Nile Valley Civilization

Along the Nile Corridor Unlike most rivers which flow to the south, the Nile flows to the north.

It begins as two streams in southeastern Africa: the White Nile in themountains of Uganda and the Blue Nile in the highlands of Ethiopia. Thestreams meet and become one in Sudan and flow for 6,737 kilometers(4,187 miles) north toward the Mediterranean Sea. Deposits of silt alongthe banks of the Nile River created a fertile environment for the Africanswho lived in the Nile Valley. Three important civilizations developed inthis river valley: Nubia, Kemet (later named Egypt by the Greek invaders),and Kush.

The Nile flows for nearly 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) throughNubia. It is interrupted by a series of cataracts—places where stones jut outof the water, creating rapids and small waterfalls. Several of thesecataracts are located in Nubia; others appear in Kemet (keh-MET). Inancient times, Africans traveled to each cataract. They carried or draggedtheir canoes or boats around the rocks. Then they put them back into thewater to continue their journey.

Chapter Outline

i Along the Nile Corridor

i Nubia, the Land of the Bow

i Kemet (Egypt), the Star of Africa

i Kush, the Jewel of Nubia

Vocabulary

●Kemet ●cataracts ●monarchy ●Sirius ●inundation ●dynasty ●Medu Neter

3

AS YOU READ● What three important

civilizations developedalong the Nile River?

● How were Nubia andKemet related?

● Why was Kemet the“Star” of Africa?

● What role did theKingdom of Kush play inrevitalizing the NileValley?

The Nile Valley Civilizations

18 A Journey of Liberation, Chapter 3

The men and women who forged the Nile,dragged their canoes around the cataracts, andsettled in the Nile Valley had a profound andlasting effect on civilization. They establishedgovernments, developed traditions, created arts,practiced sciences, and built cities which wouldremain memorable throughout the ages.

The histories of the Nile Valleycivilizations—Nubia, Kemet, andKush—are interrelated. They sharemany things in common; the mostimportant perhaps were theconstant shining sun and theflowing Nile. Much of what isknown about Nubia and Kush

comes from Egyptian records; however,there is also archaeological evidencewhich suggests that the Nubians weregifted at creating their own art,agriculture, and religion. They alsocreated a strong military. This fact may bewhy the Nubians called their land “Ta-Sety,” (tah-SEH-tee) meaning “the Land ofthe Bow.”

Nubia, the Land of the Bow (8000 B.C.E.–3400 B.C.E.)

Nubia, a civilization that dates back to themiddle of the New Stone Age (15,000–3400 B.C.E.), was the first to make use of thespecial gifts of the Nile Valley. It lasted fromabout 8000 B.C.E. to 3400 B.C.E.

The early Nubians lived along the narrowbanks of the river. Their land was blessed with ahot sun, fertile soil, and a good supply of water.But it was extremely hot—about 120 degrees inthe shade in the middle of the day.

Flowing through northeast Africa, the Nile River hasgiven life to several grand empires. The artistry of Nubia,one of the first great civilizations nurtured by the river, is shown in the pottery (inset above).

The Peoples Publishing Group, Inc. 19

8000 B.C.E.—332 B.C.E.

“Done made my vow to the LordAnd I never will turn back

I will go, I shall goTo see what the end shall be.”

African American Spiritual

Unit Summary—An uprising by the Vietnamese at Dien BienPhu in 1954, led to the geographic division of Vietnam into twohalves: North Vietnam and South Vietnam. In 1964, the NorthVietnamese attacked an American naval vessel. Congress votedto expand the number of American soldiers in the region. Themajority of the soldiers who were drafted and placed in deadlycombat zones were African American. The most devastatingevent of 1968 came with the assassination of the Dr. MartinLuther King, Jr. (Chapter 47).

The Nation of Islam in Detroit received much attentionfrom the media for its controversial stance on race and itsstrategies for empowering African Americans who wereconsidered either too poor to help themselves, or were in jail.Malcolm X discovered Islam while in prison and became anational leader after his release. He and Dr. Martin LutherKing, Jr,. disagreed, on the best remedy for racialdiscrimination. Malcolm X broke with the Nation of Islam. Hewas killed as he spoke to an audience of followers. (Chapter 48)

Following Malcolm’s death, two African American studentsfrom California created the Black Panther Party for SelfDefense. Many Black Panthers carried weapons, which broughtthem into conflict with law enforcement officials. The use ofaggressive resistance by the Panthers and other groupssignaled a new revolutionary movement for African Americanequality. (Chapter 49)

One of the most powerful African American youth groupsincluded the US Movement. Its founder, Maulana Karenga,began the holiday Kwanzaa in 1966. (Chapter 50).

BEFORE YOU READ

In life, all human beingsare confronted with eventswhich cause us to considerwhat actions we should taketo bring about some form ofchange. Often, whateverdecision we make will havesome effect on others. In thisunit, you will see how thepassions of people on bothsides of the war raging inVietnam, as well as in thestruggle for civil rights andAfrican Americanempowerment, createdevents and consequencesmany never would haveexpected. You will also seehow people struggling toachieve many of the samegoals adopted vastlydifferent methods.

Consider which side ofthe struggle you would havechosen, and whether theends justified the means.

Winning Through Law1930-1969

Creek. He acquired his acreage through a systemcalled headright, which allowed a planter to claim50 acres for each servant brought to the colony.Whether Anthony Johnson actually broughtAfricans into the colony or simply purchased the

headrights of others is not known.The records show that he was alarge landowner.

Life Without EnslavementWhat would the American

landscape be like if indentureshiphad continued and enslavementhad never existed? It is very likelythat there would have been farfewer Africans in America, becauseAfricans on the continent did notneed to come to America for land,religious freedom, or wealth. Theyalready had those things on theirown continent. Perhaps thoseAfricans who wanted to come toAmerica would have had the sameopportunity for personal andfinancial success that othercolonists had. We will never know.

The freedom of Africans topursue a new life was short-lived,as the Europeans claimed newcolonies and prejudice based on thecolor of one’s skin becameassociated with enslavement. Thepractice of identifying Africans byskin color was born during theperiod of transition fromindentureship to enslavement ofAfricans. Prior to about 1650, thecolonists referred to themselves asChristian or English. When whiteand African indentured servantsrevolted against those who failedto honor their contracts to releasethem on schedule, however, thelandowners changed theirrelationships with the Africans.

White became good and black became bad.Indentured whites were encouraged by thelandowners to feel superior to “blacks,” althoughthey were in the very same condition. This falsesense of superiority separated indentured whites


Maryland1633

By the time American colonistsfought for independence, all ofthe original 13 colonies werecontrolled by the British, butseveral had been settled earlier by

other European powers. Using themap key, identify the colonies inwhich a portions were settled bySwedes. Where and when werethe Dutch in control?

USING A MAP KEY

“the pangs of death came like balm to their wounds.”

Nameless and Stateless It was here on these ships during

the dark and sometimes stormy nightson the ocean that African captivesbecame nameless, stateless, andcountryless people. Few people haveshown the courage of the Africans whorefused to die in the midst of thehorrifying experience of the Middle Passage.

When Africans landed in theAmericas after weeks at sea, theybelieved that nothing could be sodehumanizing as the trip across theocean. They were wrong. The process ofdehumanization had only begun.

DehumanizationDehumanization, the idea of reducing

humans to things, had become the specialweapon of the slave-ship captains. The colonistssoon adopted this practice. Europeans whoparticipated in the trade convinced themselvesthat Africans were inferior and uncivilized. Todehumanize another person, you have to believein your own superiority and the other person’sinferiority and be willing to inflict pain andsuffering to such a degree that it separates thesufferer from the oppressor. Oppressors keep

others down by cruel or unjust use of power. Inorder to justify their cruel treatment of Africans,the oppressors depicted them as a people oflower standing, lacking in cultural development.Whenever human beings define others as inferioror bad because of their physical or culturaldifferences, racism (prejudice against one race byanother) thrives.

Malnourished, mistreated, and dislocated, many Africansdied during the dreadful sea voyage to permanentenslavement in the Americas.

This diagram shows the dehumanization of Africans during the Middle Passage.Treated like cargo instead of humans, they were jammed into the dark, airlessslave hold and shackled there for most of the 40-to-80-day trip.


resistance suggests that more African leadersthan previously thought were involved in theresistance to the trade.

The involvement of African leaders wascomplicated because many were trading Africansto Europeans themselves. African leaders whohad grown used to the guns, rum, knives, andother European goods quickly found themselvesin the difficult position of promoting war withother African ethnic groups to supply the

Europeans with captives or of betrayingmembers of their own communities byselling them into bondage. As theimbalance in trade continued, someAfrican kings, corrupted by greed, wagedwars against the Europeans because theywanted the Europeans to pay more taxesfor the right to trade Africans.

The early system of trade amongAfricans and Europeans grew morecorrupt with each passing year. Africankingdoms were robbed of theirpopulations, especially the bright youngmen and women who were the strength ofthe nation and the foundation of the nextgeneration. Community and trust, sacredbonds of African cultures, were put atsevere risk because individuals did notknow who would be next, or who wouldbetray them to the enslavers.

Many African kings became frustratedwith the way the slave trade debased theirkingdoms. They began to oppose and

In this artist’s interpretation of African resistance,Africans armed with spears and knives fight valiantly,even though they are outnumbered and outgunned.


1482—1663

African Captives Taken from Africa(1600–1800)

CATEGORY AGE NUMBER(IN MILLIONS)

Young Females 14–30 2.40

Young Males 14–30 4.48

Children under 14 1.12

Adults over 30 0

TOTAL 8.00

Estimates of African captives taken from Africa during theEuropean Slave Trade vary from 8 million to 100 million.

enslavement where it already existed. However,they wanted to stop its spread. They nominatedAbraham Lincoln as their candidate forpresident.

LINCOLN’S VIEW OF ENSLAVEMENT

Abraham Lincoln had long been troubled byAfrican enslavement because he saw it as adivisive issue in the unity of the nation. He didnot believe that Africans were equal to whitesand he did not think that Africans and whitescould coexist in the same society on an equalbasis. He clearly believed that the United Statesshould not be broken up over the issue of theenslavement of Africans.

Lincoln declared in his celebrated debateswith Stephen A. Douglass in 1858:

“I believe that this government cannot endurepermanently half slave and half free. I do notexpect the Union to be dissolved—I do notexpect the house to fall—but I do expect it willcease to be divided. It will become all onething, or all the other. Either the opponents ofslavery will arrest the further spread of it andplace it where the public mind shall rest in thebelief that it is in the course of ultimateextinction; or its advocates will push itforward till it shall become alike lawful in allthe states, old as well as new, North as wellas South.”

Like many Republicans of his day, Lincolnhad mixed views about how to resolve the raceproblem, but eventually he became convincedthat colonization was the answer. He believedthat slaveholders would be more willing to freethose enslaved if they knew the enslaved weregoing to be shipped off to Africa. Moreover,whites in the North would not have to worryabout the freed Africans coming into their statesto compete with white workers for jobs. Evenduring his presidency Lincoln held onto thiscompletely unworkable idea.

LINCOLN’S ELECTION

Abraham Lincoln was elected President ofthe United States in 1860. African Americanswere overjoyed because they thought he was anabolitionist. The South, however, feared Lincoln.They also thought that he was an abolitionist.They were afraid that he would end enslavementin the Western territories and the District of

The flag on top was owned by a resident of the Northernstates, which remained in the Union and opposedenslavement. The lower flag was used during the CivilWar by the Army of Northern Virginia. Virginia was apro-slavery state.


1854—1861

Lincoln’s views on enslavement, at times, appear to be contradictory.

Although he was troubled by enslavement, he did not plan to end it

in the South. He only wanted to prevent its spread to the West.

Did You Know

the concept of African American History Month,which originally was called Negro History Week.

In his classic book The Mis-education of theNegro, he recorded his most powerful opinions oneducation. The book created quite a sensationwhen it was published in 1933. Woodson saidthat African Americans were miseducated, ortaught to look away from their own history. Hebelieved that the institutions set up immediatelyafter the Civil War and in the early 20th centuryto educate African Americans were guilty ofpsychological or mental enslavement. He saidthis was true because African Americans knewmore about the literature, music, art, and cultureof other races than they knew about their own.Woodson believed that African Americans werebeing trained to feel inferior because they wereeducated to believe they had no history of theirown of which to be proud. Given the educationthey were receiving, Woodson declared thatAfrican Americans would have a difficult timeviewing their own art, literature, music, orculture as equal to that of Europeans. He sawthis type of Eurocentric education, centered almostentirely on the achievements of Europeans, as acontinuation of enslavement. He believed thatthis method of education would create a race ofpeople who would accept the idea of Europeancultural superiority in everything. He fearedAfrican Americans would deny their ownculture. On these points, Woodson wasprophetic. Many African Americans areunaware of Africa’s rich legacy and thecontributions that Africans have made to theworld. Today, many schools struggle to create

curriculum that places all students at the centerof learning to help them value their own historyand culture and the history and culture ofothers.

OTHER LEADERS

Other personalities appeared during thecentury who were as distinguished for theirintellectual, scientific, or artistic contributions asWoodson was for education. Ernest Just, the firstAfrican American trained as a research biologist,wrote books on cell theory and went on to receivethe first Spingarn Medal from the NAACP forhis achievements as a scientist. In economics,Robert C. Weaver, Charles L. Franklin, andAbram Harris were outstanding as governmentadvisors on matters of African Americanemployment and housing. In history there werepioneers such as Charles H. Wesley, RayfordLogan, and Benjamin Quarles, who introducedthe formal study of African and AfricanAmerican history to the classroom, and historianJohn Hope Franklin. Other fields and interestsproduced educators such as Anna Julia Cooper,poets and educators such as Sterling Brown,sociologists such as Kenneth Clark, diplomatssuch as Ralph Bunche, and medical researcherssuch as Dr. Charles Drew.

Dr. Charles Drew, Ralph Bunche, and Ernest Just werepioneers in their fields.

Carter Woodson was born into poverty. He taught himself on

his own at night, and did not start to receive formal schooling

until he was 17. Then he went on to earn a Ph.D. in history

from Harvard University. He wrote his first book, The

Education of the Negro Prior to 1861, while teaching

high school.

Did You Know


DRED SCOTT

Less than three years after the devastatingeffect of the Fugitive Slave Law, Africans wereslapped with yet another terrible ruling. TheDred Scott Decision was a shock to Africans anda stunning blow to abolition. It was a case aboutan enslaved African who had been taken from a“slave” state into free territories.

Dred Scott’s owner, a United States armysurgeon, took him into Wisconsinand Illinois, both freestates.When he returned toMissouri, Scott, with the help ofhis friends and lawyers, broughta suit for his freedom because hehad been in a free state. Thestate court of Missouri ruledagainst him in 1852 and Scotttook his case to the SupremeCourt. Five years later theSupreme Court also denied hispetition, citing that the Missouricourts had already determinedhis status. Moreover, theSupreme Court decided thatwhen the Constitution wascreated and adopted, Africanswere not citizens of the UnitedStates. The court further stated

that Africans could not make any legal claimsunder the United States’ courts. Roger Taney,the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was asupporter of enslavement. Here is what he wrotewhen he dismissed the case in 1857 andreturned Dred Scott to enslavement:

“They [Africans] had more than a centurybefore been regarded as beings of an inferiororder, and altogether unfit to be associatedwith the white race, either in social or politicalrelations; and so far inferior, that they had norights which the white man was bound torespect; and the Negro might justly andlawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit.He was bought and sold, and treated as anordinary article of merchandise and traffic,whenever a profit could be made by it. Thisopinion was at that time fixed and universalin the civilized portion of the white race. Itwas regarded as an axiom in morals as wellas in politics.”

The case was dismissed and Dred Scott wasreturned to enslavement. Later in the same year,Scott’s previous owners bought him and set himfree. Scott continued to live in St. Louis, working


As this notice for a public meeting shows, many people were outraged bythe ruling in the Dred Scott case.

Dred Scott was denied his freedom by the SupremeCourt, which ruled in 1857 that Africans were notcitizens and had no legal status in the United States.

union. In addition, according to the projections ofthe United States Census Bureau, there will beno majority race in the United States of Americain less than 50 years.

The concept of race developed as Europeanscame into contact with Africa; but amongAfricans there was no racial distinction.Europeans gradually began to emphasize theobvious physical differences between themselvesand Africans to claim their superiority and theinferiority of Africans. Over the centuries, thisattitude among Europeans has produced anegative reaction to Africans and AfricanAmericans. Among Africans, differences amongvarious ethnic groups were recognized for whatthey were—cultural differences.

Ethnic Identities There are more language and ethnic groups

on the African continent than on any othercontinent in the world. Africa has more than2000 such groups. One nation, Nigeria, has morethan 800 different ethnic or language groups.Each ethnic group usually speaks a differentlanguage. Modern Africologists, people who teachabout Africa, define an ethnic group as a populationwithin a specific culture that shares commonsocial institutions—particularly language andcustoms. People who belong to a particularethnic group may be easy to identify becausethey also share similar physical characteristics;however, they always share cultural featuressuch as language, art, music, and traditions.

Certain cultural practices identify people as part of a particular ethnic group.Among West African groups, such as the Yoruba in Nigeria, scarification is oftenused to show beauty, for identification, as well as initiation and rites of passage.


“By reason of long bondage and hard slavery we havebeen deprived of enjoying the profits of our labor orthe advantage of inheriting estates from our parentsas white people do . . . and yet we have been taxed andnow are taxed both in our polls and that smallpittance of estate which through much hard labor andindustry we have got together to sustain ourselves.”

Petition to the Massachusetts Legislature, 1780

Unit Summary—Free Africans were forced to live under harshconditions in 18th- and 19th-century America. Their legalstatus as free people could be taken away without appeal. Theywere legally prohibited from voting, gathering in groups,entering certain professions, and even traveling withoutpermission. They endured oppression similar to the morerecent examples of the Jews in Hitler’s Germany or theAfricans under apartheid. In spite of these limitations,however, many free Africans prospered—some becomingwealthier than many whites. By the middle of the 19thcentury, free Africans were receiving patents for a wide varietyof inventions that led industrial development in the UnitedStates. Their contributions included patents in sugar refinery,the development of the telephone, railway cars, electric lights,the ironing board, and much more. Their personal andfinancial successes are evidence of the indomitable spirit andcreativity of the African people. (Chapter 18)

One of the major injustices that free Africans of this periodfaced was taxation without representation. Africans had aidedthe colonists in the war against Britain, which was fought togain representation. Yet, after claiming victory against theiroppressors, the colonists denied Africans this same basic right.Free Africans had to pay the same taxes as white Americansbut often had no access to the public services, education, andpolitical institutions for which they were paying. Just ascertain colonial leaders spoke out against the British, leadingAfricans took actions to protest the violation of African rights. (Chapter 19)

BEFORE YOU READ

What rights do youpossess? Some of theminclude the right to afree education, to freespeech, and to makepersonal decisions. TheAmerican legal systemprotects these rights.They cannot be takenaway from you.

In this unit, you willread how the Americanlegal system took actionsthat denied free Africanscertain basic rights. Youwill also discover theprofound effect theseactions had on freeAfricans in 19th-century America.

How would you feelif your rights were takenfrom you? On a sheet ofpaper, make a list ofwords that describe yourfeelings. Refer to this listas you read Unit 6 toremind yourself of howfree Africans of the timemost likely felt.

Free Africans1723-1853

In Everlasting MemoryOf the Anguish of our ancestors.

May those who died rest in peace.May those who return find their roots.May humanity never again perpetrate

Such injustice against humanityWe the living vow to uphold this.

Plaque commemorating the tragic fate of enslavedAfricans on a former slave fort in Ghana

Unit 2 chp 5-7.qxd 12/8/00 7:04 PM Page 42

BEFORE YOU READ

Most people seeksome level of materialwealth. This desire canact as a motivator. Whenheld in balance, thedesire for materialwealth can be quite positive.

However, when theneed for material gainviolates the naturalrights of others, greedsets in. In this unit, youwill read how manyEuropeans’ desire forwealth grew into animmoral greed thatbrutally violated therights of millions of Africans.

Think about a timewhen you werevictimized by another’sgreed. How did theexperience make youfeel about yourself andthe other person?

Unit Summary—During the 1400s, the Portuguese, followedby other European traders, traveled to Africa in search of gold.They found a land rich in many resources. At first, the visitorswere satisfied transporting these African resources back toEurope where they were sold for profit. Fueled by greed, theEuropean visitors soon targeted Africa’s greatest naturalresource—its people—for mass enslavement. The enslavementof Africans was different from the form of slavery practiced inAfrica and many other cultures. Millions of Africans werebrutally uprooted from their homeland and dispersed aroundthe world for economic profit. Their dispersion is called theAfrican Mfecane. (Chapter 5)

The Europeans soon recognized that a vast market wasrapidly developing for enslaved Africans in the colonies.European industries in the colonies grew at a rapid rate whichcreated a strong need for labor. This led to the European SlaveTrade, an immoral business of conquest and domination thatdamaged Africa’s economy and made the nations of Europewealthy. (Chapter 6)

For three centuries, Africans were brutally uprooted fromtheir homes and forced to endure an inhumane voyage at sea.The Europeans treated their African captives as mere goodsthat could bring great profit. While disease and death werecommon on the slave ships, thousands of courageous Africansrefused to give in to their oppressors. The African captives whosurvived were separated from their families and homeland.They were forced to begin a new life among people who werehostile toward them. (Chapter 7)

Scattered To The West: The European Slave Trade700 C.E.—1808 C.E.

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Imhotep built the first pyramid for King Djoser(JOS-sahr). It was called the Sakkara StepPyramid because it was constructed to look likegiant steps. Its complex contains the oldestmasonry building in the world. FollowingImhotep’s example, new builders arose toconstruct the Great Pyramids of Giza in honor ofKings Khufu (KOO-foo), Khafre (KAH-fray), andMenkaure (mehn-kah-OO-ray). They remain thegreatest wonders in the world because of theirsize, majesty, and longevity (see Origins, pp. A4and A5).

The Old Kingdom(2700 B.C.E.–2190 B.C.E.)

The adventures of Harkuf (har-CUFF),governor of Aswan, demonstrates the culturalexchange and trade that flourished betweenKemet and sub-Saharan Africa during the OldKingdom. Harkuf, governor of Aswan, went on

three expeditions to the interior of Africa about2130 B.C.E. to places that appear to be in theCongo Basin. He and his caravan of camels anddonkeys traveled more than 1,600 kilometers(1,000 miles) a thousand miles across the SaharaDesert to the Ituri (i-TUR-ee) rain forest inCentral Africa, where he visited with the Twa(TWAH) people. In one of his diaries Harkufdeclared:

“I have come here from my city,I have descended from my nome,I have built a house, set up its doors, I have dug a pool, planted sycamores,The king praised me,My father made a will for me.I was one worthy.”

Harkuf was worthy of the attention andpraise he received because his expeditions tookhim far beyond the boundaries and power of

The ruins of one of the famed temples of Karnak was built during the Middle Kingdom.Inset above shows sculptures from the nearby Valley of the Kings, on the west bank of theNile across from Luxor, where the kings of the New Kingdom were laid to rest.


Kemet used it to transport timber and largestones for shipbuilding and massive buildingprojects (see Origins, p. A4).

The sun, on the other hand, was a constantreminder of stability and regularity. It rarelyrained in Kemet, so the people used their timeproductively in agriculture and building. Evenduring the flooding, they just moved to higherground and continued to work. Some historianshave suggested that this stability was a sort ofstagnation which may have slowed theirprogress. Others argue that it was important forthe maintenance of the civilization because itallowed the people to use their time productively.

Kemet developed into a unique civilizationwith a centralized government which united 42different cities, called Nomes (NOHMS), alongthe Nile. Menes (MEH-neez), who is sometimescalled Narmer, the king of the 1st Dynasty, united

the various groups of UpperKemet to the south with thegroups of Lower Kemet to thenorth into one nation. A dynastyis a family of kings and queenswhich rules for a long period oftime. Before Menes united them,there were only groupings ofclans from various ethnicitiessettled along the river. Hisunification in 3200 B.C.E.marked the first time inrecorded history that a ruler hadbrought together so manydifferent groups into a singlenation. This accomplishmentearned Menes a new title,

“Father of the Nation.”In addition to Menes of the 1st Dynasty,

Kemet gave rise to many other historic figures.Imhotep (im-HO-tep), prime minister during the3rd Dynasty, is the most memorable. He is thefirst personality in recorded history about whom

The pyramids in Giza, built to house the tombs of thekings of the Old Kingdom, are the oldest of the SevenWonders of the World.

The Rhind Papyrus (shown here) illustrates Kemeticachievement in mathematics. The Kemetic people usedtrigonometry to calculate the slopes of the pyramids andother structures.


Today, many African Americans use hotep, which means peace,

as a greeting.

Did You Know

Nile Valley Civilization

Documents

Transcript of Nile Valley Civilization