NSCA Coach 1.1

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DEVELOPING THE POTENTIAL OF THE UNDERSERVED CLUB ATHLETE: A PROJECT WITH THE DUKE CLUB HOCKEY TEAMAUTHOR NAME, PHD, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, FNSCA, FACSMUnderstanding how to properly utilize movement pattern continuums is essential knowledge for any personal trainer. Using an-

ecdotal evidence, this article shows the importance and provides examples of how to implement movement pattern continuums

into a resistance training program. Understanding how to properly utilize movement pattern continuums is essential knowledge

for any personal trainer. Using anecdotal evidence, this article shows the importance and provides examples of how to implement

movement pattern continuums into a resistance training program.

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ABOUT THIS PUBLICATIONThe NSCA Coach publishes basic educational information for Associate and Professional Members of the NSCA specifically focusing on novice strength and conditioning coaches. As a quarterly publication, this journal’s mission is to publish peer-reviewed articles that provide basic, practical information that is research-based and applicable to a wide variety of athlete and training needs.

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04TRAINING AND RECOVERY OF THE BASEBALL ATHLETE: A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE ARIZONA DIAMONDBACKS’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAMNATE SHAW, ATC, RSCC, AND THE ARIZONA DIAMONDBACKS STAFF

THE IMPORTANCE AND VALUE OF THE WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS IN BASEBALLALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA

MODEL OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENTRICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW

INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND TURNOVER IN NCAA DIVISION I STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHING POSITIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ATHLETIC ADMINISTRATIONJUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS,*D, AND AARON WYANT, MS

EYE NUTRITION FOR OPTIMAL VISION AND PERFORMANCEDAWN WEATHERWAX, ATC, RD, CSSD, CSCS

ATTACKING THE DEFICIENCIES IN TRAINING FOR BASEBALLTRAVIS BROWN, MS, CSCS,*D

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TRAVIS BROWN, MS, CSCS,*D

ATTACKING THE DEFICIENCIES IN TRAINING FOR BASEBALL

The sport of baseball requires players to move in a variety of ways and directions from different positions. From pitchers, catchers, infielders, and outfielders, they all must move in

different directions to play their position. In order to address all of these various movements through training, coaches need to focus on a mixture of training movements to help prepare the body for optimal performance.

A previous edition of the NSCA’s Performance Training Journal discussed training in different planes of motion (frontal, sagittal, and transverse), from multiple force lines (vertical, horizontal, and diagonal) and with different loads on both sides of the body (bilateral) or loaded different from side to side (unilateral) (1). It can be assumed that sports, including baseball, encompass or require all of these movements. In order to make sure that training is performed in all dimensions and directions that a baseball player moves on the field, coaches must keep in mind that pushing, pulling, rotation, locomotion, level change, and complexity (combination of any of these movements) must be incorporated during training.

If unfamiliar, coaches should take notice of the difference in how baseball athletes train in the traditional weight room. Often, both sides of the body are loaded the same (bilateral), with very sagittal dominant movements, and very limited and inefficient rotational movements (e.g., overhead medicine ball throws, rotational medicine ball throws, shot put with medicine ball, seated Russian twists, etc.). This illustrates a deficiency in the training environment that does not address all movement planes and force lines.

To address the movement requirements of baseball athletes the following exercises are suggested. With these new exercises, coaches may redefine the vector forces (magnitude x direction). Coaches should not only focus on concentric rotation (seen in all medicine ball throws and sledge hammering tire hits), but redefine and realign ideal vector forces that will allow the athletes to incorporate concentric and eccentric muscle contractions. This may help prevent injuries and prepare the athletes for movements in all directions more appropriately than how these athletes often train on their own.

To enhance performance on the field and decrease injury risk, the following exercises can compliment the volume of one-sided repetitive movements that are performed in the sport of baseball.

REVERSE THROWING (FIGURES 1 AND 2):Start with a wide, split stance, facing the anchor point, arms straight but not locked. Hold the bar/handle parallel to the ground (if the left foot starts in front, then the right hand starts on top, and vice versa; identical to throwing)

Rotate the torso up and away, keeping the eyes on the anchor point. Then finish downward and come through with the chest

out over front leg (make a big arc). Make an emphasis on torso flexion/extension and rotation, rather than moving the bar/handle with the arms and shoulders. Repeat on the opposite side. This move does not call for external shoulder rotation. The elbow should always stay behind the bar. The torso should perform the rotation and flexion/extension to move the bar/handle. Anything else will put undue stress on the elbow and shoulder, therefore increasing risk of injury.

REVERSE HITTING (FIGURES 3 AND 4):Start by facing the anchor point holding the bar/handle parallel to the ground. For hitters, imagine the position at ball contact: hips and back foot completely turned toward the anchor point, and hands palm up/palm down (Figure 3). Reverse the pivot and bring the hands up to the back shoulder by rotating the bar/handle to vertical (Figure 4). Stay under tension and under control throughout the entire movement. Repeat on the opposite side.

REVERSE FLAG POLE (FIGURES 5 AND 6):Start in a lunge stance (if left leg starts forward, then the right hand starts nearest the bar attachment and vice versa for the opposite side). Facing the anchor point, grab the bar attachment with the right hand on top of the bar and the left hand beneath, with both arms straight but not locked (Figure 5). The shoulders and bar should be tilted at a 45° angle. Rotate the torso keeping the head focused on the anchor point and the attachment end away from the body. Make sure to keep the hips and stance solid while rotating the torso.

UNDER THROW (FIGURES 7 AND 8):Start using a cable cross machine with the same bar attachment as the reverse flag pole (corresponding, adjustable cable pulleys can be used in replacement of the machine shown). Place one anchor point at head level and the other anchor point at mid-thigh level. If the right foot starts forward in a wide split stance, then the left hand will start on top with an overhand grip with both hands on the bar (Figure 7). After positioning body in that stance, tilt the shoulders so that they are as close to parallel to the bar as possible. Keep the arms at 90°. While keeping the stance solid, rotate the shoulders so that the top of the bar moves over the shoulder, while the bottom hand passes the hip (Figure 8). Repeat on the opposite side.

BEAR PAW (FIGURES 9, 10, AND 11): Start with the handle of an anchored land-based apparatus in the right hand, facing to the left with the left foot forward; the right hand should begin in the middle of the left thigh (Figure 9). Keep the stance square while rotating the torso away from the lead leg, swinging the bar upwards (Figure 10). It is important that the elbow always stays behind the hand. The torso should generate the rotation to move the bar. Anything else will put undue stress on the elbow and shoulder, therefore increasing risk of injury. This move does not call for external shoulder rotation.


ATLAS RAISE (FIGURES 12 AND 13)Start with the left foot forward, and place the left hand at the bottom of the bar, away from the loaded end (a loaded barbell-type apparatus will be needed for this exercise). Hold the bar with the right hand near the load with both hands in an overhand grip (Figure 12). From this position, raise the bar (keeping the arms straight but not locked) vertically with torso extension and rotation until the bar is close to parallel to the ground overhead (maintaining stance and eyes forward) (Figure 13). Lower the bar down in an arc until the chest is over front knee (torso flexion) in a controlled manner. Repeat on both sides.

CONCLUSIONSince the nature of baseball can often be one sided, developing imbalances can be easy to do if equal and opposite type exercises are avoided during training. When you turn the concentric load on the body (in throwing and hitting) into an eccentric load in the weight room and vice versa, you will promote performance gains and develop a strong, athletically balanced body. With the exercises shown here, the forces put on the body are more horizontal in nature, as well as on an arc, just like the forces generated in the sport.

REFERENCES1. Brown, T. How to train the core: Specific to sports movements. NSCA’s Performance Training Journal 12(4): 4-13, 2012.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The NSCA and the author would like to acknowledge Jeff Flag’s contribution to this article, both with imagery and content. Jeff Flag is the Director of Training/Education at PurMotion, and is a former Division I college and professional baseball player.

ABOUT THE AUTHORTravis Brown has led a career as a strength and conditioning coach for over 14 years in Atlanta, GA and at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He currently works for Pinnacle Athletics, which is a sports performance company that trains professional, college, and high school athletes. He has trained, or played next to, over 120 National Football League (NFL) starters, including dozens of Pro Bowlers and first round NFL draft picks. Throughout his career, he has trained a number of athletes ranging from youth to elite professionals, which include several Major League Baseball (MLB) players, National Basketball Association (NBA) athletes, and two Olympic Medal winners. Brown is currently working towards his PurMotion Master Trainer certification and is a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® with Distinction (CSCS,*D®) through the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).

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FIGURE 1. REVERSE THROWING - START

FIGURE 3. REVERSE HITTING - START

FIGURE 5. REVERSE FLAG POLE - START

FIGURE 2. REVERSE THROWING - END

FIGURE 4. REVERSE HITTING - END

FIGURE 6. REVERSE FLAG POLE - END



FIGURE 7. UNDER THROW - START

FIGURE 9. BEAR PAW - START

FIGURE 8. UNDER THROW - END

FIGURE 10. BEAR PAW - MIDDLE

FIGURE 11. BEAR PAW - END

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FIGURE 12. ATLAS RAISE - START FIGURE 13. ATLAS RAISE - END

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NATE SHAW, ATC, RSCC, MIKE SCHOFIELD, LMT, CSCS, RSCC, ANDREW SLORP, MS, LMT, CSCS, RSCC, MATT TENNEY, LMT, CSCS, SKYLER ZARNDT, MS, ATC, CSCS, DAVID LASNIER, CSCS, USAW, SEAN LIGHT, CSCS, DAVID HARRIGAN, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, AND VAUGHN ROBINSON, MS, LMT, CSCS, RSCC

TRAINING AND RECOVERY OF THE BASEBALL ATHLETE: A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE ARIZONA DIAMONDBACKS’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM

The debate about the best training practices for sport encompasses many opinions while new technology, application of knowledge, and practical experience continue

to push the strength and conditioning industry forward. Because of internet blogs, Facebook posts, Twitter updates, article and research journals, it could be said that new information has never been more accessible. All this information can be great; however, information overload can lead to paralysis by analysis. Moreover, when trying to incorporate all of this information to make exercise programming decisions, poor choices can have significant consequences. In strength and conditioning, the key is to determine the most important objectives or goals. This is especially true when training for baseball.

The game of baseball has many nuances. There are many similarities in the skills necessary to excel in baseball, but each position has basic requirements that differentiate it from the other eight positions on the field. The physical demands throughout a season can be quite different for starting players compared to bench players, and starting pitchers compared to middle relief and closing pitchers. Speed, power, and endurance are all key pieces to training and there are numerous methods available to prepare these players to play the game.

For Major League Baseball’s (MLB) Arizona Diamondbacks, there are a few sayings that resonate with us and seem to surface time

and time again. Leadership prophets often repeat “People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you care.” In nutrition you hear, “you are what you eat.” In baseball, “you can’t make the club from the tub,” and “you can’t hit homers from the training room” have been staple sayings of players and coaches. For our sports medicine team, “durability is more important than ability” has served as a beacon and mindset for our program.

Vern Gambetta wrote an article years ago in which the title itself makes a great point, “How much Strength is Enough?” (1). At what point does the quest for strength and power actually tip towards risk or even injury? Weight training and exercise prescription can be detailed, thorough, and complex; however, durability may be more about the risks that are avoided than what is actually done.

Our program with the Diamondbacks is not void of strength, power, speed, or periodization. But those variables are not our primary focus. We perform speed drills explosively, lift heavy at times, and utilize progressions. Our biggest focus is recovery, and the exercises/interventions under the recovery “umbrella” are our largest focus because time to recover is so hard to find in our field. Ultimately, the number one priority is to make sure our players play, and recovery and health are major contributing factors to that end. Playing roughly 200 games in 211 days across multiple time zones takes its toll on a baseball team. That is why “recovery is king” with the Diamondbacks.

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It is our goal to address all aspects of recovery in order to be as efficient as possible during the long season. To do this, we utilize several techniques:

• Soft Tissue Maintenance — hands-on massage, foam rollers, rolling muscle massager, suction cups, Graston® tools, Astym® treatment, and others

• Nutrition — organic and whole foods, fresh smoothies and juices, vitamins, protein, and fish oils

• Corrective Exercise (focusing on dysfunction) — focusing on hips, rib cage position, shoulder, thoracic spine mobility, diaphragm, and glute facilitation

• Exercise Implementation — exercises that create optimal firing patterns, kinetic chain sequencing, and whole body integration

The programming thought process with the Diamondbacks centers around concepts that remove individual limitations and increase efficiency in the entire motor system. We perform screenings and tests according to industry standards like most programs, but our goals are less explosive and very fundamental. Exercises that promote joint centration and ideal firing patterns are at the core of what we implement with our players. While there are countless exercises and variations that can be used with these principles in mind, below are some of our most often-programmed exercises:

UPPER BODY:• Cable push/pull combo (*can also be done individually as

cable push or cable pull)

• Dumbbell row

• Physioball dumbbell bench press, single- or double-arm variations

• Half-kneeling high cable pull

• Push-up variations

• Cable “X” pulldowns

LOWER BODY:• Lunge variations (drop, lateral, reverse, etc.)

• Single-leg Romanian deadlift (RDLs)

• Bulgarian split squats (rear foot elevated)

• Step-ups/downs

• Sumo squats

• Glute bridge variations

CORE:• Physioball cable rotations

• Paloff press variations

• Dead bug variations

• Cable chops

Many of the exercises we program are selected with the intent to mimic movements on the playing field and target common problem areas in our sport and those identified individually (i.e., upper/lower cross patterns, hip alignment, diaphragm activation, weak glutes, etc.). We also avoid exercises that could be potentially detrimental to overhead throwing athletes. Two of the more common and controversial exercises we omit in our programming are the barbell bench press and overhead pressing movements. For our program, these exercises do not apply specifically to baseball or our athletes (sport specificity). While these exercises will certainly increase strength, they will not necessarily translate into hitting further or throwing harder.

From our experience, the barbell bench press can potentially create dyssynchrony between important stabilizing musculature (like serratus anterior) for baseball athletes. Over development of the pectoral muscles can also potentially affect postural alignment, decrease range of motion, and restrict the shoulders. As mentioned above, we avoid overhead pressing due to the workload of the shoulder during the season. We have found that many of our players do not have proper glenohumeral centrality, scapular stability, or positioning to tolerate this activity. This may not apply to all programs or athletes, however. Since overhead pressing without proper glenohumeral centrality, or scapular stability/positioning may increase risk of impingement and inflammation in the shoulder, we avoid this type of activity.

We do not ignore upper body pushing exercises, though. We select exercises that allow the scapulae to move freely whenever possible. We also avoid isolated movement in general (unless the athlete is injured and in the rehabilitation process). Running, jumping, squatting, throwing, and swinging are all complex movements. In theory, breaking the movements into parts makes sense, but these may be less favorable when considering the neurological need for muscles to practice working as a unified group.

Another focus of our program is on health and injury prevention. We do not strive for big changes in mass, strength, and power due to the intricate and delicate mechanics the players use for throwing and swinging. This is not to say the players cannot improve during the season, it just is not our top priority when considering the health and recovery of the players.

As baseball strength and conditioning professionals, we need to recognize that each player has individual needs, and what may be an appropriate and beneficial exercise for one player may be contraindicated for another. We must also constantly be aware of on-field activity volume, including pre-game skills practice/repetitions and in-game activity. It is essential to make daily adjustments to the program design based on the workload volume of the previous day and perceived recovery. When training for baseball, whether in-season or off-season, the risk-to-reward ratio must be considered for exercise selection. For us, there is perhaps more power in what we do not do in the weight room than what


TRAINING AND RECOVERY OF THE BASEBALL ATHLETE: A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE ARIZONA DIAMONDBACKS’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM

we do. We strive to make smart decisions and choices that give our players the best chance to be successful. After all, our number one priority is making sure our players play.

As strength and conditioning professionals, we have a responsibility to our players and clients to understand the requirements of their sport or activity. Creating programs should be done with purpose. Consideration should be put into every aspect of your program, including activities and exercises you prescribe as well as those you do not prescribe. We encourage strength and conditioning coaches, both new and experienced, to seek out continuing education and learning opportunities, and to utilize the information provided to enhance your own programming.

REFERENCES1. Gambetta, V. How much strength is enough? Strength and Conditioning Journal 17(4): 46-49, 1995.

ABOUT THE AUTHORThis year will be Nate Shaw’s ninth year as the Major League Strength and Conditioning Coordinator with the Arizona Diamondbacks. He joined the Diamondbacks before the 2006 season after a three-year stint in the Tampa Bay Devil Rays organization. Shaw started his work in professional sports by spending two years (2001-2002) with the Toronto Blue Jays during Spring Training in Dunedin, FL. Prior to his baseball strength and conditioning career, he worked as a personal trainer. Shaw graduated from the University of Florida in 2001 with a Bachelor’s degree in Exercise and Sport Sciences and specialized in Athletic Training.

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TABLE 1. IN-SEASON SAMPLE WORKOUT 1

EXERCISE REPETITIONSWarm-up

Physioball single-arm dumbbell bench press

Half-kneeling quad/psoas stretch

3 x 6-8

2 x 20 s

Reverse lunge to single-leg RDL combo

Band Ts and Ms

3 x 6-8

2 x 10 each

Dumbbell row

Doorway pec stretch

3 x 6-8

2 x 20 s

Dumbbell/kettlebell lateral lunge

Physioball cable core rotations

2 x 8

2 x 10

Cool-down*Note: paired exercises are superset with each other

TABLE 2. IN-SEASON SAMPLE WORKOUT 2

EXERCISE REPETITIONSWarm-up

Cable push/pull combo

Foam roll thoracic spine rotation

3 x 6-8

2 x 10 each side

Kettlebell/dumbbell sumo squat

Physioball dead bugs

3 x 6-8

2 x 10

Half-kneeling high cable pull

Bulgarian split squat (rear foot elevated)

3 x 6-8

2 x 10

Cable chops

Rope triceps extension

2 x 10

2 x 10

Cool-down*Note: paired exercises are superset with each other


ALLEN HEDRICK, MA, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA

THE IMPORTANCE AND VALUE OF THE WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS IN BASEBALL

Although there are exceptions, there is still not widespread acceptance for the use of the weightlifting movements (i.e., cleans, jerks, snatches, and related training exercises)

as a viable and safe training method for baseball athletes. This is unfortunate because, as will be shown, the weightlifting movements have the opportunity to enhance performance in the sport of baseball.

Why has there been reluctance among some of those working with baseball athletes to accept the weightlifting movements as an effective training method for their sport? While there are likely a variety of responses to that question, one common opinion is that the weightlifting movements carry with them too great of risk of injury to include them in the training programs of baseball athletes. As suggested by Hammer, because of scholarship limitations in collegiate baseball, the number of highly talented players on any one team is scarce (4). As a result, the ability to increase power using the weightlifting movements is outweighed by the potential for injury. Hammer suggested that both plyometrics and medicine ball training could improve power development with less risk of injury than weightlifting (4).

However, while there is widespread belief that the weightlifting movements involve an increased risk of injury, research does not support that belief. In a study by Hamill, it was found that youth training and competing in weightlifting had the lowest rate of injury among athletes competing in a variety of sports including soccer, badminton, cross country, and tennis (3). Hamill did emphasize that all of the athletes training and competing in weightlifting did so while being supervised by well qualified coaches familiar with weightlifting technique and program design (3).

Another common concern expressed by coaches is that the weightlifting movements are too time consuming to teach (4). While it is true that teaching the Olympic-style lifts does take more time than other resistance training movements, a strong case can be made that because of the benefits that the weightlifting movements provide to baseball athletes (and for that matter any athlete involved in a sport that is power oriented), this extra teaching time is worth the enhanced power production the athlete will experience as a result of performing the weightlifting movements correctly.

In terms of teaching the Olympic-style lifts, it has been suggested that baseball athletes being introduced to the weightlifting movements may initially find the teaching process frustrating because the movements can sometimes be difficult to learn (2). Because of this the athlete should first be taughtbasic skills (e.g., clean pull) before the more complex movements (e.g., power clean) are taught. Only those exercises that the athlete can consistently demonstrate proper technique should

be included in the training program. Coaches must teach and demand proper technique so injuries are avoided and the full value of the exercises can be realized. If a coach cannot teach an exercise or cannot teach and supervise several athletes simultaneously, that exercise should not be included in thetraining program provided to the athletes.

What makes the weightlifting movements so worthwhile to the baseball athlete? The weightlifting movements have been shown to produce power outputs far greater than traditional weight training exercises such as the squat or bench (1). For example, the power generated during the second pull of the power clean is five times greater than the power generated during a squat, and 18 times greater than the power generated performing a bench press (1). These high power outputs are the result of a combination of fast movement speeds and high bar loads only possible when performing the weightlifting movements.

This high power generation is important because baseball is an explosive sport. For example, to hit a baseball thrown at 85 miles per hour a distance of 400 feet (with no wind and moderate temperature) requires a bat speed of 76 miles per hour (1). The concept of specificity suggests that training to improve both batting and throwing power should include high-velocity methods. High-velocity training such as what occurs during performance of the weightlifting movements is most likely to increase the rate of muscular force development because the weightlifting movements require the recruitment of the type IIa (fast twitch) motor units.

Further support for the use of the weightlifting movements in baseball occurs when you consider the act of hitting and throwing a baseball is produced by force traveling through a kinetic link, initiated by the feet pushing into the ground (1,5). The force generated travels up through the lower body and core to the upper body where it is expressed during the act of hitting or throwing a baseball. This is exactly what happens when performing the weightlifting movements; the force is initiated by pushing against the ground and that force moves up the kinetic chain where it is expressed by explosively moving the barbell. As a result, there are strong similarities between hitting or throwing a baseball and performing the weightlifting movements. In contrast, training programs that emphasize the use of exercise machines, which isolate muscle groups and eliminate multiplanar movements, are likely to be less effective (1).

Based on the information provided it has been shown that, when taught and supervised by a qualified coach, the weightlifting movements are both a safe and effective training method meant to improve performance in baseball. However, it is critical that the strength and conditioning coach is qualified to teach and supervise these movements before they are included in the training program provided to the athletes.

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REFERENCES1. Ebben, WP, Fotsch, A, and Hartz, KK. Multimode resistance training to improve baseball batting power. Strength and Conditioning Journal 28(3): 32-36, 2006.

2. Gearity, B. Effective collegiate baseball strength coaching. Strength and Conditioning Journal 31(2): 74-79, 2009.

3. Hamill, BP. Relative safety of weightlifting and weight training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 8(1): 53-57, 1994.

4. Hammer, E. Preseason training for college baseball. Strength and Conditioning Journal 31(2): 79-85, 2009.

5. Weatherly, J, and Schinck, C. Concepts for baseball conditioning. Strength and Conditioning Journal 18(2): 32-39, 1996.

ABOUT THE AUTHORAllen Hedrick is the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at Colorado State University-Pueblo, in Pueblo, CO. Previously, Hedrick has been the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at the U.S. Air Force Academy, the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), and the United States Olympic Training Center. Prior to that, he worked as a graduate assistant while pursuing his Master’s degree at Fresno State University. Hedrick was named the NSCA’s Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coach of the Year in 2003. Frequently published in various journals related to strength and conditioning, Hedrick has authored books on football and dumbbell training, written chapters in three textbooks related to strength and conditioning, and has spoken at numerous conferences and clinics both nationally and internationally.


RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW

MODEL OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT

When considering training programs for developing young athletes, coaches should focus their attention on developing a long-term approach to positive youth

development. Some of the main components of effective youth development programs include positive physical, social, and psychological outcomes; positive adult, peer, and community relationships; and focus on learning, mastery, and autonomy support (2,5). Coaches should be cognizant at this level to focus on the process (acquisition and development of health- and skills-fitness, mental training, and psychosocial benefits) rather than the product (wins and losses). Lerner et al. suggest that all youth possess the potential for positive, successful, and healthy development (7).

MODELS OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SPORTThere exist several models of athletic development from which coaches can design their programs (1,4,9). These models focus on the physical aspect of positive youth development primarily, so the focus of this article will also be on the physical aspect and focus of training for youth development. Please remember, though, that just as children do not automatically develop increased motor skills they do not automatically develop properly without caring coaches that focus on development of the whole child.

Each model delineates stages through which children and youth pass, often based on chronological age (age in years). One of the primary limitations to this approach is that there is often a two-year developmental difference on either side of the chronological age in terms of the developmental age (10). Meaning that with a group of 12-year-olds, the range of developmental ages will range from 10 to 14. While this provides a reference point in which to begin sports training program design, coaches must recognize the variations in development of their youth athletes when applying these models to their youth athletes. Not all athletes, therefore, will be able to follow the same program template at any chronological age.

Recent research on the relative age effect indicates that boys between the ages of 10 and 16 years that were born in the first and second quarters of the year have a physical advantage over boys born in the third or fourth quarters of the same year (13). Coaches must therefore be mindful of the relative age effect when designing strength and conditioning programs and sports practice. The overall emphasis should be on talent development for all participants as those that are classified as “late-bloomers” have been shown to not only match the physical development of early maturing/higher relative age youth eventually but often surpass their performance and participate longer (4). For coaches, great care must be taken in designing strength and conditioning programs and skills practice for youth athletes with such a wide variance in physical and psychosocial development. Coaches must

also foster positive youth development for all youngsters in order to reduce burnout and injury of youths that mature early, and promote continued progress for those youths that mature later or were born later in the selection year.

THE POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT MODELThe positive youth development model of Lloyd and Oliver promotes a balanced approach to strength and conditioning throughout childhood and adolescence (9). As the Tables 1 and 2 illustrate, all fitness attributes are trainable across childhood and adolescence.

While this model also is delineated by chronological age, it is easily adaptable by the coach for variations in developmental levels. For example, if a 10-year-old boy is developmentally an 8-year old, emphasis on physical training follows the same general template of balanced development, but sport-specific skills receive less emphasis. This is of critical importance as the tendency too often is to focus on sport-specific skills instead of developing the motor skill and strength base required for advanced functioning.

Coaches should promote strength and conditioning programs that:

• Improve overall strength and conditioning for all youth

• Develop overall athleticism, not early sport specialization

• Balance development of all muscles and muscle groups

• Incorporate a variety of exercises and types of equipment

• Focus on technique, not amount of weight lifted

It is also worth mentioning that coaches should not try to duplicate a sporting movement in the gym. The focus should be on the development of motor skills in the gym, as sport specialization will be acquired through sport practice at this level.

CONCLUSIONTo maximize the physical and psychosocial benefits of youth sports participation, a positive long-term youth development focus is essential. For developing children, strength and conditioning programs must focus on the overall physical development of all participants, rather than emphasizing any element of sport-specific training. According to the positive youth development model, sport-specific skills can begin to be emphasized starting at approximately age 10 for girls and age 12 for boys once foundational motor skills and a base of strength have been established (9). Please refer to Tables 1 and 2 for the youth physical development model for both boys and girls, as published by Lloyd and Oliver (9). As children enter adolescence, continuing emphasis on all fitness attributes is warranted as well as focusing on reducing youth sports injuries, and creating strength and conditioning programs that will assist in sport-specific training improvements (11,12,14).

REFERENCES

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1. Balyi, I, and Hamilton, A. Long-term athlete development: Trainability in childhood and adolescence-windows of opportunity. Optimal Trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Columbia and Advanced Training and Performance Ltd. 2004.

2. Benson, PL. All Kids are our Kids: What Communities must do to Raise Caring and Responsible Children and Adolescents (2nd ed). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2006.

3. Côté, J, Baker, J, and Abernethy, B. Practice to play in the development of sport expertise. In: Eklund, R, and Tenenbaum, G (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 184–202, 2007.

4. Côté, J, Lidor, R, and Hackfort, D. To sample or to specialize? – Seven postulates about youth sport activities that lead to continued participation and elite performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 9: 7-17, 2009.

5. Damon, W. What is positive youth development? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 591: 13-24, 2004.

6. Fraser-Thomas, JL, Côté, J, and Deakin, J. Youth sport programs: An avenue to foster positive youth development. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 10(1): 19-40, 2005.

7. Lerner, RM, Lerner, JV, Almerigi, J, Theokas, C, Naudeau, S, Gestsdottir, S, Naudeau, S, Jelicic, H, Alberts, A, Ma, L, Smith, L, Bobek, D, Richman-Raphael, D, Simpson, I, Christiansen, ED, and vonEye, A. Positive youth development: Participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. Journal of Early Adolescence 25(1): 17-71, 2005.

8. Little, RR. What’s working for today’s youth: The issues, the programs, and the learnings. Paper presented at the Institute for Children, Youth, and Families Fellows’ Colloquium, Michigan State University, 1993.

9. Lloyd, R, and Oliver, J. The youth physical development model: A new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(3): 61-72, 2012.

10. Malina, R, Bouchard, C, and Bar-Or, O. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity (2nd ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2004.

11. Myer, GD, Faigenbaum, AD, Ford, KR, Best, TM, Bergeron, MF, and Hewett, TE. When to initiate integrative neuromuscular training to reduce sports-related injuries and enhance health in youth? Curr Sports Med Rep 10(3):155-66, 2011.

12. Nakata, H, Nagami, T, Higuchi, T, Sakamoto, K, and Kanosue, K. Relationship between performance variables and baseball ability in youth baseball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 27(10): 2887-2897, 2013.

13. Sandercock, G, Taylor, M, Voss, C, Ogunleye, A, Cohen, D, and Parry, D. Quantification of the relative age effect in three indices of physical performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 27(12): 3293-3299, 2013.

14. Szymanski, DJ, Szymanski, JM, Bradford, TJ, Schade, RL, and Pascoe, DD. Effect of twelve weeks of medicine ball training on high school baseball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 21(3): 894-901, 2007.

ABOUT THE AUTHORRick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical activity and sports participation.


MODEL OF POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT

TABLE 1. YOUTH PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR GIRLS (9)

TABLE 2. YOUTH PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR BOYS (9)TABLE KEY

FMS: fundamental movement skillsMC: metabolic conditioningPHV: peak height velocitySSS: sport-specific skills

TABLE KEY

FMS: fundamental movement skillsMC: metabolic conditioningPHV: peak height velocitySSS: sport-specific skills

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JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS,*D, AND AARON WYANT, MS

INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND TURNOVER IN NCAA DIVISION I STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHING POSITIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ATHLETIC ADMINISTRATION

The number of certified professional strength and conditioning coaches has multiplied by more than sixteen times since May of 2001 (4). Unfortunately, this growth is

accompanied by a high rate of turnover in collegiate, Division I strength and conditioning positions (14). Previous research has looked at the personal characteristics and demographics of strength and conditioning coaches attempting to establish the ideal candidate for the environment but has not taken into consideration the environment-related factors that affect the coach (5,20,21). The aim of this article is to quantify the factors that affect the strength and conditioning coach’s job satisfaction and turnover, specifically extrinsic motivation factors.

Locke defined job satisfaction as, “a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job,” (13). Extrinsic motivation factors, also known as hygiene factors, describe the work environment and prevent job dissatisfaction (7). These hygiene factors—work resources such as compensation, facilities, support, and work culture or environment—are never satisfied but require continual maintenance; they do not increase or enhance productivity but work only to prevent the loss of employee performance (8). Intrinsic motivation factors seem effective in motivating people to reach a higher level of performance; they direct and drive our behavior toward accomplishing goals (7). Intrinsic motivation factors are those that come from within the psyche of the coach but can also be established or modified by the organization. For example, organizational goals and the chance for new opportunities may influence the coach’s intrinsic motivation

and work performance (7). Intrinsic motivation factors include the achievement of goals, recognition for accomplishments, challenging and meaningful work, increased responsibility, professional growth and development, and overall job enrichment (7).

The probability of experiencing success within one’s job has an “inverted-U” relationship with motivation factors; that is, motivation will increase with the job’s probability of success up to 50% but will then decrease as that probability continues to grow (1). If the work is not challenging enough to allow for achievement or professional growth, motivation will decrease. Likewise, if the work is too challenging or the employee does not have the necessary resources, motivation will decrease. The lack of extrinsic or intrinsic motivators in the workplace can cause frustration and emotional behaviors such as aggression, rationalization, regression, fixation, or resignation (7). Burnout (a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment) results from high job demands and low job resources (16). According to Liang, burnout causes emotional depression, absenteeism, physical illness, diminished organizational commitment, lowered performance, and increased staff turnover (12).

Many Division I universities have experienced significant job turnover in these strength and conditioning positions. There are influential, extrinsic factors within the strength and conditioning job itself that can affect the coach’s job satisfaction positively

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or negatively. Analyzing a university’s hygiene factors can demonstrate the influence and effect each may have on job satisfaction and turnover. The purpose of this research is to bring to light these hygiene factors, the effects they have, and to establish implications for the athletic administration.

COMPENSATION: PAY AND BENEFITSA strength and conditioning coach salary position is not the typical, 40 hours-per-week job. Although it may be one of the more superficial aspects of motivation, compensation may also be the single most important contributing factor to job performance (9). The average salary of Division IA (currently Division I, Football Bowl Subdivision but still referred to as Division IA at the time of the study) head strength and conditioning coaches was $50,000 – $59,999 in 2004, which is about $10,000 – $20,000 more than coaches at the Division II and III levels (5). With days often starting before the sun rises and ending after it has gone down, a base salary that does not recognize overtime may not fully motivate the coach. Involuntary overtime is associated with high fatigue and low job satisfaction; those that receive no reward for overtime are at risk of burnout (2).

Competitive compensation strategies will have dramatic effects on employee turnover and the attitudes of employees (11). According to Hersey et al., 25% of employees show up to work only to collect a paycheck; 25% of employees feel that employee benefits are an important reason for joining an organization; and 42% of employees report that benefits are an important reason to stay with an organization (7). Employees that are dissatisfied with their annual salary experience increased job stress and lower job satisfaction (6). Those with less experience and those who earn low salaries have greater turnover intention, and are more motivated to search for outside opportunities for professional advancement (25).

FACILITIES AND COWORKER SUPPORTLimited facilities and supplies or equipment are important difficulties noted in many physical education and athletic environments (26). In a survey conducted in 2005, coaches at the Division II and III levels reported that they have one or zero weight rooms to utilize with their athletic teams (5). In the Division IA setting, however, coaches have two or more weight rooms exclusively for the athletic department’s purposes (15). Haggerty states that in order to elicit higher athlete performance and obtain career advancement the strength and conditioning coach must be provided with the appropriate facilities and equipment that enable them to create and manipulate training programs (5). Any limitation with strength and conditioning facilities will equally affect the coach’s ability to develop and implement well-designed strength and conditioning programs. This may lead to a downhill slide that involves diminished athlete performances, impaired job performance of the strength and conditioning coach, and reduced job satisfaction.

Colleague support, along with staying current with information and technology, have been noted as important factors related to successful teaching that contribute to longevity in the career

(22). Establishing coworker relationships and working in a “team environment” is a powerful determinant of job satisfaction, even more influential than one’s pay (17,24). Additionally, supervisor and coworker support are factors significantly related to low job stress and high job satisfaction (18). Coaches at the Division II and III levels report having a support staff of zero full-time assistants and no help from graduates or volunteers, while those at the Division IA level report having two full-time assistants, at least one graduate assistant (up to six), and one volunteer (5). Limitations of coworker support for the strength and conditioning coach may cause excessive work stress which impacts the organizational commitment, absenteeism, turnover, and turnover intention of the employee. In turn, this leads to many problems for the employer, such as increased medical claims and healthcare costs, higher employee compensation costs, increased employee absence, and reduced employee productivity (18).

WORK CULTURE OR ENVIRONMENTAccording to Hersey et al., 40% of employees feel disconnected from their employers (7). Kim’s literary investigation and survey of over 2,600 NCAA Division II coaches showed that the transactional (TA) and transformational (TF) leadership of an employer has a direct, positive influence on job satisfaction and an indirect, negative relationship with turnover intention when mediated through organizational commitment (10). TA leadership involves a leader-follower exchange between the employer and employee for each member’s respective needs; this relationship functions through the use of hygiene factors. Once this transaction is made the TA style of leadership may not effectively motivate the employee and TF leadership is then needed (10). TF leadership uses intrinsic motivation factors to change the attitudes and behaviors, increase expectations, strengthen motives to achieve, and improve the overall performance of employees.

Corporate culture affects work quality, job satisfaction, and employee retention (23,27). A study of corporate-sponsored versus individual-sponsored physical activity showed a direct relationship between work-related activities and the employee’s perceived productivity level. The research demonstrates that individuals who are involved in corporate-sponsored health and fitness programs are likely to view this sponsorship as an act of concern by the employer. Involvement in work-related activities is also positively related to company loyalty (23).

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONSAn athletic administration that is experiencing high levels of turnover in the strength and conditioning position should look at the environment-related, hygiene factors that may be affecting the coach’s job satisfaction. The importance of such hygiene factors like pay and benefits has been stressed for both joining and staying with an organization. Those who feel that the compensation does not adequately meet the level of work required for the position are likely to experience job dissatisfaction and burnout. If compensation levels are not close to the national average for similar universities, coaches may feel overworked and underappreciated.


It is important that coaches are given the right tools and support to meet the demands of their job. Providing up-to-date and sufficient facilities, equipment, and supplies will improve the coach’s chance of success and may lengthen their stay in the position; additionally, providing adequate coworker support is a major determinant of job satisfaction and turnover. Administrations should use employee and supervisor development programs that emphasize the value of coworker support in order to avoid the potentially expensive problems associated with high levels of work stress (18).

University administrations should exercise the use of corporate-sponsored activity to instill a sense of a cohesive and caring culture in the work environment. Promoting physical activity is at the very heart of strength and conditioning and a work culture that holds these same values will affect the coach’s commitment and job satisfaction positively. Administrators may continue to utilize TA leadership and leader-follower exchange relationships to motivate the strength and conditioning coach; however, they should begin to use more TF leadership and intrinsic motivation factors to affect employee performance by increasing commitment to the organization’s mission and goals. Those universities lacking these important hygiene factors cannot expect to develop a positive work environment that induces higher employee performance and productivity. Limitations or lack of these highly influential factors will negatively affect the strength and conditioning coach’s ability to perform their job, lowering their job satisfaction and eventually leading to high levels of turnover in the position.

REFERENCES1. Atkinson, JW. Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review 64(6): 365, 1957.

2. Beckers, D, van der Linden, D, Smulders, P, Kompier, M, Toon, W, and Geurts, S. Voluntary or involuntary? Control over overtime and rewards for overtime in relation to fatigue and work satisfaction. Work & Stress 22(1): 33-51, 2008.

3. Chelladurai, P. Sport management: Defining the field. European Journal for Sport Management 1: 7-21, 1994.

4. College Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association. About the CSCCa. Retrieved December 2013 from http://www.cscca.org/about.

5. Haggerty, L. A profile of strength and conditioning coaches at National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III member institutions. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1094. Retrieved from http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1094, 2005.

6. Hamidi, Y, and Eivazi, Z. The relationships among employees’ job stress, job satisfaction, and the organizational performance of Hamadan urban health centers. Social Behavior and Personality 38(7): 963-968, 2010.

7. Hersey, P, Blanchard, K, and Johnson, D. Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources (10th ed). Pearson Education Publishers: 2012.

8. Herzberg, F, Mausner, B, and Snyderman, B. The Motivation to Work. New York, NY: Wiley; 1959.

9. Jenkins, G, Gupta, N, Mitra, A, and Shaw, J. Are financial incentive related to performance? A meta-analytic review of empirical research. Journal of Applied Psychology 83: 777-787, 1998.

10. Kim, H. Transformational and transactional leadership of athletic directors and their impact on organizational outcomes perceived by head coaches at NCAA Division II intercollegiate institutions (Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University). Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap:0:0:APPLICATION_PROCESS=DOWNLOAD_ETD_SUB_DOC_ACCNUM:::F1501_ID:osu1258697980,attachment

11. Klaas, B, and McClendon, J. To lead, lag, or match: Estimating the financial impact of pay level policies. Personnel Psychology 49: 121-141, 1996.

12. Liang, S. The role of organizational socialization in burnout: A Taiwanese example. Social Behavior and Personality 36(2): 197-216, 2008.

13. Locke, E. The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In: Marvin Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally and Company; 1297-1350, 1976.

14. Magnusen, M. Assessing differences in strength and conditioning coach self-perceptions of leadership style at the NBA, Division I, and Division II level (Master’s Thesis, Texas Christian University). Available from ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing. (UMI No. 304785695), 2007.

15. Martinez, D. Study of the key determining factors for the NCAA Division I head strength and conditioning coach. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 18(1): 5-18, 2004.

16. Maslach, C. Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In: Schaufeli, WB, Maslach, C, and Marek, T (Eds.), Professional Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis; 19-32, 1993.

17. Mazerolle, S, Goodman, A, and Pitney, W. Factors influencing retention of male athletic trainers at the NCAA Division I setting. International Journal of Athletic Therapy & Training 18(5): 6-10, 2013.

18. McCalister, K, Dolbier, C, Webster, J, Mallon, M, and Steinhardt, M. Hardiness and support at work as predictors of work stress and job satisfaction. American Journal of Health Promotion 20(6): 183-192, 2006.

19. Parkhouse, BL. The management of sport: Its foundation and application with PowerWeb (4th ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2005.

INFLUENTIAL FACTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION AND TURNOVER IN NCAA DIVISION I STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHING POSITIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ATHLETIC ADMINISTRATION

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20. Powers, J. A survey of NCAA Division I strength and conditioning coaches - characteristics and opinions. Graduate School Theses and Dissertations. Retrieved from http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/457, 2008.

21. Pullo, FM. A profile of NCAA Division I strength and conditioning coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Science Research 6(1): 55-62, 1992.

22. Ransdell, L, Grosshans, O, and Trunnell, E. Teaching at the secondary level: Wisdom from veteran health educators. Journal of School Health 74(6): 207-211, 2004.

23. Rudman, WJ. Sport and exercise in work culture. Fitness in Business 2(6): 220-226, 1988.

24. Saygi, H, Tolon, T, and Tekogul, H. Job satisfaction in fisheries faculties at Turkish universities. Social Behavior and Personality 39(10): 1395-1402, 2011.

25. Stier, W, Schneider, R, Kampf, S, and Gaskins, B. Job satisfaction for campus recreation professionals within NIRSA institutions. Recreational Sports Journal 34: 78-94, 2010.

26. Trinkuliene, L, and Kardeliene, L. Occupational difficulties at work of physical education teachers. Education, Physical Training, Sport 88: 88-97, 2013.

27. Twist, P. Building corporate culture. IDEA Trainer Success 4(1): 1-5, 2007.

ABOUT THE AUTHORJuan Gonzalez is a former National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Women’s Cross Country Coach at Schreiner University in Kerrville, TX, and an Assistant Professor in the Health and Kinesiology Department at the University of Texas-Pan American in Edinburg, TX. He has earned his Master’s degree in Kinesiology and a Doctorate in Exercise Physiology from Texas A&M University. Gonzalez specializes in training the female athlete and has given several national presentations for organizations such as the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). In addition, he authored the book “The Athlete Whisperer: What It Takes to Make Her Great.”

Aaron Wyant is a Graduate Strength and Conditioning Coach at the University of Texas-Pan American (UTPA) in Edinburg, TX. He recently graduated with a Master of Science degree in Kinesiology from UTPA in December 2013.


Many athletes put emphasis on training, fueling, and rest, but many do not focus on the importance of good eyesight. Optometrists estimate up to 80% of the information accumulated during a sporting competition comes from the eyes, and 95% of all physical movement is controlled visually, and triggers the first movement (1,9,11). Even eyesight that is slightly blurred can reduce performance (5).

EYE ANATOMYSome of the major components of the eye that affect performance and overall vision are the cornea, retina, macula, and the lens.

The cornea is transparent, approximately spherical, and is located on the outer layer of the eye (2).

The retina is light-sensitive tissue located in the inner layer of the eye (2). The retina is an extension of the central nervous system and is connected to the brain by the optic nerve (2). The lens is located in the inner eye and is connected to the ciliary body, which is important to the process of accommodation, or changing focus (2). Both the cornea and lens are vital components for refraction within the eye as well (2). Also of importance to optimal vision is the macula, which is located near the center of the retina, responsible for absorbing harmful light and protecting the retina. Proper nutrition must be followed to protect the eye and for each component to function optimally.

NUTRITIONThe types of foods put into the body not only affect performance but also the eyes. A large-scale research project conducted by the National Eye Institute found there are several nutrients that help protect the eyes (8). Some of the most important nutrients include the following:

• Beta-carotene is an antioxidant. It helps produce pigment in the retina of the eye and promotes good vision, especially in low light. Sources include apricots, broccoli, cantaloupe, carrots, dark green leafy vegetables, pink grapefruit, pumpkin, spinach, and sweet potatoes.

• Vitamin C is a water-soluble essential nutrient and an important antioxidant. The eyes need relatively high levels of vitamin C to function properly. One of its main roles is to support small blood vessels to and around the eyes. The lens of the eye is also highly concentrated with vitamin C. Sources include brussel sprouts, bell peppers, broccoli, berries, and citrus fruit.

• Vitamin D (for the purposes of this article, we will focus on Vitamin D3 cholecalciferol) has been shown to positivity impact vision and reduce retinal inflammation (6). Food sources include cod liver oil, Atlantic pickled herring, salmon, mackerel, sardine and tuna packed in oil, fortified cereals/dairy/soy/tofu products, eggs, and mushrooms.

• Vitamin E (d-alpha tocopherol) is one of the body’s most powerful fat-soluble antioxidants. Higher intake of vitamin E can increase the level in the retina. Vitamin E is also found in the lens. It protects cells of the eyes from damage and provides ocular protection (8). Sources include wheat germ, almonds, sunflower seeds, hazelnuts, peanuts, peanut butter, and sweet potatoes.

• Lutein and Zeaxanthin are powerful carotenoids naturally present in the macula of the eye. They are part of the retina which is responsible for central vision. These vital nutrients work to filter 40 – 90% of the harmful blue light, the kind of light that can damage the macula. They can increase the pigment density in the macula. The greater the pigment density means better retina protection and a lower risk of macular degeneration (8). These antioxidants cannot be produced by the body on its own, so they must be obtained through diet and/or supplements. Sources include egg yolk, broccoli, corn, dark green leafy vegetables (e.g., kale, collards, spinach, turnip greens), and peas.

• Zinc (zinc oxide) is an essential mineral. It helps get vitamin A from the liver to the retina for eye-protective melanin production. Proper amounts of zinc help with ocular protection, night vision, and cataract prevention. Sources include fortified cereals, legumes of all kinds (e.g., black eyed peas, kidney beans, lima beans) lean red meat, poultry, seafood, and pumpkin seeds.

• Omega 3 Fatty Acids (fish oil) appears as two types: docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). They are major components of nervous and retinal tissues and are highly concentrated in the ocular tissues. They help promote healthy tear production necessary for healthy and comfortable eyes, protect tiny vessels within the eyes, and low levels of these fatty acids can be linked to dry eye syndrome (3,4,7). Sources include salmon, tuna, sardines, and anchovies.

EYE HEALTH AND PERFORMANCEThe thicker and denser the macular pigment, the more protection is afforded to the eyes. This thickness also reduces glare and light sensitivity along with improving photo stress recovery, contrast sensitivity, and processing speed (12). Since the eyes and brain are connected, a millisecond difference in seeing a pitch in baseball, for example, can be the difference between a strike and a home run. A 95-mile-per-hour fastball takes less than half a second to get to the plate. A player must decide to swing in approximately 0.458 seconds. That means the player must see the ball and decide whether to swing or not. If the player cannot see the ball properly, performance will likely suffer. This emphasizes the importance of maintaining proper nutrition for eye health.

DAWN WEATHERWAX, RD, CSSD, ATC, CSCS

EYE NUTRITION FOR OPTIMAL VISION AND PERFORMANCE

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EYE HEALTH FOR MACULAR DEGENERATION AND CATARACTSApproximately 10% of people between 66 to 74 years of age will have findings of macular degeneration (10). The prevalence increases to 30% when in people between 75 and 85 years of age (10). Macular degeneration is described as a loss of vision in the center of the visual field (the macula) because of damage to the retina. It is a major cause of blindness and visual impairment in older adults.

Cataracts are another common eye problem. Cataracts are a medical condition in which the lens of the eye becomes progressively cloudy, resulting in blurred vision. By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery (7).

SUMMARYProtecting the eyes and having optimal vision starts with one’s diet. Maximizing the thickness of the macula pigment may decrease the chances of macular degeneration and cataracts. In order to help protect the eyes and promote optimal performance it is recommended that one consume a diet high in green leafy vegetables, salmon, tuna, other oily fish, eggs, nuts, beans, other non-meat protein sources, oranges, and other citrus fruits or juices.

REFERENCES1. Arie, B. Sports vision: How enhancing your vision can give you that extra edge in competition. Peak Performance 188: 6-8, 2003.

2. Atchison, D. Optics of the Human Eye. School of Optometry and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation: Queensland University of Technology—Brisbane, Australia. Presentation accessed January 20, 2014 from http://publicana.ru/files/opticheskaya-sistema-glaza.pdf.

3. Bonnielin, S, Caulfield, L, Bressler, S, and West, S. The impact of fish and shellfish consumption on age-related macular degeneration. Opthalmology 117(12): 2395-2401, 2010.

4. Chua, B, Flood, V, Rochtchina, E, Wang, JJ, Smith, W, and Mitchell, P. Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7): 981-998, 2006.

5. Griffiths, G. Eye dominance in sport. Optometry Times 43(16): 34-40, 2003.

6. Lee, V, Rekhi, E, Hoh Kam, J, and Jeffery, G. Vitamin D refuvenates ageing eyes by reducing inflammation, clearing amyloid beta and improving visual function. Neurobiology of Aging 33(10): 2382-2389, 2001.

7. Sangiovanni, JP, Agrón, E, Meleth, AD, Reed, GF, Sperduto, RD, Clemons, TE, and Chew, EY. {omega}-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and 12-y incidence of neovascular age-related macular degeneration and central geographic atrophy: AREDS report 30, a prospective cohort study from the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90(6): 1601-1607, 2009.

8. SanGiovanni, JP, Chew, EY, Clemons, TE, et al. for Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 22. Arch Ophthalmol 125(9): 1225-1232, 2007.

9. Spinell, MR. Contact lenses for athletes. Optom Clin 3: 57-76, 1993.

10. U.P. Ophthalmology. Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Accessed January 20, 2014 from http://www.eyehealth.com/macular-degeneration.html.

11. Werner, W. Contact lens fitting for sports. Contactologia 22: 92-94, 2000.

12. Wooten, BR, and Hammond, BR. Macular pigment: Influences on visual acuity and visibility. Prog Retin Eye Res 21(2): 225-240, 2002.

ABOUT THE AUTHORDawn Weatherwax is a Registered Dietitian with a specialty in Sports Nutrition and is the Founder of Sports Nutrition 2Go. She is also a Board Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics, which is the premier professional sports nutrition credential in the United States. In addition, she is an athletic trainer and a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). Therefore, she brings a comprehensive and unique understanding of an athlete’s body and its nutritional needs to those interested in achieving specific performance goals and optimal health. She is also the author of “The Official Snack Guide for Beleaguered Sports Parents” and “Complete Idiot’s Guide to Sports Nutrition,” as well as a contributing author for “Unique Considerations for the Female Athlete.”

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