleic acid. Another problem is

that foods are often stored in high heat and humidity, which hastens rancidity and the

breakdown of fatty acids. The minimum daily required linoleic acid for all species is

1% of the diet.

Species and

Growth Stage

Minimum

Required Fat

Recommended Fat

Puppy 8% 17%

Adult Dog 5% 9-15%

Performance Dog 8% 20%

Racing Sled Dog - 50%

Lactating Dog 8% 17%

Fat deficiencies and excesses

An essential fatty acid deficiency may result in impaired reproductive efficiency. In

addition, a deficiency of essential fatty acids can impair wound healing, cause a dry

dull coat and scaly skin, and cause an increase in skin infection andpyoderma.

Puppies and kittens that are not fed adequate amounts of fat can have developmental

problems and growth deformities.

The most prevalent problem related to fat is over consumption and obesity. It is

estimated that up to half of all pets in the United States suffer from obesity. The

problems with obesity are many and are covered in ourWeight Loss Control section.

Feeding a special diet low in fat and high in fiber is commonly done to help withweight loss. One of the problems with these diets is that very often the animals will

have a dull coat and dry skin as a result of the reduced fatty acids. One solution to this

is to feed a concentrated fatty acid supplement that is low in calories compared to the

essential and beneficial fatty acids that it provides.
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17/23

Another problem with acutely overfeeding fat can be pancreatitis, a severe and

sometimes life-threatening disease often associated with feeding fatty table scraps. Fat

malabsorption and resultant diarrhea due to decreased pancreatic enzymes is a

problem in some dogs. Additives such as Pancreazyme and Viokase are used to

replace the missing enzymes. Feeding a well balanced diet suited for the growth stage

of your pet is the best way to prevent fat related problems.

6. Vitamins and Minerals supplementation:

a. Fat soluble vitamins and signs of deficiency

Vitamin

Recommended

Minimum

Daily Dose for

Dogs

Toxic Dose

(This dose must

be given daily

for months to

create toxicity.)

Sources Signs of Deficiencies

A

2272 IU/lb of

food consumed

on a dry matter

basis

113,600 IU/lb of

food consumed

on a dry matter

basis

Liver, fish liver

oil, vegetables,

dairy products

Night blindness, retarded

growth, poor quality skin and

hair

D

227 IU/lb of

food consumed

on a dry matter

basis

2272 IU/lb of

food consumed

on a dry matter

basis

Sunshine, dairy

products, fish

liver oil

Rickets, poor eruption of

permanent teeth

E

23 IU/lb of

food consumed

on a dry matter

basis

455 IU/lb of food

consumed on a

dry matter basis

Cold pressed

vegetable oils,

meats, nuts,

green leafy

vegetables

Reproductive failure, brown

bowel syndrome

KSynthesized in

the body

none Kelp, alfalfa,

egg yolk

Increased clotting time and

hemorrhage

b. Water soluble vitamins and signs of deficiency

Vitamin

RecommendedMinimum

Daily Dose for

Dogs

Sources Signs of Deficiencies

Vitamin C Not required,

synthesized in

the liver of

healthy dogs

Citrus

fruits and

vegetables

Slowed healing, increased

susceptibility to disease(?)

Vitamin B1(Thiamin) .01 mg/lb. Plants,

fruit,

vegetables,

milk, meat

Loss of appetite, loss of reflexes, loss

of nerve control, weakness

Niacin .12 mg/lb. Meat, meat

by-

products

Loss of appetite and weight, inflamed

gums, hemorrhagic diarrhea
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18/23

Vitamin

B2(Riboflavin)

.05 mg/lb. Organ

meats and

dairy

products

Poor growth, eye abnormalities, heart

failure

VitaminB5(Pantothenic Acid)

.1 mg/lb. Meats andvegetables

Hair loss, diarrhea, premature graying

Vitamin

B6(Pyridoxine)

.01 mg/lb. Found in

most

foods,

damaged

during

processing

Anemia, poor growth, skin lesions

Folic Acid .002 mg/lb. Organ

meats

Hypoplasia of bone marrow,

macrocytic anemia

Vitamin

B12(Cyanocobalamin,

cobalamin)

.00025 mg/lb. Organ

meats,

animal

sources

Macrocytic anemia

Biotin .001 mg/lb. Corn,

soybeans,

beef liver

Poor hair, dry skin, diarrhea

Minerals supplementation:

Minerals are usually grouped into macro and micro categories. Macro-minerals are

needed in greater amounts in the diet, and are found in larger amounts in the body

than micro-minerals.

Macro-minerals include:

Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P)

Magnesium (Mg)

Potassium (K)

Sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl)

Micro-minerals include:

Copper (Cu)

Iodine (I)

Iron (Fe)

Manganese (Mn)

Selenium (Se)

Zinc (Zn)
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19/23

1. Ca & P :

Growth Stage% Calcium in the

Diet*

% Phosphorous in

the Diet*

Peak growth andlactation

1.0-1.8 0.8-1.6

Half grown and last

trimester of

pregnancy

0.8-1.5 0.6-1.2

Adult non-

reproducing

0.5-0.9 0.4-0.8

On a dry matter basis

Many foods that are low in calcium are high in phosphorous, and in addition, manyfoods that are high in calcium are equally high in phosphorous. Therefore, providing

the correct calcium to phosphorous ratio in the diet can be difficult unless the proper

minerals are added. It is very important that calcium and phosphorous be fed at the

correct ratio of around 1.2 parts of calcium for each 1 part of phosphorous (1.2:1).

Magnesium: Dog and adult cat food should contain at least 0.04% magnesium,

Calcium and phosphorus affect the body's magnesium balance; because high amounts

of calcium or phosphorus decrease the absorption of magnesium from the intestines.

Potassium: Dog and cat foods should contain at least 0.6% potassium (on a dry matter

basis). Almost all pet food diets will meet the requirements of a normal dog or cat.Additional potassium may need to be added to the diet of pets suffering from the

diseases which result in an increased loss of potassium.

Sodium and Chloride: in general, the chloride requirement is 1.5 times the sodium

requirement. This is because most of the sodium and chloride come from salt, and by

weight, salt provides 1.5 times more chloride than sodium. Adult dog foods should

contain at least 0.06% sodium and 0.09% chloride (on a dry matter basis). Puppy

foods should contain 5 times that much. Kitten and cat foods should contain at least

0.2% sodium and 0.3% chloride (on a dry matter basis). Most pet foods contain levels

much higher than these minimum daily requirements.

Microminerals:

Copper: Dogs should receive 3.3 mg of copper daily for every pound of dog food they

eat (on a dry matter basis). The copper should be in a form other than copper oxide.

Iodine: Dogs should receive 0.7 mg of iodine daily for every pound of dog food they

eat (on a dry matter basis).

Iron: Dogs and cats should receive 36.4 mg of iron daily for every pound of food they

eat (on a dry matter basis). The iron should be in a form other than iron oxide or ironcarbonate.

Manganese: Dogs should receive 2.3 mg of manganese daily for every pound of dog

food they eat (on a dry matter basis).
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Selenium: Dogs and cats should receive 0.05 mg of selenium daily for every pound of

food they eat (on a dry matter basis).

Zinc:

Growth stage

Minimum

recommended

daily amount of

zinc in mg/kg of

food consumed

Maximum mg that

should be fed

Growing puppy 120 1000

Adult dog 120 1000

Racing sled dogs 150 (Optimum) 300

3. Common faults in canine nutrition:

1. Switching the pet to a new food:

When feeding your pet a new food, introduce it slowly. If you feed too much too

soon, your pet could suffer from stomach upset, diarrhea, vomiting, excess gas, or

constipation.

Normal bacteria in the intestine help to digest food. A sudden change in food can

result in changes in the number and type of bacteria and their ability to help digest

food. Therefore, a pet needs to be switched to a new food slowly to prevent intestinal

upset. By 'slowly,' we mean over the course of 7-10 days go from feeding 100% of the

previous food to 100% of the new food. For example, make a mixture that contains

25% of the new food and 75% of the old food and feed that for several days. Then

make it 50-50 for several days, then 75% new food to 25% old food for several days.

Then you can start feeding 100% new food. If at any time your pet starts vomiting, or

has loose stools or appears constipated, slow the rate at which you are switching him

over.
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2. Cow's milk can cause problems:

Dogs and cats do not have the properenzymes to properly break down the sugar in

milk which is called 'lactose.' You may have heard of people who are lactose-

intolerant. They are also missing these digestive enzymes. If the proper enzymes are

not present, the lactose remains undigested and tends to ferment in the intestine andcause diarrhea. Some pets can tolerate a little milk, others, none at all. If your pet

enjoys and appears to tolerate milk, you can give your pet small amounts. Better yet,

give your pet one of the special cat or dog milks on the market that has had the lactose

removed.

3. Colostrum not given in the first 24 hrs:

the colostrum should be given to the puppies to give them immunity and without

receiving large quantities of colostrum, a newborn's chances of survival are greatly

reduced. It is not only a source of protection and nutrition, it is just as important in

maintaining the fluid level of the young animal. To function correctly, thecardiovascular system (i.e., the heart and blood system) needs a high volume of fluid.

Newborns are properly hydrated when theirmucous membranes such as gums are

moist. Water makes up 75-80% of the newborn's body weight. Dehydration is a

serious condition in puppies.

4. Excess feeding of calcium:

Feeding excess calcium is often blamed for contributing to bone problems in young

rapidly-growing dogs. There does appear to be a link between the incidence of

hypertrophic osteodystrophy (HOD) and osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), which are

two diseases of young dogs with developing bones. Hip dysplasia has also been linked

to the overfeeding of calcium. In recent studies, researchers fed dogs calcium at a

much higher than recommended amount, and compared the incidence of disease in

dogs that were fed normal or less than normal calcium levels. As would be expected,

the animals that were overfed calcium showed increased incidence of skeletal

problems including hip dysplasia.

5. Obesity:

Main cause of obesity is overfeeding which may lead to several diseases such as

Diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes), Damage to joints, bones, and ligaments, Heartdisease and increased blood pressure, decreased liver function, digestive disorders,

decreased immune function, skin and hair coat problems and decreased quality and

length of life.

6. Contamination of food and water

7. Feeding of your dog with one of the following:
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Items to avoid Reasons to avoid

Alcoholic beverages Can cause intoxication,coma, and death.

Baby food Can contain onion powder, which can be toxic to dogs. (Please see

onion below.) Can also result in nutritional deficiencies, if fed in large

amounts.

Bones from fish,

poultry, or other meat

sources

Can cause obstruction or laceration of the digestive system.

Cat food Generally too high in protein and fats.

Chocolate, coffee,

tea, and other caffeine

Contain caffeine, theobromine, or theophylline, which can be toxic and

affect the heart and nervous systems.

Citrus oil extracts Can cause vomiting.

Fat trimmings Can causepancreatitis.

Grapes and raisins Contain an unknown toxin, which can damage the kidneys. There have

been no problems associated with grape seed extract.

Hops Unknown compound causes panting, increased heart rate, elevatedtemperature, seizures, and death.

Human vitamin

supplements

containingiron

Can damage the lining of the digestive system and be toxic to the other

organs including the liver and kidneys.

Large amounts of

liver

Can cause Vitamin A toxicity, which affects muscles and bones.

Macadamia nuts Contain an unknown toxin, which can affect the digestive and nervous

systems and muscle.

Marijuana Can depress the nervous system, cause vomiting, and changes in the

heart rate.

Milk and other dairy

products

Some adult dogs and cats do not have sufficient amounts of the enzyme

lactase, which breaks down the lactose in milk. This can result in

diarrhea. Lactose-free milk products are available for pets.

Moldy or spoiled

food, garbage

Can contain multiple toxins causing vomiting and diarrhea and can also

affect other organs.

Mushrooms Can contain toxins, which may affect multiple systems in the body,

cause shock, and result in death.

Onions and garlic

(raw, cooked, or

powder)

Contain sulfoxides and disulfides, which can damage red blood cells

and cause anemia. Cats are more susceptible than dogs. Garlic is less

toxic than onions.

Persimmons Seeds can cause intestinal obstruction and enteritis.

Pits from peaches and

plums

Can cause obstruction of the digestive tract.

Potato, rhubarb, and

tomato leaves; potatoand tomato stems

Contain oxalates, which can affect the digestive, nervous, and urinary

systems. This is more of a problem in livestock.

Raw eggs Contain an enzyme called avidin, which decreases the absorption of

biotin (a B vitamin). This can lead to skin and hair coat problems. Raw

eggs may also contain Salmonella.

Raw fish Can result in a thiamine (a B vitamin) deficiency leading to loss of

a etite seizures and in severe cases death. More common if raw fish
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Nutrition of Canines

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