Theories of Moral Development

Introduction

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) devised a theory in which he explained s six stages of moral development divided into three levels.

Morality is the system one uses to decide what is right and wrong; how one’s conscience affects choices. 

Moral development refers to the capacity of the individual to act in accord with conscience and moral imperatives rather than egocentric values.

Kholberg defines moral judjments "as judgments of value, as social judgments, and as judgments that oblige an individual to take action.”

He was inspired by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and the American philosopher John Dewey.

Moral development accross life span

By the second year of life, “moral emotions” are emerged. By 36 months, most children demonstrate the internalization of parental standards. During the school years, the importance of rules and adhering to them become well defi ned. Moral dvelopment after adolescent period is complex and influenced by social factors.

Kohlberg's Theory

Kohlberg explained three levels of reasoning and six stages of moral development . Each level has two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning.

Three levels of reasoning 1. Preconventional - reason according to the self perspective2. Conventional - reasoning based on social rules and norms 3. Postconventional - use the principle behind the social norm to direct their behavior.

 Stages

1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation 2. Individualism and Exchange3. Good Interpersonal Relationships4. Maintaining the Social Order5. Social Contract and Individual Rights6. Universal Principles

The first two stages have preconventional level of morality. During stage 3 and 4, child shows conventional level of morality. Postconventional level of resoning is observed during stage 5 and 6.

Conclusion

Parents influence the moral development of their children. Kolberg's theory explained moral development in a philosophical and psychological context.

Object relations theory

Introduction

Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory. Ronald Fairbairn coined the term "object relations and Melanie Klein is most commonly

identified with the term "object relations theory" It describes the process of developing a mind as one grows in relation to others in the

environment. The theory may be defined as “a system of psychological explanation based on the premise

that the mind comprises elements taken in from outside, primarily aspects of the functioning of other persons."

The theory emphasizes interpersonal relations, primarily in the family and especially between mother and child.

Major proponents are o Melanie Klein o D.W. Winnicott o Margaret Mahler

Major Concepts

Theory guides inner world exploration and recognizes the introjected persons of the past living within the patient’s mind, comprising the person’s psychic structure (Mohl PC, 2008).

Introjects

Introjects refers to the internalized images of others within the patient. Focus of attention of the theory.

Objects

The "objects" of the theory are both real others in one's world, and one's internalized image of others.

Objects are usually persons, parts of persons, or symbols of one of these.

Object relations

“object relations” refers to interpersonal relations or specific intrapsychic structures.

Representation

refers to the way the person has or possesses an object.

Psychological Positions

Klein explains two two psychological “positions” during the first year of life. o paranoid–schizoid position - during the first 6 months of lifeo depressive position - during the second 6 months.

Paranoid–schizoid position is characterized by the defenses of projection, introjection,

projective identifi cation, splitting, idealization, omnipotence, and denial. Depressive position is characterized by d epressive anxiety.

Implications to Nursing

The object relations theory helps understanding of children's behaviour and guides nursing practice.

The theory provides conceptual model for practicing psychodynamic family.

Tidal Model of Mental Health NursingDr Phil Barker and Poppy Buchanan-Barker

a mental health recovery model used as the basis for interdisciplinarymental health care developed by Phil Barker and Poppy Buchanan-Barker of  University of Newcastle, UK. a mid-range theory of nursing main focus: helping individual people, make their own voyage of discovery

Description of the model

In the Tidal Model, the person, the individual is represented, theoretically, by three personal domains: Self, World and Others .

The theory suggests that our mental wellbeing depends on our individual life experience, including our sense of self, perceptions, thoughts and actions.

Assumption

1. A belief in the virtue of curiosity : the person is the world authority on their life and its problems. By expressing genuine curiosity, the professional can learn something of the ‘mystery’ of the person’s story.

2. Recognition of the power of resourcefulness, rather than focusing on problems, deficits or weaknesses

3. Respect for the person's wishes, rather than being paternalistic.4. Acceptance of the paradox of crisis as opportunity5. Acknowledging that all goals must belong to the person6. The virtue of pursuing elegance—the simplest possible means should be sought

The Ten Commitments

1. Value the voice – the person's story is paramount2. Respect the language – allow people to use their own language3. Develop genuine curiosity – show interest in the person's story4. Become the apprentice – learn from the person you are helping5. Reveal personal wisdom – people are experts in their own story6. Be transparent – both the person and the helper, Professionals are in a privileged position and

should model confidence, by at all times being transparent and helping to ensure the person understand exactly what is being done 

7. Use the available toolkit – the person's story contains valuable information as to what works and what doesn't

8. Craft the step beyond – the helper and the person work together to construct an appreciation of what needs to be done "now"

9. Give the gift of time – time is the midwife of change. The question that should be asked is, "How do we use this time?"

10. Know that change is constant – this is a common experience for all people

The Twenty Competencies

Competency 1: The practitioner demonstrates a capacity to listen actively to the person’s story. Competency 2: The practitioner shows commitment to helping the person record her/his story

in her/his own words as an ongoing part of the process of care.  Competency 3: The practitioner helps the person express her/himself at all times in her/his

own language. Competency 4: The practitioner helps the person express her/his understanding of particular

experiences through use of personal stories, anecdotes, similes or metaphors. Competency 5: The practitioner shows interest in the person’s story by asking for clarification

of particular points, and asking for further examples or details. Competency 6: The practitioner shows a willingness to help the person in unfolding the story

at the person’s own rate. Competency 7: The practitioner develops a care plan based, wherever possible, on

the expressed needs, wants or wishes of the person. Competency 8: The practitioner helps the person identify specific problems of living, and what

might need to be done to address them. Competency 9: The practitioner helps the person develop awareness of what works for or

against them, in relation to specific problems of living. Competency 10: The practitioner shows interest in identifying what the person thinks specific

people can or might be able to do to help them further in dealing with specific problems of living.

Competency 11: The practitioner helps the person identify what kind of change would represent a step in the direction of resolving or moving away from a specific problem of living.

Competency 12: The practitioner helps the person identify what needs to happen in the immediate future, to help the person to begin to experience this ‘positive step’ in the direction of their desired goal.

Competency 13: The practitioner helps the person develop their awareness that dedicated time is being given to addressing their specific needs.

Competency 14: The practitioner acknowledges the value of the time the person gives to the process of assessment and care delivery.

Competency 15: The practitioner helps the person identify and develop awareness of personal strengths and weaknesses.

Competency 16: The practitioner helps the person develop self-belief, therefore promoting their ability to help themselves.

Competency 17: The practitioner helps the person develop awareness of the subtlest of changes – in thoughts, feelings or action.

Competency 18: The practitioner helps the person develop awareness of how they, others or events have influenced these changes.

Competency 19: The practitioner aims to ensure that the person is aware, at all times, of the purpose of all processes of care.

Competency 20:  The practitioner ensures that the person is provided with copies of all assessment and care planning documents for their own reference.

Change TheoryKurt Lewin

INTRODUCTION

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) is considered as the father of social psychology He was born in Germany, later emigrated to the US. He is well known for his writings on group dynamics, group therapy and social psychology. Kurt Lewin introduced his field theory concepts, emphasizing that the group differs from the

simple sum of its parts. Lewin coined the term group dynamics in 1939. His field theory states that "one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to

the social situation in which one finds oneself."

LEWIN"S CHANGE THEORY

His most influencial theory was his model of the change process in human systems. Kurt Lewin theorized a three-stage model of change that is known as the unfreezing-change-

refreeze model that requires prior learning to be rejected and replaced. Lewin's theory states behavior as "a dynamic balance of forces working in opposing directions. "

CONCEPTS

Driving forces

Driving forces are forces that push in a direction that causes change to occur. Driving forces facilitate change because they push the person in the desired direction. They cause a shift in the equilibrium towards change.

Restraining forces

Restraining forces are forces that counter driving forces. Restraining forces hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction. Restraining forces cause a shift in the equilibrium which opposes change

Equilibrium

Equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs

Equilibrium can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.

STAGES

Consists of  three distinct and vital stages:

1. “Unfreezing”

Unfreezing is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way.

Unfreezing is necessary to overcome the strains of individual resistance and group conformity. Unfreezing can be achieved by the use of three methods.

o First, increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo.

o Second, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium.

o Third, find a combination of the two methods listed above.

2. “Moving to a new level or Changing” or Movement

This stage involves a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive.

3. “Refreezing”

Refreezing is establishing the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the “standard operating procedure.”

Without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways.

Biopsychosocial ModelGeorge L. Engel

\

Introduction

BPS model is an interdisciplinary model that assumes that health and wellness are caused by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

This model was first explained by by psychiatrist George L. Engel in Science journal in 1977. This model is based on the system perspective. BPS model rejected biomedical model as dogma.

Theoretical Sources

General systems theory (von Bertalanffy) Social cognitive theory Cybernetics (von Neumann) Information theory Game theory “Holistic” biology (Dubos, Mayr)

Major Concepts

This model states mind, body, and environment interact in causing disease Biological component of the model refers to the fact that pathogens like germs and toxins

precipitate illness. Psychological/behavioural component looks for potential psychological causes for a health

problem such lack of self-control, emotional turmoil, and negative thinking. The social part of the BPS model explains how different social factors such as socioeconomic

status, culture, poverty, technology, and religion can influence health. The model presumes that it is important to handle these three factors together when managing

health problems.

Application of BPS Model

E.g. Social isolation and joblessness -------> depression/self-incrimination/sedentary lifestyle ------> hypercholestrolemia/myocardial infarction/diabetes

BPS model implies that treatment of cancer/diabetes/mental disorders should address biological, psychological and social components of the problem.

Multi Axial dimension to APA classification of mental disorders - DSM IV and WHOO ICD-10 classification of mental disorders are efforts to apply BPS in mental health care.

Learned Helplessness Model

Introduction

Martin Seligman (1975), founder of positive psychology introduced learned helplessness model of depression.

This theory helped to understand the development of depression. This theory was explained in an experiment by preventing a dog from escaping electric shocks,

and it will stop trying to get away. Learned helplessness explains how exposure to trauma that is impossible to avoid may lead to

apathy, passivity, and a conviction that escaping future traumatic eventsis also impossible.

Major Concepts

Learned helplessness refers to a state in which "uncontrollable, unpredictable aversive events, which leads to a failure to learn avoidance or an escape response to that event even when it is avoidable or escapable".

Seligman's theory states that learned helplessness is s form of depression. Depressed people seem to lack normal emotions and become somewhat apathetic, often staying in

unpleasant work environments or bad marriages or relationships rather that trying to escape or better their situation. (Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2008)

Effects of learned helplessness include decreased effort and persistence, reduced learning, belief that outcomes do not depend on behavior and anxiety or depression.

Attribution theory

Introduction

First explained by Fritz Heider (1958). Attribution theory proposes how people explain events and experiences in their lives, and the

adaptational consequences of those explanations. Attribution theory  was developed in an attempt to understand why an event occurred so that

later events can be predicted and controlled.

Major Concepts

Attribution refers to "the process of explaining one's own behavior and others". Attribution theory concerns with how individuals “attribute” or explain the behavior of other

people, events, or their own behavior. Attribution theory proposes that people attribute a given behavior either to causes outside of the

person or to some factor within the person who is performing the action (“dispositional” or “internal” factors).

Responsibility for the behavior is assigned or not assigned depending on theattribution of the cause of the behavior.

Factors that determine attribution include o effect on self-esteem (i.e., one’s bad behavior is more likely to be attributed to outside

causes than is one’s good behavior),o universality of the behavior (everyone behaves in that manner, so it is just a habit or

manifestation of conformity), and o unusual nature of the particular behavior at a given time.

Causes of behaviour may be divided as two: o Situational - cause of behaviour is attributed to external factors such a delays or ration of

otherso dispositional - cause of behavior attributed to internal factors such as personality or

character. People tend to attribute their successes to dispositional factors, and their failures to situational

factors. o For example:  “I did well on the test because I am smart,” or “I did poor on the test

because I didn’t get enough sleep. Attribution Errors

o Fundamental attribution error refers to the tenancy for people to overestimate the influence of another person's internal characteristics on behaviour and underestimate the influence of situation.

Attachment Theory

“The infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment” (Bowlby, 1951)

Introduction

Originally developed by John Bowlby (1907 - 1990) He was a British psychoanalyst who tried to explain the intense distress experienced by infants

who had been separated from their parent. Theory was further developed by Mary Ainsworth. The theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans especially as in

families and life-long friends. The theory was published across three volumes

o 1. Attachment (1969); o 2. Separation (1973); ando 3. Loss (1983.

Origins

Attachment theory derived its concepts from: ethology, cybernetics, information processing, developmental psychology, object relations theory and psychoanalysts,

Major Concepts

Attachment: An enduring emotional tie to a special person, characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness, especially during times of stress. 

Attachment in the context of children: The enduring deep emotional bond between a child and a specific caregiver.

Separation produces extreme distress in children. There are significant long-term adverse effects on the children as

a result of even relatively brief separations. Theory emphasizes the role of mother in child's development, where father plays the second

fiddle to mothering.

Stages

Phase of limited discrimination (birth–2 months) o Baby’s innate signals attract caregiver.o Caregivers remain close by when the baby responds positively.

Phase of limited preference (2–7 months) o Develops a sense of trust that caregiver will respond when signaled.

o Infants respond more positively to familiar caregiver.o Babies don't protest when separated from parent

Phase of focused attachment and secure base (7–24 months) o Babies display separation anxiety.o Babies protest when parent leaves.

Phase of goal-corrected partnership (24–36 months) o Children ncrease their understanding of symbols and language improves.o Children understand that parents will return.

Conclusion

Attachment theory has been widely applied to the nurse –patient relationship in those with chronic medical illness and also in the palliative care setting.

Cognitive Dissonance TheoryLeon Festinger

INTRODUCTION

Leon Festinger developed the cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) Dissonance occurs when a person perceives a logical inconsistency in their beliefs, when one idea

implies the opposite of another. Inconsistency among beliefs or behaviors will cause an uncomfortable psychological tension. The dissonance might be experienced as guilt, anger, frustration, or even embarrassment. This will lead people to change their beliefs to fit their actual behavior, rather than the other way

around, as popular wisdom may suggest.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Humans are sensitive to inconsistencies between actions and beliefs.2. Recognition of this inconsistency will cause dissonance, and will motivate an individual to

resolve the dissonance.3. Dissonance will be resolved in one of three basic ways:

a. Change beliefsb. Change actionsc. Change perception of action

APPLICATION OF THE MODEL BY FESTINGER & CARLSMITH (1959)

The classic experiment by Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959 (Boring task experiment)

In this experiment all participants were required to do what all would agree was a boring task and then to tell another subject that the task was exciting. Half of the subjects were paid $1 to do this and half were paid $20. Following this, all subjects were asked to rate how much they liked the boring task. This latter measure served as the experimental criterion/the dependent measure. According to behaviorist/reinforcement theory, those who were paid $20 should like the task more because they would associate the payment with the task. Cognitive dissonance theory, on the other hand, would predict that those who were paid $1 would feel the most dissonance since they had to carry out a boring task and lie to an experimenter, all for only 1$. This would create dissonance between the belief that they were not stupid or evil, and the action which is that they carried out a boring tasked and lied for only a dollar (see Figure 2). Therefore, dissonance theory would predict that those in the $1 group would be more motivated to resolve their dissonance by reconceptualizing/rationalizing their actions. They would form the belief that the boring task was, in fact, pretty fun. As you might suspect, Festinger’s prediction, that those in the $1 would like the task more, proved to be correct.

Stages of Change Model/Transtheoretical Model (TTM)Prochaska and DiClemente

INTRODUCTION

Transtheoretical Model of Change, a theoretical model of behavior change was originally explained by Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983.

Transtheoretical model of change has been the basis for developing effective interventions to promote health behavior change.

The model describes how people modify a problem behavior or acquire a positive behavior.

The TTM is a model of intentional change. This model focuses on the decision making of the individual.

The transtheoretical model may help to explain differences in persons’ success during treatment for a range of psychological and physical health problems.

This model has been widely applied in behaviour modification techniques.

CONCEPTS

The core constructs of the TTM are the processes of change decisional balance self-effi cacy, and temptation.

Processes of change

Processes of change are the covert and overt activities that people use to progress through the stages.

There are ten such processes as explained by Prochaska: 1. Consciousness Raising (Increasing awareness) 2. Dramatic Relief (Emotional arousal)3. Environmental Reevaluation (Social reappraisal)4. Social Liberation (Environmental opportunities)5. Self Reevaluation (Self reappraisal)6. Stimulus Control (Re-engineering)7. Helping Relationship (Supporting)8. Counter Conditioning (Substituting)9. Reinforcement Management (Rewarding)10. Self Liberation (Committing)

The first five are classified as Experiential Processes and

are used primarily for the early stage transitions. The last five are labeled Behavioral Processes and are

used primarily for later stage transitions.

Decisional Balance

Decisional Balance reflects the individual's relative weighing of the pros and cons of changing.

The Decisional Balance scale involves weighting the importance of the Pros and Cons.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy represents the situation specific confidence that people have that they can cope with high-risk situations without relapsing to their unhealthy or high-risk habit.

This concept was adapted wfrom Bandura's self-efficacy theory.

Temptation

reflects the intensity of urges to engage in a specific behavior when in the midst of difficult situations.

Temptation is the converse of self-efficacy. The most common types of tempting situations are;

o negative affect or emotional distresso positive social situations, and o craving.

STAGES OF CHANGE

People pass through a series of stages when change occurs.

The stages discussed in their change theory are: 1. precontempation2. contemplation3. preparation4. action, and 5. maintenance

PRECONTEMPLATION (Not ready to change)

The individual is not currently considering change: "Ignorance is bliss"

People are not intending to take action in the foreseeable future, usually in the next six months.

Techniques:

o Validate lack of readiness o Encourage re-evaluation of current behavior o Encourage self-exploration, not action o Explain and personalize the risk

Traditional health promotion programs are often not designed for such individuals and are not matched to their needs.(Velicer, 1998)

CONTEMPLATION (Thinking of changing)

Ambivalent about change: "Sitting on the fence" Not considering change within the next month. Techniques:

o Encourage evaluation of pros and cons of behavior change.

o Re-evaluation of group image through group activities.

o Identify and promote new, positive outcome expectations

PREPARATION (Ready to change)

Some experience with change and are trying to change: "Testing the waters"

Planning to act within 1month. Techniques:

o The individual needs encouragement to evaluate pros and cons of behavior change.

o The therapist needs to identify and promote new, positive outcome expectations in the individual.

o Encourage small initial steps .o These individuals ahve taken some actions in the

past year such as joining a health education class, consulting a counselor, talking to their physician, buying a self-help book or relying on a self-change approach.

o These group of individuals ar suitablefor action- oriented programs for smoking cessation, weight loss, or exercise programs.

ACTION (Making change)

The active work toward desired behavioral change including modifi cation of environment, experiences, or behavior have been taken.

At this stage people have made specific overt modifications in their life-styles within the past six months.

At this stage measures should be taken against relapse. Techniques:

o Help the individual on restructuring cues and social support.

o Enhance self-efficacy for dealing with obstacles.o Help to guard against feelings of loss and

frustration.

MAITANANCE (Staying on track)

Here, the focus is on ongoing, active work to maintain changes made and relapse prevention.

At this stage people are are less tempted to relapse and increasingly more confident that they can continue their change.

Techniques: o lan for follow-up support o Reinforce internal rewards o Discuss coping with relapse

RELAPSE (Fall from grace)

This stage is not explained in the original article. It is a form of regression to previous stages.

It refers to falling back to the old behaviors after going through other stages.

Regression occurs when individuals revert to an earlier stage of change.

Techniques: o Evaluate trigger for relapse o Reassess motivation and barriers o Plan stronger coping strategies

APPLICATION OF THE MODEL

The model has been applied to a wide variety of problem behaviors like;

o smoking cessationo exerciseo low fat dieto radon testingo alcohol abuseo weight controlo condom use for HIV protectiono organizational changeo use of sunscreens to prevent skin cancero drug abuseo medical complianceo mammography screening, and o stress management.

Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA) is a 32-

item questionnaire designed to measure the stages of change across diverse problem behaviors.

Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) is based on the Prochaska andDiClemente’s stages of change model, which is applicable in smocking sessation and alcohol abuse.

Theory of Mind

Introduction

Theory of mind is the term used to describe the understanding of beliefs, desires, motivations, and emotions as mental states that are ascribed toone’s self and others.

Theory of mind (ToM) refers to the ability to represent the mental states of others and/or to make inferences about another’s intentions.

ToM is a specific cognitive ability to understand others as intentional agents. ToM means being able to infer the full range of mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions,

imagination, emotions, etc.) that cause action Theory of Mind is the branch of cognitive science that investigates how we ascribe mental states

to other persons and how we use the states to explain and predict the actions of those other persons. (Marraffa, 2001)

Application

The theory of mind difficulties are core cognitive features of autism spectrum conditions. (Baron-Cohen, 2000).

Individuals with schizophrenia have impairments in ToM that appear to be independent from general cognitive abilities.

An understanding of the mind is fundamental to an understanding of the social world. It allows us to distinguish between accidental and intended behavior, and truth and deception.

Self Efficacy Theory (SET)

Alberta Bendura

Introduction

Self-efficacy theory was originated from Social Cognitive theory by Alberta Bendura. Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the power to produce that effect by completing a given

task or activity related to that competency. Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.  It is the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain goals. It is the expectation that one can master a situation, and produce a positive outcome. Self-efficacy is an important concept in positive psychology.

Major Concepts

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model says that there are 3 factors that influence self-efficacy: o Behaviorso Environment, and o personal/cognitive factors.

They all effect each other, but the cognitive factors are important. Self-efficacy developing from mastery experiences in which goals are achieved through

perseverance and overcoming obstacles and from observing others succeed through sustained effort.

Self-efficacy and self-esteem are different concepts, but related. Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal, whereas self-esteem

relates to a person’s sense of self-worth.

Application of the Theory

"Motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures determine affect and behaviour relations" - Bandura, 1986)

SET is widely applied in health behaviour change. Cognitive and behavioural psychotherapy for depression are based on theoretical concepts of

self-efficacy.

Conclusion

Self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behaviour change.

Theories of Intelligence

Introduction

Intelligence refers to: o “the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.”o  "the capacity to reason validly about information."

Major theories: o Faculty theory o Two Factor Theory - Charles Spearman o L.L Thurstone's Theory of Intelligenceo Howard Gardner —Multiple intelligenceso Sternberg– Triarchic theoryo Emotional Intelligenceo Artificial Intelligence

Faculty Theory

Faculty theory is the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence.

This theory states that mind is made up of different faculties like reasoning, memory, discrimination and imagination etc.

These faculties are independent of each other and can be developed by vigorous exercise.

Faculty theory has been criticized and proved that mental faculties are not independent.

Two Factor Theory

Proposed by Charles Spearman (1863-1945). This theory proposes that  intellectual abilities were comprised of

two factors: o general ability  or common ability known as ‘G’ factor and o group of specific abilities known as ‘S’ factor.

This theory states that a general intelligence factor (g) underlies other, more specific aspects of intelligence.

Louis L. Turnstone's Theory

He explained intelligence as a person’s “pattern” of mental abilities or a cluster of abilities.

“Intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the capacity to make impulses focal at their early, unfinished stage of formation.  Intelligence is therefore the capacity for abstraction, which is an inhibitory process "

This theory explains 7 different “primary mental abilities” which he called primary abilities:

1. word fluency2. verbal comprehension

3. spatial visualization4. number facility5. associative memory6. reasoning7. perceptual speed

Multiple Intelligence Theory- Howard Gardner

1. Linguistic (“word smart”) 2. Logical-mathematical (“number smart”) 3. Musical (“music smart”) 4. Spatial (“art smart”) 5. Bodily-kinesthetic (“body smart) 6. Intrapersonal (“self smart”) 7. Interpersonal (“people smart”) 8. Naturalist (“nature smart”)

Triarchic Theory (Robert Sternberg)

1. Analytic intelligence—mental processes used in learning how to solve problems

2. Creative intelligence—ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge

3. Practical intelligence—ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. The ability to manage emotions in one’s self and in others in order

to reach desired outcomes. An ability to validly reason with emotions and to use emotions to

enhance thought. An ability to recognize the meanings of emotion and their

relationships, and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

"the study and design of intelligent agents" "the intelligence of machines" Term first used by John McCarthy, in 1956. It is the science and engineering of making intelligent computer

machines.

The Diathesis-Stress Model

The Diathesis-Stress Model illustrates the dynamic between a diathesis and an individual's stress and how the effects of this dynamic can influence an individual's behavior. A diathesis is a person's predisposition towards developing a disorder. A predisposition towards a disorder can be caused by one or a combination of biological, psychosocial and/or sociocultural factors. (Carson,p.65) Some examples of the causes of a diathesis are genetic inheritance, biological processes such as brain abnormalities or neurotransmitter problems and early learning experiences.

Stress is the response that an individual experiences when presented with life events and experiences which they perceive as exceeding their coping abilities. Examples of some of the causes of stress are trauma, abuse, neglect and relationship and job problems. The Diathesis-Stress Model shows that it is the combination of stress and a diathesis which leads to abnormal behavior. In other words, a diathesis alone is not sufficient to cause abnormal behavior and likewise, a stressor by itself is also not sufficient enough to cause abnormal behavior. Rather, abnormal behavior is a result of both a diathesis and a stressor being present in an individual.

However, having both a diathesis and a stressor present does NOT guarantee that an individual will engage in abnormal behavior in all cases. This is due to what is known as protective factors. Protective factors are influences or traits that a person can have that increases their ability to cope with certain stressors and therefore, can decrease or eliminate the stressor's ability to influence their mental health. Protective factors often lead to a person developing resilience to certain stressful situations, allowing them to not be adversely affected by that particular stress. (Carson,pp65-66)

There are many different models of abnormal behavior that exemplify the diathesis-stress model. Each one has a different dynamic between one's stressors and diathesis; and the influences of protective factors varies from individual to individual.