Nuclear medicine imaging - 东北大学faculty.neu.edu.cn/bmie/chenshuo/Lecture 18 Nuclear... ·...

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Nuclear medicine imaging

Transcript of Nuclear medicine imaging - 东北大学faculty.neu.edu.cn/bmie/chenshuo/Lecture 18 Nuclear... ·...

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Nuclear medicine imaging

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Contents 1.  Nuclear medicine imaging overview 2.  Nuclear medical physics 3.  Instrumentation for nuclear medicine imaging 4.  Image reconstruction 5.  Quantitive image analysis 6.  Nuclear medicine imaging trend

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Radio nuclide imaging overview

4. 对图像进行必要后处理。Quantitive image analysis

放射性药物正常参与机体的新陈代谢,可以提供脏器功能及相关的生理、生化信息,是一种分子影像技术(Molecular Imaging)。疾病形成过程中,脏器或组织功能上的变化要早于形态变化,因此放射性核素成像在临床中具有特殊重要意义(YES or NO problem)。

1.  先把某种放射性同位素标记在药物上并引入体内,当它被人体的脏器和组织吸收后,在体内形成辐射源。- Probe.

2.  用核子探测装置在体外检测体内同位素衰变过程中放出的Gamma射线。- Imaging scanner

3.  重建构成放射性同位素在体内分布密度的图像。Imaging reconstruction

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1.  Probe - Nuclear Medical Physics 探针 – 核医学物理基础

1.  Radioactivity means that atoms decays. The reason for this decays is that they are instable.

2.  Every atom which has got a higher number of nucleons (protons and neutrons together) than 210 is instable.

3.  Three Types of Radioactive Decay: Alpha decay, Beta decay and Gamma decay.

4. International signal for radioactivity.

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Alpha Decay

1.Alpha衰变多发生于Z>82重核; 2. Alpha粒子很重,穿透能力差(纸张),电离作用强。

Alpha粒子 镭衰变为氡

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Beta decay

反中微子 中微子

正电子

1.  Beta Minus Decay: A neutron turns into a proton by emitting an antineutrino and a negatively charged beta particle. Beta Plus Decay: A proton turns into a neutron by emitting a neutrino and a positively charged beta particle.

2.  Beta射线是高速运动的电子流,电离作用小,贯穿能力大。

vOF 188

189 ++→ +β

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Gamma decay

1.  Gamma decay is a kind of isomeric transition(同质异能跃迁). 2.  A gamma decay can happen after an alpha decay or a beta decay,

because the atomic nucleus is very energetic. 3.  X rays result from electron interactions outside the nucleus,

whereas γ rays result from nuclear transitions. 4.  Gamma decay is the physics foundation of SPECT.

γ+→ TcTc 9943

99m43

γ+→ InIn 11348

113m48

SPECT (Single photon emission computerized tomography)

Photon

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衰变: +β 正电子

1.  正电子的寿命很短,约为10-10s,从衰变核中发射出来的正电子在人体组织中不断散射而减慢速度。一旦静止,就俘获一个自由电子形成正负电子对,在毫微秒内发生质能转换,正负电子消失,它们的质量转变为两个能量相等、方向相反的光子,这过程叫做电子对湮灭(Annihilation)。

2.  PET扫描仪探测的就是这两个方向相反的光子。

Positron annihilation

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Decay equation & half-life 其中,N为放射性核素的原子核数目。 为衰变常数,表示衰变快慢。 λ

另外一个表示衰变快慢的指标为物理半衰期T1/2 还有生物半衰期Tb,表示放射性核素在生物体内经过代谢途径从体内排除一半所需时间。 有效半衰期Teff是综合考虑了物理半衰期和生物半衰期的效应而得到:

b1/2eff 1/T1/TT/1 +=99mTc(锝)的半衰期是6.02小时,18F的半衰期是108分钟。因此SPECT所用核素较PET而言取得和使用更方便。

例1. 113mIn的物理半衰期为1.7小时,最初有1.07*1016 个原子,经过4小时后,还有多少?

钍 Thorium-232: 1.4e10 years 钋 Polonium-212: 3.0e-7 sec

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Activity & Measurement unit

描述给予患者放射性药物的剂量最常用单位是mCi(毫居里)。SPECT心脏检测99mTc用量为20mCi,甲状腺检查为5mCi。PET全身检测需要18F的用量为7mCi 放射性物质在单位时间内发生衰变的原子核数目成为该物质的活度,用A表示。

A dN / dt Nλ= − =

例2. 如例1,4.0小时后样品的活度为

dps-decay per second(每秒钟衰变的原子核数目)

活度的国际单位为贝克勒尔(Bq),1 Bq=1dps。常用单位为mCi,1Ci=3.7e10Bq

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Interaction with body of Gamma ray

§  Three kinds of interaction 1.  Photoelectric absorption 2.  Compton scattering 3.  Pair production

§  Interaction leads to attenuation

Clinical application

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2. Instrumentation for Nuclear Medical

1.  Gamma相机 Gamma camera 2.  发射断层成像 Emission Computed Tomography §  单光子发射CT,Single-Photon Emission Computed

Tomography (SPECT) §  正电子发射CT,Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

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2.1 Gamma camera Components: §  Collimator §  Detection crystal §  Photomultiplier tubes §  Position-encoding circuit §  Pulse summation circuit

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Collimator

平行多孔准直器 Parallel multihole collimator

针孔准直器 Pinhole collimator

张角准直器 Diverging collimator

聚焦准直器 Converging collimator

1.  开有很多小孔的有一定厚度的铅板,构成准直器。50-130 kg

2.  Thickness (4cm) Diameter (2mm)

Hole diameter and plate thickness determine the sensitivity.

3. High energy camera corresponds to high thickness (>100 mm)and less amount of hole (1000-4000 holes).

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Detector & Photomultiplier tube Classification: •  Ionization (收集电离电荷的探测器):气体电离探测器、半导体探测器等; •  Fluorescence (收集荧光的探测器):闪烁探测器、热释光探测器等; •  Trace (显示粒子运动的探测器):核乳胶、云室、气泡室等;

碘化钠闪烁晶体探测器和光电倍增管

1. Gamma射线照射到NaI(Tl铊)闪烁晶体后,发出可见光,可见光照到光电阴极,激发电子,经过多次倍增后形成电流。 2. Semiconductor (Ge(Li)) detector is the trend of detector. 3. Crystal thickness is about 3/8 in, 5/8 in and 1 in (PET). 4. Photo. tube 25-30 mm diameter.

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Position-encoding circuit

1. 位置电路-可以通过权电阻网络实现。 2. 各个光电倍增管的输出决定了荧光闪烁的位置,使得整个系统的空间分辨率与光电倍增管的个数无关。19个倍增管可以得到1000个以上的分辨单元。

3. 使用 即可计算脉冲幅值。

( )

∑ ⎟⎟

⎞⎜⎜

⎛−=

−=

−+

+

i XXi

-

iiR1

R1Uk

XXkx

( )

∑ ⎟⎟

⎞⎜⎜

⎛−=

−=

−+

+

i YYi

-

iiR1

R1Uk

YYky

A B

C

−+−+ +++= YYXXz

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Position encoding – Digital solution 1. 根据不同位置为信号分配不同权重Xi和Yi。当各个光电倍增管探测到不同光强Ii,将它们加权求和,输出幅度分别为

X1=-2;Y1=3; X2= 0;Y2=3; X3= 2;Y3=3; X4=-3;Y4=2; X5=-1;Y5=2; ……

∑i

iiIX ∑i

iiIY

∑i

iI

3. 位置电路的输出除以能量电路的输出,得到闪烁光在X和Y方向上的位置坐标。

∑∑

=

ii

iii

I

IXX

4. 与计算物体中心的坐标相同,及Gamma相机用闪烁光的“重心”坐标作为闪烁光的位置坐标。

2. 能量电路的输出为全部光电倍增管探测到的光强度总和。能量电路的信号对图像的形成十分重要,常常称为z信号。

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Pulse summation circuit

§  Determine the location and photon energy (Ampere). §  Every pixel will obtain one photon energy spectrum. §  Set the lower and upper photon energy limit to exclude the photon number caused by scattering and scintillations from two place at the same time. §  Average photon count should be at the range of 40-50 for each pixel.

Photon energy

t

Scattering

探 测 到 单 个 闪 烁 时 间 (即Gamma光子)后,利用位置电路确定其位置。统计一段 时 间 内 落 在 各 像 素 区 域内Gamma光子的个数,形成对比。

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2.2 SPECT 单光子发射型计算机断层成像

§  用Gamma相机围绕患者旋转(360o或180o),在不同角度检测人体射出的Gamma线光子并计数。可以分为单探头、双探头和三探头形式。分辨率可达到1~1.5cm。 §  典型SPECT多使用64*64或128*128的投影采样矩阵,每一行采集一个层面的投影,典型厚度为12~24mm。观察角度为3o~6o,旋转180o获得60~30个视角下的投影。

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2.2 SPECT reconstruction

1.  滤波反投影 2.  迭代法图像重建

Key point: 1. 在某一投影角下取得投影函数(一维),对此一维投影函数做滤波处理,得到修正后的投影

函数。然后在将此修正后的投影函数作反投影运算,得到密度函数。 2. 滤波反投影在实现图像重建时,只需一维傅里叶变换,避免了二维傅里叶变化,大大缩短重建时间。

( )Rgθ

1D FT 频域

空间域

( ){ }RgF θ1

( )yxf ,

ρ×

( ){ }ρθ RgF1

1D FT

( )Rgθ′

BP Interpo -lation

ρ 一维权重因子,滤波

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2.2 SPECT Available problem and solution

方案:可使用自动人体轨迹,红外线探头实现。15 mm左右

1. Gamma射线的衰减 衰减使得系统很难确定体内辐射源强度的绝对值大小。 X-CT中用于成像的基本信息是人体对X线的衰减;而在ECT中,辐射源处于人体内部,所希望的像是体内辐射源未经衰减的强度分布。 心脏中201TI产生的Gamma射线仅有25%到达前胸壁。如果重建中忽略人体对Gamma射线产生的衰减因素,图像就失去了定量意义。 方案:同一台SPECT上,同时获得“透射”和“发射”两种图像。利用透射图像得到衰减分布,校正发射CT的图像。SPECT/CT的出发点。

2. 空间分辨率较低 常规Gamma相机在旋转扫描中很难保证始终紧贴患者。 SPECT扫描的一个最重要的原则是“探头贴近患者”。图像空间分辨率与探头和患者之间的距离呈线性关系。半径越大,空间分辨率越小。

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2.2 SPECT Clinical application

目的: •  有恶性肿瘤病史怀疑有骨转移; •  判定原发性骨肿瘤有无转移,决定其治

疗方案; •  判定X线难以发现的骨折以及早期诊断应

力性骨折; •  代谢性骨病和骨关节病的辅助诊断; •  原因不明骨痛,排除骨肿瘤;

GE公司的Millennium MPR SPECT诊断系统 350 万元

http://www.309yy.com/commonsite/arti_show.asp?id=24

全身骨扫描

放射药物:99mTc-亚甲基二磷酸盐,剂量20~30 mCi,静脉注射后迅速吸收沉积在骨骼中。

检查方法:

静脉注射Tc,等待2.5-3h后采用全身扫描,采用256*1024矩阵。

图像分析:

左右对比观察

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2.3 PET Positron emission Tomography

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PET physics foundation

1-2 mm

§  In PET, the distribution of radiation is estimated. And the radiation is annihilation radiation released as positrons interact with electron.

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Coincidence event count

§  在环形机架上排列的一对PET探头“同时”探测到一对Gamma光子时,就记录这样的事件,即符合事件(Coincidence event)。

§  PET探测到的是发生湮灭的位置,而非正电子发射的位置,会影响PET的空间分辨率。

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Coincidence detection

In a PET, each detector generates a timed pulse when it registers an incident photon. These pulses are then combined in coincidence circuitry, and if the pulses fall within a short time-window, they are deemed to be coincident. 先找到一个闪烁事件,再利用时间窗(6-13 ns)去寻找符合事件,从而确定LOR(Line of response).

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Types of coincidences in PET

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3. Image reconstruction

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TOF (Time of fly) PET

TOF PET

Measuring the Time difference of each gamma ray

Conventional PET 4.6 ns

3.2 ns

1.  传统PET仅能探测响应线,不能定位正电子,停留在响应线探测的水平。TOF PET探测响应线的同时还探测两个r光子到达探测器的时间差,精确定位正电子的位置,所以TOF PET的本质不再停留在响应线水平,而是真正意义上的正电子探测。

2.  使用了LSO晶体的TOF PET,时间分辨率是650ps,采样频率是25ps (ps=10-12秒 )。

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Isotope

half-life (min)

Maximum positron energy (MeV)

Positron range in water (FWHM in mm)

Production method

11C 20.3  0.96 1.1 cyclotron 13N 9.97  1.19 1.4 cyclotron 15O 2.03 1.70 1.5 cyclotron 18F 109.8 0.64 1.0 cyclotron 68Ga 67.8 1.89 1.7 generator 82Rb 1.26 3.15 1.7 generator

Probe for PET & its production

Cyclotron Cyclotron in China

Probe for PET & its production

临床常用 作用机理 18F-FDG 糖代谢 13C-胆碱 磷脂代谢 13C-蛋氨酸 氨基酸代谢

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4. Quantitive image analysis Registration & Fusion

PET-CT Fusion is a newer refinement of the technique that allows the most accurate correlation of anatomic information (from the CT) and metabolic information (from the PET scan) and helps to ensure the highest degree of accuracy for the exam.

Spread of melanoma to a patient's liver

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Clinical Whole Body and Molecular Imaging

Image Reconstruction

Image reconstruction

•  Tailored imaging probe

•  Better noise/resolution properties

PET Imaging Scanner

PET System Modeling

•  Accurate detector and system model

•  Design and validation of novel PET detector technologies

Targeted PET imaging

PET Probes • Novel chemistry • Novel radio

-isotopes • Tracer kinetic

models

Quantitative Image Analysis •  Semi-automatic segmentation •  Increased patient throughput •  Improved quantitative

reproducibility

Quantitative Image Analysis

Focus •  Clinical Whole Body and Molecular Imaging •  System Modeling •  Image Reconstruction and Analysis •  Next Generation PET Scanner & Cyclotron •  Pre-Clinical µPET Imaging

5. PET / Nuclear Trends

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PET/CT

Patents……

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PET/MRI Background • Integrated MR scanner

and PET detection ring • Provides

simultaneous MR anatomical and functional with PET molecular and metabolic imaging… Clinical value unclear…

Cambridge MR-PET Research Proposal

Technical Challenges • PET electronics, PMT, amplifiers

sensitive to MR magnetic, RF fields, and temperature variation

• PET ring insert geometry … reduced bore size or split magnet

• MR System sensitive to PET electronics noise

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Summary

§  Nuclear medical physics (Alpha, Beta and Gamma decay)

§  Decay equation & activity

§  Instrumentation (Gamma camera, ECT-SPECT&PET)

§ SPECT problems & solutions

§  PET physics, coincidence detection & Types of coincidence

§ PET/CT & PET/MRI

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Reference

1.  PET/CT技术原理及肿瘤学应用,赵平,人民军医出版社,2007年11月第一版

2.  Fundamentals of Medical Imaging, Paul suetens, Cambridge university press, 2002

3.  http://depts.washington.edu/nucmed/IRL/pet_intro/