NTUT Academic Writing

Week 8: Background Information

2.1: Contents & Organization

Steps to writing a good introduction: Step 1: “Background Information” Step 2: “Literature Review” Step 3: “Raising Questions” Step 4: “Main Purposes” Two more optional steps: Step 5: “Statement of Values” Step 6: “Organization”

Example & Exercise

2.2: Step 1--Background Information

Two crucial factors: clarifying connections & sufficient background info. Ex.:

**Using the “old” info to introduce the “new” -- to appropriately repeat key words/phrases

As research into human factors in software development continues, it has become important to develop a detailed cognitive model of programming behavior. One of the major components of programming behavior is comprehension. Comprehension is involved in nearly all aspects of programming work, including writing, debugging, and modifying software. Thus factors that relate to program comprehension must be explored. One of these factors is psychological complexity, which one expert has defined as “characteristics that make it difficult for humans to understand software.”

Tenses used in the background information

Generally, simple present is used when describing “general truths.”

Ex. Managers of data-processing centers often find it practical to establish programming standards.

Comprehension is involved in nearly all aspects of programming work, including writing, debugging, and modifying software.

However, “present perfect” is used to describe a “sustained continuance,” or a “recent occurrence.”

Ex. In recent years, a variety of standards have been proposed in the literature.

As the standard of living has improved in the last ten years, beer, a Western beverage, has become very popular in China.

Play with the tenses:

2.3: Literature Review

Adequate referencing effectively helps your readers know the relation between the latest research and your proposed approaches.

Variation in length: lengthy in PhD dissertation (usu. a whole chapter).

3 types of literature review: Type A: Order of Relevance (from the least to the most

relevant) Type B: Chronological Order Type C: Chronology & Relevance under Initial classification

Type a

Type b

Type c

2.4: Sentences used in literature review

1. (General) fact-introducing sentences: (General truths) Ex. Correct sensor and actuator placement is

crucial in determining the performance of a control system (James, 1985).

Ex. Acid rain is a serious problem in many areas of Europe [1].

(Recent trends or changes) Ex. The computer has become an important

educational tool in the past decade (Johnson, 1993).

Ex. Outbreaks of dengue fever have decreased in recent years [4].

2. Sentences describing current research: present perfect + passive voice

Ex. Much/Little/No work/research has been done on/devoted to/performed on/conducted on/published regarding the differences between advertising styles used in different cultures.

Ex. Much/Little attention has been directed toward/focused on the effects of boron doping.

Ex. Many/A number of/Several/Few studies/experiments have been conducted on/done regarding/performed on/published on the prevalence of back pain in helicopter pilots.

(Research topics used as subjects): Ex. The effects of surfaces structures on wind flow have been the subject

of much research/few studies in recent years/in the last decade/since 1990.

Ex. The problem of back pain in helicopter pilots has drawn/attracted much/little attention/interest in recent years/in the last decade/since 1990.

(Topics used as subjects in passive voice): Ex. The problem/effects has/have been extensively

examined/widely discussed/thoroughly investigated/seldom been discussed in recent years/in the last decade/since 1990.

(The use of “there is/are”) Ex. There has/have been much/little research/ many/few

studies/reports on the prevalence of back pain in helicopter pilots and other aviators.

3. Sentences used in introducing researchers:

(Using present perfect to indicate a “continual research trend”) Ex. Several/A number of/Many/Few

researchers/authors/investigators/writers have studied/investigated/examined/explored/reported on/discussed/considered the role of computers in classroom instruction [4, 6, 7, 9].

(BE AWARE: “few” is used to emphasize “not very many.” If “some/a small number of researchers” is implied, the word “several” should be used instead.)

(Topics as subjects in passive voice): Ex. The role of computers in classroom instruction has been

studied/investigated/examined/explored/reported on/discussed/considered by several/a number of/many/few researchers/authors/investigators/writers (Frickert, 1989; Smith, 1990; Roberts, 1992).

Ex. Several researchers have shown/found/reported/suggested that the use of computers may stimulate independent learning (Chen, 1989; Smith, 1992; Rose, 1994).

4. Sentences that introduce researchers with greater relevance

Tenses for the two verbs: a). The main verb– past tense; b). the one behind “that”– varies.

Ex. Chen (1992)/Rogers [2] showed/found/reported/noted/suggested/observed/pointed out that the use of computers in a high school classroom enhanced creativity and independent thinking.

(The above sentence can be divided into two sentences using the same tense):

Ex. Chen (1992) studied/examined/investigated/explored the effect of X and Y. He found that….

**Most scientific reports (as well as in fields such as Management, Economics, Psychology, and Sociology) use past tense while in humanities, present simple is used.

Ex. Davidson (1978) defines weakness of the will as the agent’s failure to take the action he judges to be best, all things considered.

Ex. Aristotle uses the term akrasia to refer to a person’s failure to act according to his or her best judgment.

Practice Tenses

2.5: Tenses behind “THAT”

1. Present Simple: used to indicate “general truth” and “current practice/application”

Ex. Marks (1932)/Gorden[2] showed/found/reported/noted/suggested/observed/pointed out that water boils at 100°C/the gravity of the largest moon affects the orbits of the other moons.

Ex. Rogers (1987)/Chen [4] developed/described/introduced/designed/presented/proposed an algorithm/a technique/a method that solves the problem quickly/that produces a clearer image.

2. Past Tense: Past research results not widely recognized as general scientific facts.

Ex. Bolan (1987)/Reed [2] found/reported/suggested/observed that young girls scored higher than boys on communication skills/reducing the amount of oxygen caused the deposition rate to drop sharply.

3. Suggestions or Hypotheses: Modal Verbs. Ex. Ross (1990)

suggested/hypothesized/proposed/argued that reducing the duration of school vacations may help children to retain more of what they learn in class.

**Tenses used while commenting on researchers and their works

1. Use past tense when describing a past action; present tense when indicating a truth unaffected by time.

Ex. Rogers (1982) performed the first systematic study of this illness. His data provided the starting point for many later investigations.

Ex. Smith (1978) presented a method for solving problems of this form when x 1. ≦However, his method is not applicable to the general use. (still-existent method to be adopted with certain limitations)

Ex. Smith (1978) presented a method for solving problems of this form when x 1. ≦However, his method was not applicable to the general use. (the method and its limitations are no longer existent or adopted)

More on “that” tenses