Noun modifiers in english and turkish, yuksel goknel

[Metni yazın]

2015

NOUN MODIFIERS

in

ENGLISH

and

TURKISH

Yüksel Göknel

[email protected]

NOUN MODIFIERS IN ENGLISH AND TURKISH

2


3

MODIFIERS IN ENGLISH

Modifiers in Turkish and English are of two kinds. Some modifiers are

groups of words that give information about nouns by answering the

question “which”; the other modifiers are groups of words that answer

the questions when, where, how or why an action takes place.

The modifiers that modify and define nouns produce nominal

phrases that can be used as subjects, objects, objects of pre-

positions, or subject complements in sentences. On the other

hand, adverbs, adverbial phrases and clauses are additional op-

tional elements that give optional information about verbs. Therefore,

although these two are called modifiers, the functions of these modi-

fiers in the sentence producing system are quite different.

In the following article the modifiers that modify nouns are given in

detail. The modifiers that modify verbs are given in another article

under the title “adverbs, adverbials and adverb clauses”.

NOUN MODIFIERS IN ENGLISH

1. Some modifiers are used before nouns in English: Articles: a boy, an engineer, the president

Adjectives 1: my father, your aim, his wife, her decision. its tail,

our project, your horses, their help, this boy, these children,

those books, some birds, all girls, Jack’s father, my mother’s car No articles “a, an, the” are used before the adjectives given

above, such as: (a my book), (the your horses) because “my”,

“your”, “his” … adjectives have defining functions.

The “a, an, the” articles can be used before descriptive adjec-

tives, and they furnish nouns with the meaning of “any”:

Adjectives 2: a beautiful lady, an ugly duck, a miserable man, an

empty room, a broken chair, a naughty child, an old man, a

reasonable decision.

If specific nouns are described, the article “the” can be used be-

fore adjectives, such as: the beautiful lady, the naughty children,

the lazy boys, the sleepy dog, the careless students, the historic

monuments. This article furnishes nouns with definite concepts.


4

A noun can modify another noun by coming immediately before

it, such as: an office table, a door bell, a mountain road, a gold

bracelet, a leather bag, a plastic toy, an apple garden.

Present participles may modify nouns, such as: talk-ing parrots,

a smile-ing baby, roar-ing lions, sing-ing birds, rise-ing prices, a

bark-ing dog, a leak-ing pipe, twinkle-ing lights.

Past participles may modify nouns, such as: a broken chair,

forgotten memories, a lost child, a frightened dog, confused

students, a stolen necklace, a torn coat.

Demonstrative adjectives: this boy, that car, these questions,

those books.

2. Some modifiers are used after nouns:

Prepositional phrases: the boys in the garden, the houses by the

sea, the treasure under the floor, the postman at the door.

Some infinitives may function as modifiers in English, such as:

Jack was the first boy to leave the school.

You have a lot of things to learn.

We have a lot of problems to solve.

That was the last straw to break the camel’s back.

The purple underlined parts above are noun modifiers.

Adjective clauses: the boys who are playing in the garden, the

fish that the cat ate, the man whose car was stolen, the garden

where the children are playing.

The purple underlined parts above are adjective clauses that

modify nouns.

All the nouns together with their modifiers are nominal phrases

because they can be used as subjects, objects or objects of

prepositions in sentences.


5

NOUN MODIFIERS IN TURKISH

All modifiers are used before nouns in Turkish except for the

modifiers that are used after pronouns and nouns.

Articles: Only the indefinite article “bir” is used before nouns in

Turkish:

bir çocuk “a boy”, bir araba “a car”, bir kadın “a woman”, bir

kedi “a cat”, bir elma “an apple”, bir portakal “an orange”.

In place of the definite article “the” of the English language, the [i, ı,

ü, u] allomorphs are attached to nouns following the vowel harmony

of the Turkish language when nouns or pronouns are used in the

object position when they are definite.

Nouns: kalem-i “the pencil”, adam-ı “the man”, göz-ü “the eye”,

okul-u “the school”, araba-/y/ı, “the car”, koku-/y/u “the smell”,

kavga-/y/ı “the fight”.

Pronouns: ben-i “me”, sen-i “you”, o-/n/u “him, her, it”, biz-i

“us”, siz-i “you”, onlar-ı “them”.

If proper nouns are used in the object position, they are also

suffixed by the [i, ı, ü, u] allomorphs when they are in the object

position in Turkish contrary to English where the proper nouns are

used without definite articles:

Ben dün Jack-i gördüm. I saw Jack yesterday. (Not “*the Jack”.)

If a definite noun is used as the subject of a sentence, it does not

need an “i, ı, ü, u” suffix attached to it.

Dün bahçede bir tavşan gördüm, ama tavşan kaçtı.

I saw a rabbit in the garden, but the rabbit ran away.

Similarly, when active sentences are transformed into passive

forms, the objects attached to [i, ı, ü, u] allomorphs become the

formal subjects (mentally they are the objects) of the passive

sentences carrying definite concepts without the [i, ı, ü, u] allomorphs

attached to them:


6

Jack pencere-/y/i kır-dı. Jack broke the window. (Active)

Pencere kır-ıl-dı. The window was broken. (Passive)

Jack her zaman kapı-/y/ı carp-ar. Jack always slams the door.

Kapı her zaman carp-ıl-ır. The door is always slammed. (Passive)

Onlar hız-ı artır-dı-lar. They increased the speed. (Active)

Hız artır-ıl-dı. The speed was increased. (Passive)

Possessive pronouns:

Using possessive pronouns in Turkish is quite different from using

English possessive pronouns. For instance, if someone says “my”,

no one can understand anything because there is something lacking

in this utterance. This lacking element is the noun that should follow

the possessive pronoun, such as:

my book, your mother, her makeup, his courage, its tail, our

friends, your daughter, our problem, their curiosity.

If one literally translates the expressions above into Turkish, the fol-

lowing ungrammatical Turkish expressions are produced:

*ben-im kitap, *sen-in anne, *o-/n/un makyaj, *o-/n/un cesaret,

*biz-im sorun.

In Turkish, the possessive allomorphs that have the same mean-

ings as the possessive pronouns should be attached to the nouns

that they modify. Therefore, the (ben-im, sen-in, o-/n/un) pronouns

are generally ignored because the “im, ım, üm, um, em, am” allo-

morphs are enough to express them, such as: defter-im (def*te*rim) my notebook

kitap-ım (ki*ta*bım) my book

yüz-üm (yü*züm) my face

kol-um (ko*lum) my arm

anne-em (an*nem) my mother

baba-am (ba*bam) my father

All the [im, ım, üm, um, em, am] allomorphs above mean “ben-im” “my”


7

defter-in (def*te*rin) your notebook

kitap-ın (ki*ta*bın) your book

yüz-ün (yü*zün) your face

kol-un (ko*lun) your arm

anne-en (an*nen) your mother

baba-an (ba*ban) your father

All the [in, ın, ün, un, en, an] allomorphs above mean “sen-in” “your”

defter-i (def*te*ri) his notebook

kitap-ı (ki*ta*bı) his book

yüz-ü (yü*zü) his face

kol-u (ko*lu) his arm

anne-/s/i (an*ne*si) his mother

baba-/s/ı (ba*ba*sı) his father

All the [i, ı, ü, u, /s/i, /s/ı] allomorphs above mean “o-/n/un” “his, her, its”

defter-im-iz (def*te*ri*miz) our notebook

kitap-ım-ız (ki*ta*bı*mız) our book

yüz-üm-üz (yü*zü*müz) our face

kol-um-uz (ko*lu*muz) our arm

anne-em-iz (an*ne*miz) our mother

baba-am-ız (ba*ba*mız) our father

All the [im-iz, ım-ız, üm-üz, um-uz, em-iz, am-ız] allomorphs above

mean “biz-im” “our”.

defter-in-iz (def*te*ri*niz) your notebook

kitap-ın-ız (ki*ta*bı*nız) your book

yüz-ün-üz (yü*zü*nüz) your face

kol-un-uz (ko*lu*nuz) your arm

anne-en-iz (an*ne*niz) your mother

baba-an-ız ba*ba*nız) your father


8

All the [in-iz, ın-ız, ün-üz, un-uz, en-iz, an-ız] allomorphs above mean

“siz-in” “your”. defter-ler-i (def*ter*le*ri) their notebooks

kitap-lar-ı (ki*tap*la*rı) their books

yüz-ler-i (yüz*le*ri) their faces

kol-lar-ı (kol*la*rı) their arms

anne-e-/s/i (an*ne*si) their mother

baba-a-/s/ı (ba*ba*sı) their father

All the [i, ı, ü, u, /s/i, /s/ı] allomorphs mean “onlar-ın” “their”

As the possessive allomorphs attached to the nouns above are

enough to express the possessive pronouns in brackets, these

possessive pronouns can be ignored unless they are intentionally

stressed because “defter-im” means “ben-im defter-im” and “ev-

im-iz” means “biz-im ev-im-iz”.

All the possessive pronouns above together with the nouns that

they modify are noun compounds in Turkish. All the other noun

compounds that contain proper or common possessive nouns follow

the third person “possessive pronoun + noun-possessive allomorph”

prototype to constitute noun compounds in Turkish:

The noun compounds “o-/n/un okul-u” and “Jack-in okul-u” are

structurally the same noun compounds like “his school” and “Jack’s

school”. All the other noun compounds use the same template to

produce noun compounds in Turkish:

“o-/n/un araba-/s/ı”, “ahmet-in araba-/s/ı”, “oda-/n/ın kapı-/s/ı”,

“Jack-in konu-/y/u anla-ma-/s/ı”, “çalış-ma-/n/ın bit-me-/s/i”, “hır-

sız-ın kaç-ma-/s/ı”. The black underlined words are infinitives.

As it is seen in the examples above, the infinitives can also be used

in noun compounds. There are four kinds of infinitives in Turkish:

1. The [mek, mak] allomorphs that are attached to verb roots, verb

stems and verb frames:

(verb root-[mek, mak]): gör-mek, konuş-mak, yürü-mek, ağla-

mak, bekle-mek, elle-mek, başla-mak, karala-mak, ötele-mek.


9

(verb stem-[mek, mak]): görün-mek, görül-mek, kaçış-mak,

bulun-mak, bitiril-mek, bekleş-mek, sordur-mak, boyat-mak.

The [mek, mak] infinitives are not used in noun compounds.

2. The [me, ma] allomorphs that are attached to verb roots, stems

or frames:

gör-me, konuş-ma, yürü-me, ağla-ma, bekle-me, başla-ma, ötele-

me, görül-me, bulun-ma, sözleş-me, kaçış-ma, bakış-ma, dön-

me, anlaş-ma.

The infinitives with [me, ma] allomorphs are widely used to produce

noun compounds that do not modify nouns. They can be used by

themselves in sentences as subjects, objects, or objects of prepo-

sitions.

Mary-/n/in ağla-ma-/s/ı hepimiz-i üz-dü. (“Üz” is an action verb.)

noun compound def object verb

subject predicate

Mary’s cry-ing made all of us sorry. (“Sorry” is an adjective.)

(Ben) Jack-in gel-me-/s/i-/n/i bekle-i.yor-um. (bek*li*yo*rum)

subj (noun compound) def object verb

predicate

I am waiting for Jack to come.

3. The [dik, dık, dük, duk, tik, tık, tük, tuk] infinitive allomorphs that

are attached to verbs are used in noun compounds that include

question words. They are not modifiers that modify nouns:

(Ben) Jack-in ne iste-dik-i-/n/i bil-me-i.yor-um.

subj (noun compound) def obj verb

predicate

I don’t know what Jack wants. (“What Jack wants” is a noun clause object.) (Ben) Jack-in nere-/y/e, nasıl ve niçin git-tik-i-/n/i bil-me-i.yor-um.

subj (nun compound) definite object verb

predicate

I don’t know where, how and why Jack went.

4. The [iş, ış, üş, uş] allomorphs attached to verbs that produce noun

compounds do not modify nouns. They are used as subjects or ob-

jects in sentences:


10

O/n/un gel-iş-i muhteşem ol-a.cak. My come-ing will be spectacular.

noun compound subj comp verb subject verb subj comp

subject predicate predicate

(Ben) güneş-in doğ-uş-u-/n/u bekle-i.yor-um.

subj (noun comp) definite obj verb

I am waiting for the sun to rise.

5. The noun compounds having the [dik, dık, dük, duk, tik, tık, tük,

tuk] allomorphs attached to the verbs in the second parts of the com-

pounds are also used to modify nouns: O/n/un çalış-tık-ı şirket çok kalabalık.

(noun comp) modifier noun subject complement

subject predicate

The company where he works is very crowded.

(Sen) o/n/un çalış-tık-ı şirket-i bil-i.yor mu-sun?

subj (noun compound) def obj verb

predicate

Do you know the company where he works?

6. If the allomorphs [de.ki, da.ki] are attached to nouns, they pro-

duce modifiers that modify the following nouns in sentences:

bahçe-de.ki kedi “the cat in the garden”

modifier noun noun modifier

nominal phrase nominal phrase

(ben-im) köpek-im bahçe-de.ki kedi-/y/i kovala-dı.

noun compound nominal phrase |

subject definite object verb

predicate

My dog chased the cat in the garden.

subject | | prepositional phrase

verb object modifier

predicate

Kapı-/n/ın arka-sı/n/-da.ki oyuncak-lar kız-ım-ın.

modifier noun subject complement

(nominal phrase) subject predicate

Although Turkish modifiers are always used before nouns, English modifiers

are used either before or after nouns that they modify:


11

1. The modifiers that are used before the nouns that they modify in

English and Turkish:

Present participles: fly-ing birds → Uç-an kuşlar, talk-ing parrots → konuş-an papağanlar,

shin-ing lights → ışılda-/y/an ışıklar, smil-ing baby → gülümse-/y/en

bebek, rise-ing prices → yüsel-en fiyatlar, fall-ing leaves → düş-en

yapraklar, roar-ing lions → kükre-/y/en arslanlar, a leak-ing pipe.

Past participles:

A broken chair → kır-ık sandalye, forgotten memories → unutul-muş

hatıralar, a torn jacket → yırt-ık ceket, a lost child → kayıp çocuk.

Descriptive adjectives:

A beautiful scenery → güzel bir manzara, responsible people →

sorumlu kişiler, a dangerous adventure → tehlikeli bir macera.

In the following Turkish sentences the modifiers come before nouns,

but in the English sentences they come after nouns:

Jack okul-dan çık-an ilk çocuk-tu. (“Çık-an” is an adjective.)

Jack was the first boy to leave the school. (“To leave” is an adjective.)

(The infinitive modifies the noun “boy”, so it is an adjective.)

Yürü-/y/e.cek uzun bir yol-um.uz var. (“Yürü-/y/e.cek” is an adjective.)

We have a long way to walk. (“To walk” is an adjective.)

Öğren-e.cek çok şey-in.iz var. (“Öğren-e.cek” is an adjective.)

You have a lot of things to learn. (“To learn” is an adjective.)

Bitir-e.cek bir iş-im var. (“Bitir-e.cek” is an adjective.)

I have a work to finish. (“To finish” is an adjective.)

The noun compounds in Turkish are of three kinds.

1. Definite noun compounds:

All the noun compounds above having possessive pronouns or pos-

sessive nouns are nominal phrases. For instance:

ben-im okul-um (be*nim / o*ku*lum) my school

onlar-ın ev-i (on*la*rın / e*vi) their house


12

o-/n/un bahçe-/s/i (o*nun / bah*çe*si) his garden

bahçe-/n/in ağaç-lar-ı (bah*çe*nin / a*ğaç*la*rı) the trees of the garden

oda-/n/ın kapı-/s/ı (o*da*nın / ka*pı*sı) the door of the room

fiyat-lar-ın art-ma-/s/ı (fi*yat*la*rın / art*ma*sı) the increase-ing of the prices

kuş-lar-ın öt-me-/s/i (kuş*la*rın / öt*me*si) the sing-ing of the birds

Some examples of the definite noun compounds:

o-/n/un kapı-/s/ı (o*nun / ka*pı*sı) (its door); oda-/n/ın kapı-/s/ı

(o*da*nın / ka*pı*sı) (the door of the room); o-/n/un yakıt-ı (o*nun /

ya*kı*tı) (its fuel); araba-/n/ın yakıt-ı (a*ra*ba*nın / ya*kı*tı) (the fuel

of the car); okul-un otobüs-ü (o*ku*lun / o*to*bü*sü) (the bus of

the school); bahçe-/n/in kapı-/s/ı (bah*çe*nin / ka*pı*sı) (the gate of

the garden); Kim-in tarla-/s/ı? (ki*min↝ / tar*la*sı↝) çiftçi-/n/in

tarla-/s/ı (çift*çi*nin / tar*la*sı) (the farm of the farmer); Nere-/n/in

halı-/s/ı? (ne↝re*nin / ha*lı*sı↝); oda-/n/ın halı-/s/ı (o*da*nın /

ha*lı*sı) (the carpet of the room); Kim-in karı-/s/ı? (ki*min↝ /

ka*rı*sı↝); Jack’in karı-/s/ı. (ja*kin / ka*rı*sı) (Jack’s wife); yürü-

me-/n/in yarar-ı (yü*rü*me*nin / ya*ra:*rı) (the benefit of walk-ing);

Ne-/y/in renk-i? (ne*yin↝ / ren*gi↝) şarap-ın renk-i (şa*ra*bın /

ren*gi) (the color of the wine); çiçek-in güzellik-i (çi*çe*ğin /

gü*zel*li*ği) (the beauty of the flower)

2. Indefinite noun compounds: The following are examples of the indefinite noun compounds:

Ne çanta-/s/ı? (ne↝ / çan*ta*sı↝); Okul çanta-/s/ı (o*kul / çan*ta*sı)

(school bag); Ne soru-lar-ı? (ne↝ / so*ru*la*rı↝); Sınav soru-lar-ı

(sı*nav / so*ru*la*rı) (examination questions); öğrenci kavga-/s/ı

(öğ*ren*ci / kav*ga*sı) (student fight); otomobil yarış-ı (o*to*mo*bil /

ya*rı*şı) (car race); insan hak-lar-ı (in*san / hak*la*rı) (human rights);

Ne reçel-i? elma reçel-i (el*ma / re*çe*li) (apple jam); Ne kaza-s/ı?

(ne↝ / ka*za:*sı↝); araba kaza-/s/ı (a*ra*ba / ka*za:*sı) (car

accident); kalem kutu-/s/u (ka*lem / ku*tu*su) (pencil box); kış

bahçe-/s/i (kış / bah*çe*si) (winter garden); işsizlik sorun-u (iş*siz*lik

/ so*ru*nu) (unemployment problem); yaz eğlence-/s/i (yaz /

eğ*len*ce*si) (summer entertainment); güneş gözlük-ler-i (gü*neş /

göz*lük*le*ri) (sunglasses); patates salata-/s/ı (pa*ta*tes / sa*la*ta*sı)


13

(potato salad); hava kirlilik-i (ha*va / kir*li*li*ği) (air pollution); baş

ağrı-/s/ı (ba*şağ*rı*sı) (headache).

3. Noun compounds without personal suffixes.

The nouns used without personal allomorphs in the first parts of these

noun compounds function as definers. For instance:

Nasıl kutu? Tahta kutu (tah*ta / ku*tu) (wooden box); Nasıl bilezik?

Altın bilezik (al*tın / bi*le*zik) (golden bracelet); porselen fincan

(por*se*len / fin*can) (china cup); demir kapı (de*mir / ka*pı) (iron

door); taş bina (taş / bi*na:) (stone building); plastik oyuncak

(plas*tik / o*yun*cak) (plastic toy); bakır tel (ba*kır / tel) (copper

wire); mermer heykel (mer*mer / hey*kel) (marble statue); kız

arkadaş (kı*zar*ka*daş) (girl friend); erkek arkadaş (er*ke*kar*-

ka*daş) (boy friend); gümüş para (gü*müş / pa*ra) (silver coin); tah-

ta köprü (tah*ta / köp*rü) (wooden bridge); Beyaz Saray (be*yaz /

sa*ray) (The White House).

English adjective clauses and Turkish adjective phrases.

There are adjective phrases in Turkish in place of the adjective

clauses of the English language. Turkish adjective phrases (modi-

fiers) come before nouns that they modify contrary to the English

adjective clauses (modifiers) that follow nouns.

The mental foundation of English adjective clauses and Turkish

adjective phrases seem to be English and Turkish simple sentences.

In other words, there lie simple sentences under all English adjective

clauses and Turkish adjective phrases. First let us see how English

adjective clauses are produced from an English simple sentence.

There are three nouns in the following example sentence:

The girls were peeling potatoes in the kitchen.

1 2 3

If one wants to modify the first noun “the girls”, he asks himself

“Which girls?”, and transforms the rest of the sentence into an

adjective clause to modify “the girls”: “the girls who were peeling

potatoes in the kitchen”


14

If he wants to modify the second noun “potatoes”, he asks “Which

potatoes?”, and transforms the rest of the sentence into an adjective

clause to modify the potatoes: “the potatoes which the girls were

peeling in the kitchen”. If he wants to modify the third noun “kitchen”, he asks himself

“Which kitchen?”, and transforms the rest of the sentence into an

adjective clause to modify the “kitchen”: “the kitchen where the

girls were peeling potatoes”

All the adjective clauses following the nouns above are nominal

phrases that can be used in the basic mental “subject + verb +

object” template as subjects, objects or objects of prepositions.

The girls who were peeling potatoes in the kitchen are my daughters. subject verb subj complement

I saw the girls who were peeling potatoes in the kitchen. subj verb (nominal phrase) object

predicate

I am not interested in the girls who were peeling potatoes in the kitchen. subj verb subj comp prep (nominal phrase) object of the preposition “in”

predicate

The potatoes which the girls were peeling in the kitchen were of good quality. nominal phrase verb subj complement

subject predicate

I want to fry the potatoes which the girls were peeling in the kitchen. subj verb object (nominal phrase) object of “fry”

predicate

You saw the kitchen where the girls were peeling potatoes. subj verb object

Someone stole Jack’s car. ↻ Jack, whose car someone stole,

Jack, whose car someone stole, is very sorry. subj nonrestrictive adjective clause verb subj comp

predicate

Transforming simple sentences into adjective or noun clauses is a

learned activity of the logic. Therefore, the transformational rules of a

languages change from language to language. Before producing an

adjective or a noun clause, someone should already have a simple

sentence in his mind. He chooses a noun in the simple sentence in


15

his mind to modify, and transforms the rest of the sentence into a mo-

difier to modify it. This learned language activity is completely logical.

Turkish adjective phrases:

The Turkish equivalents of the English adjective clauses above are

the Turkish adjective phrases (modifiers) below:

Kızlar mutfak-ta patates soy-u.yor-du.

1 2 3 verb

If one wants to modify the first noun (the subject), he asks himself

“Hangi kızlar?” “Which girls?”, and transforms the sentence into a

modifier so that he can use it in the basic “subject + object + verb”

Turkish mental template. In order to produce a modifier, he attaches

one of the [en, an] allomorphs following the vowel rules to a verb

root, stem or a frame to produce a modifier, such as: mutfak-ta patates soy-an kız-lar modifier noun If he wants to modify the second noun “mutfak”, he asks himself

“Hangi mutfak?” “Which kitchen?”, and transforms the sentence into a

modifier so that he can use it in the “subject + object + verb” Turkish

mental basic sentence template. To produce this modifier, a noun

compound having one of the [dik, dık, dük, duk, tik, tık, tük, tuk]

allomorphs should be attached to the infinitive parts of the noun

compounds:

kızlar-ın patates soy-duk-u mutfak (noun compound) modifier noun

If someone wants to modify the noun “patatesler”, he asks himself

“Hangi patatesler?” “Which potatoes?”, and he uses the same noun

compound above having the [dik, dık, dük, duk, tik, tık, tük, tuk]

allomorphs attached to the infinitive parts of the noun compound:

kız-lar-ın mutfak-ta soy-duk-u patatesler (noun compound) modifier noun

All the modifiers together with the nouns above are nominal phrases

that can be used as subjects, objects, or objects of prepositions that

can be used in the “subject + object + verb” Turkish mental template:


16

Mutfak-ta patates soy-an kızlar ben-im kızlar-ım. modifier noun subject complement

(nominal phrase) subject predicate

The girls who are peeling potatoes in the kitchen are my daughters.

The symbols that are used in the examples above are as follows:

1. The single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and

attach to the vowels following them in speech: “gel-iş-i” (ge*li*şi)

2. The black vowels drop, and the single underlined consonants

coming before them detach from their syllables and attach to the vow-

els coming after the dropped vowels: bil-me-i.yor-um (bil*mi*yo*rum).

3. The pronouns in brackets “( )” are optional. They are not used un-

less they are intentionally stressed because the personal allomorphs

attached to the main verbs that carry the same meanings as the pro-

nouns are enough to express the pronouns.

4. The sentences in brackets “( )” show the speech utterance of the

words whose syllables are separated by “*” star symbols. The rising

“↝” arrows used after some syllables indicate that the syllables have

a rising intonation as if asking a question.

5. Three kinds of letters are used in the speech parts in brackets: The

syllables having weak stresses are written in “normal” letters; the

syllables that have secondary stresses are written in “italics”, and the

primarily stressed syllables are written in “bold” types.

6. The /y/, /n/, /s/ and /ş/ consonants are meaningless glides that are

used between vowels to help the voice pass from one vowel to the

following one smoothly and harmoniously.

8. The colors indicating the functions of the words in sentences:

1. Subjects and subject allomorphs are blue. 2. Verbs are red. 3. Objects are black. 4. Adverbs, adverbials, adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses and prepositions or postpositions are green. 5. Subject complements are brown. 6. Ajectives and noun modifiers are purple.

Noun modifiers in english and turkish, yuksel goknel

Education

Transcript of Noun modifiers in english and turkish, yuksel goknel