Nigeria

Introduction to NigeriaIntroduction to Nigeria

A New Democracy? – 2007 elections

Thinking about NigeriaThinking about Nigeria

– Huge populationHuge population– Fertile soilFertile soil– Well-educated eliteWell-educated elite– Vast oil and gas reservesVast oil and gas reserves


– PovertyPoverty In In lowest quarterlowest quarter of poor of poor

countriescountries Dependence on Dependence on oiloil Low Low life expectancylife expectancy UrbanUrban population growth population growth Total population growthTotal population growth


– EthnicityEthnicity 400 ethnic groups400 ethnic groups Largest are:Largest are: *Hausa-Fulani*Hausa-Fulani *Yoruba*Yoruba *Igbo*Igbo Multiplicity of languagesMultiplicity of languages


– High stakes politicsHigh stakes politics High High unmet expectationsunmet expectations of of

governmentgovernment Alternation of Alternation of militarymilitary and and

civiliancivilian regimes regimes SpoilsSpoils of office are high of office are high

(prebendalism)(prebendalism) Few established Few established institutionsinstitutions

Thinking about NigeriaThinking about Nigeria– Key questionsKey questions

How is the legacy of colonialism reflected How is the legacy of colonialism reflected in Nigerian politics?in Nigerian politics?

What role does ethnicity play in What role does ethnicity play in reinforcing the country’s difficulties?reinforcing the country’s difficulties?

Why does Nigeria remain one of the Why does Nigeria remain one of the poorest countries in the world despite its poorest countries in the world despite its massive oil and natural gas reserves?massive oil and natural gas reserves?

How have frequent shifts from civilian to How have frequent shifts from civilian to military rule and back again exacerbated military rule and back again exacerbated the country’s many social and economic the country’s many social and economic problems?problems?

The Evolution of the Nigerian The Evolution of the Nigerian StateState

– Before the BritishBefore the British Numerous well-developed Numerous well-developed politicalpolitical, ,

culturalcultural, and , and economiceconomic systems systems Hausa states in Hausa states in northnorth Yoruba kingdoms in Yoruba kingdoms in westwest and and

southwestsouthwest (and neighboring Benin) (and neighboring Benin) IgboIgbo villages in southeast and Niger villages in southeast and Niger

DeltaDelta Portuguese slave trade of late 15th Portuguese slave trade of late 15th

centurycentury


– ColonialismColonialism British colony at British colony at LagosLagos as base for as base for

trade in early 19th centurytrade in early 19th century International Berlin West Africa International Berlin West Africa

Conference (1885)Conference (1885)– European nations’ glory and European nations’ glory and

balance of power in playbalance of power in play– Europeans wanted new marketsEuropeans wanted new markets– Christian missionary and civilizing Christian missionary and civilizing

impulsesimpulses


Colonial ruleColonial rule– Single Nigerian colony in 1914Single Nigerian colony in 1914– IndirectIndirect rule in north; colonial rule in north; colonial regimeregime in south in south– Education system by Education system by missionariesmissionaries with with

government support (mostly in south)government support (mostly in south) Created a new Nigerian eliteCreated a new Nigerian elite Made possible a Made possible a domesticdomestic, , criticalcritical press press

– British tried to make colony British tried to make colony self-supportingself-supporting– Introduced cash crops; forced colony to import Introduced cash crops; forced colony to import

foodfood– Colonial industries made Colonial industries made wagewage laborerslaborers out of out of

Nigerian producersNigerian producers


IndependenceIndependence– First drive for independence came with WWIFirst drive for independence came with WWI– WWIIWWII made independence inevitable made independence inevitable– British promulgated constitution (1946)British promulgated constitution (1946)– October 1960 elections and independenceOctober 1960 elections and independence


Burden of problems inherited from colonial Burden of problems inherited from colonial timestimes

1.1. Inhibits Inhibits national identifynational identify formation: formation: colonial rule (direct in the south/indirect in the colonial rule (direct in the south/indirect in the

north) created regional identities and rearranged north) created regional identities and rearranged boundaries.boundaries.

2.2. EthnicEthnic and and religiousreligious division and tensions division and tensions indigenous and Christian religions in the south, indigenous and Christian religions in the south,

Islam in the north; underlying ethnic identities Islam in the north; underlying ethnic identities rearranged boundaries.rearranged boundaries.

3.3. ResidualResidual colonial institutional and cultural colonial institutional and cultural featuresfeatures

bureaucracy, language, colonial boundariesbureaucracy, language, colonial boundaries

4.4. DependencyDependency extractive economic relations with the West and extractive economic relations with the West and

former colonial power; neocolonialism (continued former colonial power; neocolonialism (continued exploitation)exploitation)

5.5. System of governmentSystem of government Westminster and procedural features Westminster and procedural features

of western democracyof western democracy

6.6. Ineffective Ineffective civil societycivil society and weak and weak democratic consolidationdemocratic consolidation

7.7. Imposed Imposed nationalnational boundariesboundaries


The First RepublicThe First Republic– Traditional parliamentary systemTraditional parliamentary system– Federal system Federal system – Nigerian political culture Nigerian political culture

unsuited to adversarial system unsuited to adversarial system (not everyone represented)(not everyone represented)

– High stakes politics and High stakes politics and corrupted elections led to corrupted elections led to overthrow of regimeoverthrow of regime


Military Rule IMilitary Rule I– Justified by the need to restore Justified by the need to restore

orderorder– Ethnic divisionsEthnic divisions– Civil warCivil war– Coup follows coup follows coupCoup follows coup follows coup


The Second RepublicThe Second Republic– Presidential systemPresidential system– Government-licensed political partiesGovernment-licensed political parties– Contested electionContested election– Oil price collapse and economic Oil price collapse and economic

disasterdisaster– Corrupt, violent elections (1983)Corrupt, violent elections (1983)


Military Rule IIMilitary Rule II– Coup to restore democracyCoup to restore democracy– Counter coup because of favoritismCounter coup because of favoritism– Constitutional engineering to create Constitutional engineering to create

viable regimeviable regime– Coup in response to conflicts within Coup in response to conflicts within

ruling juntaruling junta


Military Rule IIIMilitary Rule III– More authoritarian than previous More authoritarian than previous

military regimesmilitary regimes– As corrupt as any governmentAs corrupt as any government

Fourth RepublicFourth Republic– 1999 election of Obasanjo1999 election of Obasanjo– 2007 election of Yar’Adua2007 election of Yar’Adua

The Fragile Nigerian StateThe Fragile Nigerian State

The Fourth RepublicThe Fourth Republic– American-styleAmerican-style presidency presidency– National Assembly similar to U.S. National Assembly similar to U.S.

CongressCongress– Anglo-American style judiciaryAnglo-American style judiciary

Network of local and state courts Network of local and state courts with a Supreme Courtwith a Supreme Court

Sharia law appellate court option for Sharia law appellate court option for statesstates

Selecting an ExecutiveSelecting an Executive

Direct popular electionDirect popular election Variety of candidatesVariety of candidates Fixed election cycleFixed election cycle President cannot run for a third President cannot run for a third

consecutive termconsecutive term

Nigerian ExecutiveNigerian ExecutiveUnique FeaturesUnique Features Military coups.Military coups. The Nigerian Parliament is The Nigerian Parliament is

more compliant.more compliant. Parties play a more Parties play a more

significant role in significant role in empowering the Nigerian empowering the Nigerian president because his president because his party controls the party controls the legislature and helps get legislature and helps get his agenda passed.his agenda passed.

The Nigerian President The Nigerian President receives more receives more international support.international support.

Presidential StructurePresidential Structure Acting President: Goodluck Jonathan Acting President: Goodluck Jonathan Serves as Head of State and Head of Serves as Head of State and Head of

GovernmentGovernment Independently elected according to Independently elected according to

the 1999 Constitution.the 1999 Constitution. President must be a citizen of Nigeria, President must be a citizen of Nigeria,

at least 40 years of age, and be at least 40 years of age, and be sponsored by his political party. sponsored by his political party.

Limited to two terms of office, four Limited to two terms of office, four years each. years each.

Goodluck JonathanGoodluck Jonathan Controls:Controls: Military and PoliceMilitary and Police Federal Ministries (the Cabinet)Federal Ministries (the Cabinet) Federal Civil Service Federal Civil Service Revenue Allocation System Revenue Allocation System Federal CommissionsFederal Commissions Signs bills and refers back to Signs bills and refers back to

AssemblyAssembly Appoints ambassadors, etc. Appoints ambassadors, etc.


– The The PersonalizationPersonalization of of PowerPower Person in position more important Person in position more important

than formal responsibilities and than formal responsibilities and powers of officepowers of office

– Corruption - Corruption - massivemassive and and ubiquitousubiquitous


FederalismFederalism– Blunted ethnic conflictBlunted ethnic conflict– Uncertainty about powers of Uncertainty about powers of

statesstates– Duplication of services and Duplication of services and

bureaucraciesbureaucracies– Preserved Preserved ethnicethnic divisions divisions

Nigeria and the Plight of the Third Nigeria and the Plight of the Third WorldWorld

Should there be a Nigeria?Should there be a Nigeria? Prospects for national Prospects for national

reorganization in Africa very reorganization in Africa very unlikelyunlikely

Solutions will have to come Solutions will have to come within current national within current national boundaries.boundaries.

Identity Politics in Identity Politics in NigeriaNigeria

prebendalismprebendalism

Background to Background to prebendalismprebendalism

Traditional Nigerian societies were Traditional Nigerian societies were village village societiessocieties::– Nearly everyone was related to everyone elseNearly everyone was related to everyone else– Survival and well-being depended on Survival and well-being depended on

cooperationcooperation and and sharingsharing..– There was NOT a great difference in wealth There was NOT a great difference in wealth

and income. EVERYONE TOOK CARE OF and income. EVERYONE TOOK CARE OF EVERYONE ELSE IN THE VILLAGE!EVERYONE ELSE IN THE VILLAGE!

This mindset spread throughout Nigeria This mindset spread throughout Nigeria even after British colonial occupation.even after British colonial occupation.

This concept is foreign to many AmericansThis concept is foreign to many Americans– Example: Hillary Clinton, Example: Hillary Clinton, It Takes a VillageIt Takes a Village

DefinitionDefinition PrebendalismPrebendalism is the version of identify politics is the version of identify politics

practiced in Nigeriapracticed in Nigeria– Prebend Prebend = salary paid to a clergymen from a special fund = salary paid to a clergymen from a special fund

administered by his church or cathedral.administered by his church or cathedral. In Nigeria, In Nigeria, prebendalismprebendalism describes the common describes the common

notion that a person elected to or employed by the notion that a person elected to or employed by the government is government is ENTITLEDENTITLED to benefit from the to benefit from the position. position. – Those who are elected or hired are also entitled to a share Those who are elected or hired are also entitled to a share

of the benefits that come with power and control of of the benefits that come with power and control of government spending. government spending.

It is the disbursement of It is the disbursement of public officespublic offices and and state state rentsrents to one’s ethnic-based clients. to one’s ethnic-based clients.

An extreme form of An extreme form of clientalismclientalism that refers to the that refers to the practice of mobilizing cultural and other sectional practice of mobilizing cultural and other sectional identities by political aspirants and officeholders for identities by political aspirants and officeholders for the purpose of corruptly appropriating the purpose of corruptly appropriating statestate resourcesresources..

Competition for “Competition for “prebendsprebends” is intense. ” is intense. This reinforces This reinforces ethnicethnic cleavagescleavages like like religion, language, and geography. religion, language, and geography.

Even though there are 36 Nigerian states, Even though there are 36 Nigerian states, no society is still so small that the society no society is still so small that the society is does not include many is does not include many ethnic minoritiesethnic minorities. .

Further Discussion of Further Discussion of Nigeria…Nigeria…

FeedbackFeedback

– Relatively Relatively free pressfree press (even under (even under military regimes)military regimes)

– Low Low literacyliteracy rate rate– Government-controlled broadcast Government-controlled broadcast

media key to feedbackmedia key to feedback– State broadcastState broadcast stations now compete stations now compete

with national networkwith national network

Public PolicyPublic Policy

Economic development and Economic development and structural adjustmentstructural adjustment

– Export-basedExport-based economy vulnerable economy vulnerable– Oil prices have created Oil prices have created crisescrises and and

opportunitiesopportunities– Import Import substitutionsubstitution has not worked has not worked

wellwell– StructuralStructural adjustment results mixed adjustment results mixed

REVIEW: What are patron-REVIEW: What are patron-client networks?client networks?

Relationships between higher-up individuals Relationships between higher-up individuals ((patronspatrons) and a subordinate individual ) and a subordinate individual ((clientclient). Each benefits from the relationship ). Each benefits from the relationship as as politicalpolitical favorsfavors are given by the patron in are given by the patron in return for support from the client. return for support from the client.

What is the name for the system in Nigeria? What is the name for the system in Nigeria? Mexico?Mexico?– In Nigeria such relationships are called In Nigeria such relationships are called

prebendalismprebendalism and in Mexico it is called the and in Mexico it is called the camarillacamarilla system. system.

REVIEW: What is an Ethnic REVIEW: What is an Ethnic Cleavage? And what are the Cleavage? And what are the

three major cleavages in three major cleavages in Nigeria?Nigeria?

DifferencesDifferences or or divisiondivision in the in the characteristics of a population. characteristics of a population.

Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and YorubaHausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba

Ethnic conflict in Nigeria….Ethnic conflict in Nigeria….

There are hundred of There are hundred of ethnicethnic groupsgroups and and conflictsconflicts occur over occur over religionreligion, , economiceconomic statusstatus and and traditionstraditions. . – Hausa-Muslim group who dominates North Hausa-Muslim group who dominates North

while the rest of the country is largely while the rest of the country is largely Christianity or indigenous religions.Christianity or indigenous religions.

“…“…democratic compromise difficult. The democratic compromise difficult. The different groups clamor for scarce different groups clamor for scarce resources and for control of the resources and for control of the government. This leads to what Daniel government. This leads to what Daniel Chirot refers to as "democratic Chirot refers to as "democratic paralysis”…” paralysis”…”

What has Nigeria done to What has Nigeria done to reduce ethnic conflict?reduce ethnic conflict?

Require that political parties have Require that political parties have broad broad popular support.popular support.– This is done by the National Election Commission This is done by the National Election Commission

(NEC), a commission that requires presidential (NEC), a commission that requires presidential candidates have support from a variety of regions. candidates have support from a variety of regions.

– It also establishes guidelines for party formation. It also establishes guidelines for party formation. Obasanjo’s contributions:Obasanjo’s contributions:

– Attempting to create a more Attempting to create a more stablestable and and openopen societysociety..

– Nigeria has Nigeria has divideddivided fundsfunds more more equitablyequitably among among the states. the states.

– One member from each One member from each statestate in his cabinet. in his cabinet.

How has the government’s How has the government’s response to ethnic conflict response to ethnic conflict

impacted political stability in the impacted political stability in the country?country? There has been There has been moderatemoderate success. success.

Obasanjo was elected using the rules of Obasanjo was elected using the rules of the the FEDCOFEDCO (now the (now the INECINEC) and has ) and has remained fairly remained fairly popularpopular with many groups. with many groups.– He is one of the few Nigerian politicians not He is one of the few Nigerian politicians not

elected because of elected because of ethnic originethnic origin.. However…However…

– Ethnic conflict continues as evidenced by “…Ethnic conflict continues as evidenced by “…some Nigerians have using these new some Nigerians have using these new democratic freedoms as a justification for democratic freedoms as a justification for advancing separatist sentiments, including advancing separatist sentiments, including religious fundamentalism and other potentially religious fundamentalism and other potentially antidemocratic, destabilizing ideologies.” antidemocratic, destabilizing ideologies.”

How has Nigeria democratized How has Nigeria democratized its political process?its political process?

Implementation of new Implementation of new constitutionconstitution eliminating eliminating military rule.military rule.

FreerFreer presspress.. Reappearance of regular Reappearance of regular electionselections; elections have ; elections have

continued since 1999)continued since 1999) Protections for Protections for ethnicethnic and and religiousreligious groups groups Redrawing of Redrawing of statestate boundariesboundaries to increase to increase

representation (including increasing the number representation (including increasing the number of states).of states).

Direct electionDirect election of president to increase legitimacy. of president to increase legitimacy. Creation of Creation of IndependentIndependent NationalNational ElectoralElectoral

CommissionCommission (INEC) (INEC)

However…However…

There has been some resistance to There has been some resistance to Nigeria’s democratization:Nigeria’s democratization:– Coups d’étatCoups d’état– Introduction of Introduction of Shari’ahShari’ah law into some law into some

states (Zamfara) has states (Zamfara) has underminedundermined democratization.democratization.

– IllegitimateIllegitimate elections. elections.– Military resorting to Military resorting to violenceviolence..– Poor Poor humanhuman rightsrights record (Odi). record (Odi).– Persecution of Persecution of Ken Saro-WiwaKen Saro-Wiwa and others and others

Nigeria

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