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Parenting the First Year Newsletter Series:Do Parents in Badger County Find the ProjectHelpful?

A Report by University of Wisconsin-Extension

Jane SmithAssistant ProfessorFamily Living EducationUW-Extension, Badger County

Dave RileyBascom Professor of Human EcologyUW-Madison/Extension

Carol Ostergren, Ph. D.Research AssociateUW-Madison/Extension

October 2003

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A Badger County Report - October, 2003

AcknowledgmentsThe Parenting the First Year instructional newsletter projectcould not have been completed without the assistance andsupport of the following:

♦ Community collaborators whohave committed time, energy andfunding into making Parentingthe First Year available to fami-lies. They include the BadgerCounty Kiwanis, the BadgerCounty Health Department andthe Badger County MaternityHospital.

♦ Support staff in the BadgerCounty UW-Extension office.

♦ Mari Hansen for text and graphicproduction at UW-Madison.

♦ The original line drawings in thisreport are by Nancy Lynch,illustrator for UW-Extension inMadison. All drawings are fromthe Parenting the First Year series.

♦ The 113 families, who took timeout of their busy schedules tocomplete the evaluation survey.

The authors gratefully acknowl-edge the support and contributionof all these groups and individuals.As the authors, we assume fullresponsibility for the accuracy,conclusions, and any shortcomingsof this report.

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Parenting the First Year

A newsletter series project,Parenting the First Year, was imple-mented in Badger County startingin 1999 to address parent educationneeds. The series begins at the birthof the child and continues monthlythrough the first year. It was writ-ten by UW-Extension to accomplishtwo goals: to prevent child abuseand neglect, and to encouragecompetent child rearing.

An evaluation of the three yearnewsletter project, utilizing a ques-tionnaire survey, received a partici-pation rate of fifty percent. Itindicated the newsletter series wasrated “very useful” as a source ofparenting information by fifty-sixpercent of respondents, whichequaled the rating for physiciansand nurses, and was higher thanother information sources, includ-ing relatives, other parents, andother written materials.

Executive SummaryThe strategic planning committee for Extension has identifiedparenting education as a high priority for Badger County fami-lies. This decision has been due, in part, to the high incidence ofchild abuse and neglect in the county.

Most parents reported thatreading the newsletters causedthem to change their child-rearingbehaviors in six key areas, each ofwhich is predictive of child devel-opment gains. Of special interest,first-time parents and those in riskcategories (e.g. teen mothers) re-ported the most positive change.

Continued support and fundingof this parent education project isrecommended.

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IntroductionThe first year of life is a critical period, both as a foundation forlater child development and as a period in which new parentsestablish their patterns of child rearing.

We also know that highly incom-petent parents --in particular thosewho abuse their children-- haveinaccurate beliefs about children’sabilities. They lack knowledgeabout what children are really like,and often have attitudes that areharmful to competent parenting,when compared to non-abusingparents (Okagaki & Divecha, 1993;Steele, 1980; Stevens, 1984). Forexample, they sometimes becomeangry when a baby spills her food,or wakes up crying at night. Sincelack of knowledge is one cause ofincompetent parenting, and sincenew parents seek child-rearingadvice from printed materials,perhaps we could use a newsletterto fill these deficits in knowledgeand attitudes. This was the insightthat led to UW-Extension’s state-wide instructional newsletterproject.

A newsletter has several advan-tages as a parent education method.Since this newsletter is “age paced”(keyed to the infant’s age) and offerssmall amounts of information at atime, it can reach parents at a“teachable moment.”

If we want to help parents do theirbest at raising intelligent schoolchildren or respectful teenagers, thebest strategy might be to go all theway back to the beginning, theinfancy period, helping new parentsestablish effective child-rearingstyles right from the start.

Many factors influence one’schild-rearing style. These rangefrom the kind of parenting onereceived as a child to the stressesone currently faces in life. Most ofthese sources of influence are ex-tremely difficult to change, but oneexception is information that comesin written form. Printed matter is apreferred form of child-rearinginformation for most parents.Research confirms that most parentswould rather read a pamphlet attheir leisure than attend a meetingon the same topic (Clarke-Stewart,1978; Simpson, 1997; Sparling &Lohman, 1983). This is true regard-less of the parent’s socioeconomiclevel, educational level (exceptingthose who cannot read), and race(Gotta, et al., 1977; Cudaback, et al.,1985).

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It is also low in cost, especiallycompared to other methods ofreaching parents (such as homevisits or classes). Because of its lowcost, it can be used to reach everynew parent in the community. Andbecause it arrives free, in the mail, itcan serve hard-to-reach families,those who would be least likely tocome to parent education programs.Thus it is well suited as a commu-nity-wide intervention for newparents (Riley, et al., 1991).

Over 50 evaluation studies of theParenting the First Year newsletterseries (Riley, et al., 1996) havesupported its effectiveness atpromoting competent parenting.These studies have consistentlyfound that parents rate the newslet-ter “highly useful” for parentingadvice more often than any othersource of child rearing information.They report that reading the news-letters caused them to change theirchild rearing methods in specificways that we know (from earlierresearch) should lead to better childdevelopment.

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The NewsletterParenting the First Year is a 12-issue set of eight-page newslet-ters, each keyed to a specific month in a newborn’s first year oflife.

Thus the parents of a 5 month-oldreceive a newsletter that describesage specific information such as: thephysical, intellectual, and socialskills being developed by 5-month-olds; activities parents can do withthem; when immunizations arerecommended; and how to intro-duce new foods. Each newsletteralso contains information that is lesstime specific, such as how to selectgood childcare, test well water fornitrates, or live with children whohave difficult temperaments.

The newsletters were written byUniversity of Wisconsin Extension,with the dual aim of preventingabusive parenting and encouragingcompetent parenting. They werewritten at the fifth-grade readinglevel (estimated by the Fleschformula, 1948) so that ninety-onepercent of American adults can readthem. The newsletters are periodi-cally reviewed and updated.

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The Badger County ProjectThe Badger County UW-Extension strategic planning commit-tee in 1999 identified the need for teaching effective parentingskills, which included concerns of the eroding family unit andchild abuse.

Initially, the Health Department andUW-Extension in Badger Countyimplemented the Parenting the FirstYear newsletter as part of the SafeHomes Project. The Badger CountyAssociation for Family and Commu-nity Education also became in-volved in 2000.

Approximately 1000 new parentshave received the newsletters since1999. Initially the newsletters weremailed from the Health Depart-ment. Currently, Badger CountyClinic mails the newsletter to allnew parents in Badger County aswell as others giving birth at thehospital. The series is mailed di-rectly to the parents, one per month,at no charge to them. The cost ofthe newsletter project was initiallyfunded through an injury preven-tion grant, and now is funded byBadger County Clinic and theBadger County Kiwanis.

Given the considerable effort toproduce and distribute these news-letters, we should cautiously ask ifour effort is worth it. Do thesenewsletters, in fact, help BadgerCounty parents perform better with

their newborns? A large-scaleevaluation has been performedelsewhere in the state, and will besummarized later in this report, butan evaluation of the newsletters’effectiveness here in this countywould also be prudent.

With that in mind, the evaluationreported here was begun in 2002 bysending a self-report questionnaireand stamped, return envelope toparents. A total of 226 question-naires were distributed, and 113returned, for a fifty percent returnrate. Compared to most question-naire surveys, this is a good partici-pation rate, allowing us to say thatthe results reported here are notdue to a small, vocal minority ofparents, but rather are representa-tive of most new parents in BadgerCounty.

Electronic data entry was com-pleted in the Badger County Exten-sion office. Statistical analyses wereconducted at UW-Madison, and thisreport was co-authored by facultyfrom Extension and the Madisoncampus.

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ResultsPrior to looking at the results, it is useful to take a look at thekinds of families who answered the survey.

All but three of the respondentswere mothers. They ranged in agefrom 15 to 43, with a median age of31. Five percent were teenagers,while three percent were aged 40 orolder. Nearly two-thirds (63%)were in the age range from 25 to 34.See Figure 1 below.

All but five parents (4%) had atleast a high school diploma. SeeFigure 2. One fourth of the respon-dents had stopped their education

at high school graduation, while atthe other extreme forty-four percenthad a 4-year college degree (ormore). Figure 3 shows that twopercent of the sample reportedfamily incomes (for 2001) of lessthan $16,000, and another six per-cent reported less than $22,000,approximately the poverty thresh-old for a family of five. Half ofrespondents (50%) reported in-comes of $50,000 or more.

Figure 1.

Age of Respondents

35 or greater

30-34

25-2920-24

19 or less

20%

35%

28%12%

5%

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Fully ninety-five percent of thesample families were composed ofspouses living together (whethermarried or not). Of the singleparents, two lived with the child’sgrandparents, and four lived alone.

For over one-third of the sample(38%), the baby was the first child.At the time of the survey, thirty-fivepercent of respondents had twochildren, and the remaining twenty-seven percent had from three to fivechildren.

Figure 2.

Parents’ Formal Education

44%

27%

25%

4%

4 Yr. College Degree or more

2 Yr. College Degree

High School Grad.

Some High School

0% 25% 50%

Percentage of Respondents

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Compared to figures from the2000 Census for Badger County, thesample who responded to thesurvey differed from the expectedpopulation. In particular, 95% ofthe current sample were parentsliving with a spouse or mate, whilethe 2000 Census for Badger Countyshowed that 82% of families raisingchildren (under age 18) were mar-

ried couple families. Because of thedifferences in how these groupswere defined (e.g. age of childrenand marital status), these twonumbers are not exactly compa-rable. But they suggest the likeli-hood that the current sample (andtherefore the results) may under-represent the single parents inBadger County.

Figure 3.

Family Incomes, 2001

50%

42%

6%

2%

$50,000 or more

$22,000 to 49,999

$16,000 to 21,999

Less than $16,000

0% 20% 40% 60%


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The Parenting the First Year newslet-ter was included last on this list, sothat its usefulness would be clearlygauged in relation to the othersources. Figure 4 charts the per-centage of parents who answeredthat each source was “very useful.”

Surprisingly, the newsletter wasrated very useful by as many par-ents as was advice from physiciansor nurses, and more often thanadvice from one’s relatives, friends,and other written materials. A totalof fifty-six percent said the newslet-ter was “very useful.” Parentswrote comments on the question-naires that were consistent with thisfinding:

“The newsletter is the best

source of information that I have

come across. It helped me with

my expectations and how to help

provide a nurturing environment

for our baby. Thank you for the

wonderful newsletter.”

“I am happy to fill out this ques-

tionnaire. It gives me a chance

to tell you that I really look

forward to receiving the newslet-

ter. There are days where it

helps more than you know.”

“Very informative and interesting.

Learn new things!”

One question asked parents tospecifically compare the newsletterto the educational literature sup-plied by their hospital. Figure 5shows that most parents foundParenting the First Year somewhat ormuch more useful than “otherwritten information I received frommy hospital following the birth ofmy child.” This could be due, atleast in part, to the age pacing of thenewsletter, upon which some par-ents commented:

“It is very helpful that the letters

come at the different ages,

instead of 1 book with all the

ages information, when the baby

is born. Thank you for the

letters!

“I like the fresh reminder and the

fact that I don’t have to go

hunting for it because it arrives

just before I need a refresher

course for the next stage. It is a

great reinforcer for bringing to

light how important we are in our

children’s development! Thank

you.”

How Useful Are the Newsletters?The parents were asked to rate the usefulness of a number ofcommon sources of child-rearing advice, all on the same 3-pointscale (not useful - somewhat useful - very useful).

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Figure 4.

According to new parents, how useful for parenting informationis each of the following sources?

NOTE: Other possible responses were "Somewhat Useful" and "Not Useful".

56%

56%

37%

35%

33%

19%

15%

10%

8%


Physician or Nurse

Books, Magazines & Newspapers

Other Parents & Friends

Your Relatives & Inlaws

Child Care Provider

Public Health Nurse

Parent Education or Discussion Group

Internet, World Wide Web

0% 30% 60%

Percentage of ParentsWho Answered "Very Useful"

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Figure 5.

Compared to other information I received from my hospitalfollowing the birth of my child, these newsletters are:

34%

41%

21%

4%

0%

Much More Useful

Somewhat More Useful

About the Same

Somewhat Less Useful

Much Less Useful

0% 20% 40%


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Readership of the NewslettersOver half of all parents (61%) reported they read “all articles inall issues” of the newsletters.

When parents were next asked,“What do you usually do with thenewsletters?” half (50%) said they“keep and file” them, and thirteenpercent said they give them tosomeone else to read. One-third(37%) said they “throw themaway.”

When asked if anyone else readstheir copy of the newsletter, sixty-five percent of respondents said yes.The most common subsequentreaders are shown in Figure 6. Innearly two-thirds of the families(58%), the spouse or partner readsthe newsletters. Many of the ques-tionnaires had comments on thispoint:

“I find your newsletter very

helpful & enjoyable, so does my

husband. I have learned many

things from it.”

“It is helpful - I direct parents to

the newsletter. Put in something

on unmarried parenting and

separated parenting.”

“My daughters (13, 11, & 7) are

very active in my son’s (18

months) care. They all read the

newsletter and it has helped

them a lot.”

The newsletters were read by thebaby’s grandparents in thirteenpercent of cases and by other rela-tives or friends nineteen percent ofthe time. In all, at least 212 readerswere reported for the 112 newslet-ters, indicating that readershipnearly doubled by sharing.

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Figure 6.

Does anyone else read your copy of the newsletters?

35%

58%

13%

19%

No

Yes, Spouse or Partner

Yes, Baby's Grandparent

Yes, Other Relative or Friend

0% 20% 40% 60%

Percentage of RespondentsNote: Percentages add to greaterthan 100% because respondentscould share newsletter with multiplepeople.

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“Helped me be more patient

when my baby cried. I know he

wasn’t doing it to upset me but

because he needed something.”

Parents’ comments were consis-tently about topics that had, in fact,been addressed by the newsletters.For example, the newsletters con-tain information on baby’s develop-ment each month and includesections on why babies cry andways to comfort crying babies. Inaddition, there are articles on waysto stimulate baby’s development,such as playing games and talkingwith baby, and on childproofingyour house to keep baby safe.

More than two-thirds of the parents(69%) responded to this prompt,telling us about a wide variety ofthings they believed they hadlearned from the newsletters. Hereis a small sampling of the kinds ofthings they wrote:

“Helped me with ideas for how to

encourage my baby’s develop-

ment, like putting up pictures

and things for her to see and

reading to her.”

“Gave us good ideas to try when

our baby cries. Also, liked know-

ing what to expect each month

and how to help baby develop

good.”

“It was good to know about

games to play with our baby to

help him learn and also some

ideas for child proofing I never

thought of, like keeping toilet lids

closed and turning down the

temperature on the water

heater.”

Have the Newsletters CausedImprovement in Child-RearingBehaviors?One of the major goals in distributing the newsletters was toinfluence positive behavior changes in new parents. Beforeasking parents any specific questions, we first asked them to tellus, in their own words, if “reading the newsletters led you to doanything differently with your baby?”

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Parents were next asked if “youbelieve the newsletters influencedyour behavior with your baby” insix key areas. These six specificparental behaviors were selectedbecause prior research has shownthey predict better intellectual,emotional and social developmentin infants and young children(Belsky, et al., 1984; Bornstein, 1995;Clarke-Stewart, 1977; Pettit, Bates &Dodge, 1997). These child-rearingbehaviors relate to providing in-fants with language interaction, safeexploration, emotional nurturance,responsiveness, and perceptualstimulation.

The self-report items are listed inFigure 7 on the next page, whichshows the percent of parents whoreported the newsletter caused eachpositive behavior change. As can beseen, approximately one-third totwo-thirds of the respondents feltthey were doing more of eachbehavior as a result of reading thenewsletters. The importance of eachof these parenting behaviors will bedescribed on the following pages.

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Figure 7.

“Reading the newsletters caused me to...

Self-Reported Behavior Change

68%

62%

60%

46%

45%

38%

Provide more things for my baby to feel, look at, and listen to."

Talk to my baby more."

Be less angry when my baby is difficult."

Smile, kiss & hug my baby more."

Make the house safer for my baby."

Respond more quickly when my baby cried."

0% 30% 60%


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1. Benefits of providing a stimulatingenvironment for baby.According to the majority of parents (68%), the newsletters hadthe greatest impact on prompting them to “provide more thingsfor my baby to feel, look at, and listen to.” This is importantbecause early experience has a big effect on children’s laterabilities.

Since babies’ brains are not fully-grown at birth, the stimulatingexperiences parents provide actu-ally change the way the braingrows.

Research clearly indicates that anenriched, intellectually stimulatingenvironment enhances early braindevelopment (Shore, 1997). Weknow, for example, that the experi-ences babies have listening andlooking help to develop areas of thebrain associated with vision andhearing (Imbert, 1985; Neville,1985). The availability of safe toysalso engages the infants’ senses ashe mouths and handles each object.One study found that six-month-oldinfants developed better eye-handcoordination when mothers pro-vided them with appropriate toys(Parks & Bradley, 1991). Moreover,when mothers were more activelyinvolved, in addition to providingappropriate playthings, their babieswere significantly more advancedin social and language develop-ment, compared to babies whosemothers were not involved. In

contrast, when infants had few toys,the amount of maternal involve-ment (i.e., high vs. low) made littledifference in social or languagedevelopment. An earlier study byClarke-Stewart (1973) also showedthat when mothers provided stimu-lating toys and played with theirinfants, babies were higher incognitive development. Takentogether, these studies suggest thatbabies get more benefit from theirtoys when parents play with baby.

On the other hand, researchersWachs and Chan (1986) looked atthe effects of the physical environ-ment on 12-month-old infants’communication skills, independentof their social environment. Babieswho had decorations in their room,changes in room decorations overtime, and new toys were moreadvanced in vocabulary develop-ment. These researchers maintainedthat variety or change in stimulationwas the key for enhancing develop-ment. In a study of low, middle andhigh socioeconomic groups, how-ever, the quality of stimulation in

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the home was associated withinfants’ general development onlyfor those of low socioeconomicstatus (Parks & Smeriglio, 1986).This may have been because parentsin the middle and high socioeco-nomic groups already providedmore stimulating home environ-ments for their infants. Finally, arecent large scale study that in-cluded several ethnic groups,showed that infants and toddlerswho lived in more stimulatinghome environments, with appropri-ate toys and books, were higher inearly motor and social development(Bradley, Corwyn, Burchinal,McAdoo & Coll, 2001). Parentalresponsiveness (e.g., talking, hug-ging) also enhanced development.

Appropriate stimulation, more-over, appears to benefit preterminfants. One study found thatpreemies who received gentlestroking (tactile stimulation) andmovement of limbs gained weightfaster, had more mature ratings onthe Brazelton Neonatal AssessmentScales (NBAS) and were hospital-ized for fewer days, as compared tocontrol group infants (Field, et al.,1986). Researchers and clinicians,however, point out that the amountof stimulation must be tailored tothe individual needs of each infant(Brazelton, 1987; Carey & McDevitt,1995; Lester, 1987; Turecki &Tonner, 1989). Some babies, such aspreemies or those with highlysensitive temperaments, are more

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sensitive and require less stimula-tion in their environment.

Parenting the First Year newslet-ters encourage parents to maketheir baby’s world an interestingand stimulating place. They em-phasize the importance of provid-ing things for baby to see, hear andtouch. For example, young babieslike to look at “bright colors, high-contrast patterns and shiny things.”Suggestions are made for puttingup pictures, wall hangings andmobiles in baby’s room, or settingbaby’s crib so she can see thingsoutside her window. The newslet-ters also point out that babies maybe soothed by soft music and enjoythe feeling of being cuddled, heldand rocked. They tell parents“babies learn through touch. Giveyour baby different textures to feel -soft, hard, smooth and rough. Letbaby listen to music on the radio,CDs or tapes. Talk and sing to yourbaby.” Providing interesting andsafe toys gives baby a chance to feeland learn about different objects.Suggestions for using householditems as toys are presented, such asusing plastic measuring cups orfood storage bowls to help babylearn “bigger and smaller and inand out.” The newsletters alsosuggest giving older babies thechance to “try new and different

foods” to stimulate their sense oftaste, as well as safe things to smell,like soap, perfume or flowers. Inaddition, parents are encouraged totake their babies on outings to thestore, zoo or park to experience newsights, sounds and smells. How-ever, parents are reminded thatbabies are individuals and somebabies need less stimulation thanothers. Some “babies may be extrasensitive to the world around them.For this type of baby, try to reducethe stimulation level.” Parentsmade comments about providingthings for their baby to touch, lookat and listen to:

“Hung a mobile over my

daughter’s crib and put bright

pictures on her bedroom walls.”

“Play soft music and sing to baby

a lot. Also, take her out more

places like the zoo now that she

is older.”

“I play the baby games from the

newsletter to help him develop

better.”

“I take my son everywhere, on

all my errands so he gets to see

a lot of people. He’s very so-

ciable.”

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2. Benefits of language interaction.Parents also reported that the newsletters encouraged them to“talk more with my baby” (62%). Early verbal stimulation isessential since research shows that parents who talk more withtheir babies have babies who learn language better. And orallanguage skill lays the foundation for later reading skill.

Babies come into the world ready tolearn language. Although infantsfirst communicate by crying, babiessoon begin experimenting withmaking different sounds. At abouttwo months of age babies begin“cooing” or making vowel sounds(e.g., ahh), and around six monthsthey start “babbling” or producingconsonant-vowel sound combina-tions such as dada or mama (Fabes& Martin, 2001; Puckett & Black,2001). By the end of their first yearmost infants are starting to say afew “real” words. Around theworld, people use “parentese” orchild-directed speech when talkingto babies, where they raise the pitchof their voice, speak slowly insimple phrases or sentences, andrepeat words. Speaking this wayhelps focus baby’s attention, whichmakes it easier for baby to learnlanguage.

Early research by Clarke-Stewart(1973), with a group of low-incomemothers, showed that the totalamount mothers talked to theirinfants and the variety of wordsused predicted their children’s

language ability, as well as overallcompetence. A review of the re-search revealed a large number ofstudies that consistently found asignificant correlation between theamount mothers talk with theirchildren and the children’s lan-guage development (Clarke-Stewart, 1988). We also know thatadolescent mothers who talked lessfrequently to their four-month-oldinfants, compared to a matchedgroup of adult mothers, had infantswho were less vocally responsive at12-months of age (Barratt & Roach,1995). One longitudinal study ofearly language developmentshowed that the vocabulary of one-year-olds grew more rapidly whenmothers talked with baby aboutpeople or objects that were presentfor baby to see or handle (Menyuk,Liebergott & Schultz, 1995). Fur-thermore, mothers who allowedtheir babies and toddlers to taketurns in conversations, had childrenwho were more skilled in theirlanguage development at age three.Mothers used their baby’s nonver-bal (e.g., gestures) and verbal cues

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(e.g., babbling) as a starting point forthese early conversations. In this study ofmiddle class families, the amount ofmaternal talking did not affect languagegrowth. However, another recent longi-tudinal study found that one-month-oldinfants whose mothers talked more withthem, had higher IQ’s when they wereadolescents; but this was only the case forinfants who habituated (adapted) quicklyto visual stimuli (Sigman, Cohen &Beckwith, 1997). One study showed thatmothers who imitated their one-year-olds’ vocalizations had infants who werehigher in language competence (Hardy-Brown & Plomin, 1985). Additionally,mothers’ frequent use of directives, thatfollowed their 13 month-old infants’ focusof attention, predicted a larger vocabu-lary at 22 months of age (Akhtar, F.Dunham & P. Dunham, 1991).

Beginning with the secondmonth, the Parenting the First Yearnewsletters emphasize the impor-tance of parents talking with theirbabies. The newsletters state,“Research shows that parents whotalk more to their babies have babieswho talk more and learn languagebetter.” Parents are also encour-aged to “take turns” when talkingwith baby, by pausing and givingbaby a chance to respond. Thenewsletters suggest using everydaysituations, such as bath or mealtimeto teach baby language, for exampleby saying “toes” as you wash baby’stoes. “This practice helps baby learnthe meaning of words.” Parents arealso encouraged to use imitation byrepeating sounds that baby makes.“Your imitation excites him and

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may cause him to repeat thesounds.” When parents respond tobaby’s own sounds this helps himlearn language. Reading to baby isanother activity that is suggested.Directions for making a book forbaby are included, along with ideasfor pages to make, such as picturesof baby and family members andpictures of familiar animals or toyscut from magazines. Reading bookstogether not only promotes lan-guage development, but also helpsbaby feel good about reading.Parents commented on ways theytalked more with baby:

“Didn’t realize how important it

was to talk to baby. I talk to him

more, like when I give him his

bath or take him out in his

stroller.”

“I talk even when I have to work

around the house, like do dishes

or cook supper.”

“I always talked a lot, but now I

also read more books to her and

talk about the pictures.”

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3. Benefits of being less angry with baby.The newsletters also caused parents to “be less angry when mybaby is difficult” (60%), according to the parents’ own reports.

When baby cries or gets into things,some parents respond sensitivelywith appropriate guidance, whileother parents get angry and mayeven spank baby. Although thereare a number of reasons for thedifferences in how parents respond,research has found that adolescentmothers who have less knowledgeof child development and inappro-priate attitudes about parenting,before baby is born, perceive theirinfant and parenting role morenegatively at six months postpar-

tum (Miller, Miceli, Whitman, &Borkowski, 1996), and are at higherrisk for abusive parenting(Dukewich, Borkowski, &Whitman, 1996). Some studies haveshown that abusive parents haveunrealistic expectations for theirchild’s behavior (Azar, Robinson,Hekimian, & Twentyman, 1984;Azar & Rohrbech, 1986; Bavolek,1984). For instance, they maybelieve infants are capable of ma-ture behaviors, such as eatingwithout making a mess or using thetoilet.

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When baby is unable to live up tothese unrealistically high expecta-tions, parents are likely to attributenegative intentions to their infant’sbehavior (Dix & Grusec, 1985). Forexample, parents may think baby iscrying, getting into things, or mess-ing his diaper on purpose to upsetthem. Mothers with an authoritar-ian parenting style (high demand,low warmth) were also shown to bemore likely to believe children’snegative behaviors were intentional,compared to non-authoritarianmothers (Dix & Reinhold, 1991; Dix,Ruble & Zambarano, 1986). Andwhen parents think their child isdoing these behaviors on purpose,they are more likely to get angry(Dix, et al., 1989; Dix & Reinhold,1991) and to report a preference forstern discipline (Dix, et al, 1989).Parents who abused their childrenwere also found to have fewer ideasabout how to handle children’sproblem behaviors (Azar, et al.,1984) and to use punishment moreoften as a disciplinary method thancomparison group parents (Tricket& Kuczynski, 1986). The researchsuggests that educating parentsabout child development and alter-native parenting ideas and strate-gies may help parents develop morerealistic expectations of theirinfant’s behavior (so they don’t getas angry) and learn more effectiveways of guiding children’s develop-ment.

The Parenting the First Yearnewsletters tell parents what behav-iors to expect from their infantseach month, so parents are lesslikely to have unrealistic ideas ofwhat baby can do. For instance,each issue starts with a sectioncalled “Baby wants you to know”which explains baby’s growth inphysical, cognitive, social andemotional development. Parentslearn how baby grows, talks, re-sponds, feels and understands ateach age. The newsletters alsoprovide parents with alternativecognitions or ways of thinkingabout the reasons for baby’s behav-ior. For example, parents learn whybabies cry - because they are hun-gry, lonely, too cold or hot, overstimulated, colicky, etc. Baby “criesonly when in need, and can’t stopuntil those needs are met…don’ttake your angry feeling out on baby- he can’t help it.” Parents areinformed, “research shows that ababy this young is not able tocontrol her actions long enough todo what you tell her…so spankingor slapping her hand will onlyconfuse her and won’t help at all.”Parents are also told to “Never hitor shake a child! Tiny babies don’tdo things on purpose to annoyyou.”

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The newsletters also provideparents with many ways to posi-tively guide their baby’s develop-ment, and effectively handle nega-tive behavior. The issues formonths 5 through 12 each have asection on some aspect of childguidance. For example, parentslearn that discipline really meansteaching, not punishing. A list ofways to teach baby acceptablebehavior is included, such as praisebaby when she does things you like,ignore misbehavior that isn’t dan-gerous, prevent problems by childproofing your home, and showbaby what you want her to do. Thesections on child guidance also letparents know to keep calm whenbaby does something they don’tlike, since small babies don’t dothings on purpose to annoy them.In addition, parents are advised touse words to help baby behave, toreward good behavior, and to setlimits. By using words parents helpbaby learn why he can’t behave incertain ways; and by setting limitsbaby learns rules about behaviors.Suggestions for how to set limits arepresented. Parents are told thatteaching baby to behave is more amatter of making it easy for baby todo the right thing. Parents’ com-ments suggested they listened tothis advice:

“Realized how important it is to

pay attention to good behavior,

and reward it with my attention,

and ignore misbehavior that is

not harmful.”

“I like knowing what behaviors to

expect from my baby so I don’t

get upset by some behaviors.”

“I like to show the newsletters to

my relatives cause they think I

should be slapping his hand

when he gets into stuff. I can

show them he’s too little to know

better.”

“I try not to get so upset when

he cries a lot since he can’t help

it.”

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4. Benefits of being more affectionatewith baby.Nearly half of new parents (46%) reported that the newslettersencouraged them “smile, kiss and hug my baby more.” Parentswho respond to their infants with smiles, hugs and kisses areshowing their love for baby in concrete ways. According toattachment theory, infants have a biological need to developloving, affectionate bonds with their caregivers (Bowlby, 1979).

Attachment behavior, such ascrying or babbling, shows baby’sneed for comfort and contact withcaregivers. Through their interac-tions with parents infants begin todevelop “internal working models”or expectations for their relation-ships with people (Weinfield,Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999).Thus, babies whose parents respondsensitively and lovingly to theirneeds learn to expect theircaregivers will be available whenneeded, and learn to feel they canhave an impact on their world.These infants develop secure attach-ments to their parents and thereforefeel confident to explore and learnabout their world. Infants withsecure attachments grow intochildren who are more indepen-dent, more positive in affect, morecompetent in their relationshipswith peers, more empathetic towardothers, more self-confident, andmore competent at completing tasks(Sroufe, Carlson & Shulman, 1993).

When parents provide insensitivecare, babies develop expectationsthat their caregivers will not beresponsive to their needs, and thusbecome more dependent, morenegative, less competent with peers,less empathetic, less self-confident,and less competent at tasks.

Sensitive, warm parenting alsoserves another biologically protec-tive function (Shore, 1997). Infantswho receive sensitive, lovingcaregiving are more able to regulatethe amount of cortisol (a hormonalsteroid) that is produced in theirbodies as a response to minorstresses. This makes them lessvulnerable to the detrimental effectsof stress both during infancy andlater in life.

When parents respond warmlyto their baby with smiles, hugs andkisses they are demonstrating theirlove and acceptance of their child.Research has looked at the effects ofparental rejection versus acceptance

28


on the child. Parental rejection canbe exhibited as angry/negativebehavior toward the child, or sim-ply as indifferent (lacking warmth)or neglectful behavior (Rohner,1986). Cross-cultural researchshows that, around the world,children who experienced parentalrejection were found to be morehostile/aggressive and lower inself-esteem/self-efficacy, as com-pared to children who experiencedwarmth/acceptance (Rohner, 1975,1986). As adults, rejected childrencontinued to be more hostile/aggressive and lower in self-evalua-tion. They also had difficultyforming close relationships andnurturing others, were less emo-tionally stable, and had a generallynegative view of the world.

The Parenting the First Yearnewsletters emphasize the impor-tance of parents showing their lovefor baby. In the second month,parents are told that when theysmile at baby they will be rewardedwith smiles from baby. Parents areencouraged to show baby love bysmiling and lovingly holding baby.However, they are reminded that“some babies cuddle more thanothers” because each baby is anindividual. For example, highlysensitive babies may need verygentle holding, while very activebabies may sometimes not want toslow down for cuddling. But “allbabies want and need to be heldlovingly sometimes.” The newslet-ters explain that babies learn howmuch you care through touch, so

29


parents should “give baby lots ofhugs and kisses, pats, rocking,stroking and massages.”

As one of the keys to guidingtheir baby’s development, parentsare encouraged to reward babywith loving smiles and hugs whenshe plays nicely, rather than onlyresponding to misbehavior. Thenewsletters also inform parents thatsharing lots of smiles, hugs andkisses with your baby tells him youthink he’s a wonderful child, andthis builds your child’s sense of self-esteem. Parents’ comments indi-cated they understood the impor-tance of showing affection:

“I always hug and kiss my baby,

but my husband does more of

this since reading the newslet-

ters. I think before he felt silly.”

“My baby is very fussy and

sometimes doesn’t seem to like

to be held. Thanks for letting me

know that some babies are this

way and that I can show him lots

of affection in other ways.”

“It’s good that the newsletters

tell parents about how important

showing love to their baby is.

You hear so much everyday

about parents abusing their kids.”

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5. Benefits of providing a safe homeenvironment.About half of the parents (45%) reported that the newslettersprompted them to “make the house safer for my baby.” A safeenvironment is crucial to child development because a safehome allows more of the exploration that helps babies learn.

As we all know, infants are likely toput anything they grab into theirmouths. And once they learn tostand and become more mobiletheir reach can be suddenly andgreatly extended, so that homes thatwere safe last month become terri-bly unsafe this month. Some equip-ment designed for babies, such aswalkers, also creates dangers, asdoes the improper use of equipmentlike car safety seats.

According to Dr. Jana Williams, apediatrician at Texas Children’sHospital, “more young children dieor are disabled from preventableinjuries than from. . .any disease.”She concludes that, “The easiestway to eliminate childhood injuriesis to prevent them... Childproofinga home is essential” (Kid SourceOn-line, 1998). The most commonfatal injury to infants, accountingfor 51% of fatalities, is caused byairway obstruction due to suchthings as small toys, or foods likepeanuts, grapes or hot dogs. Burnsare responsible for about 20% offatal injuries to young children.

Accidental poisoning of youngchildren is also a major problem.According to the American Associa-tion of Poison Control Centers morethan one million children five yearsof age and younger were “exposedto potentially poisonous sub-stances” in 2001, and nearly 30young children die each year byaccidental poisoning from house-hold products (Poison PreventionWeek Council, 2003). An alert bythe U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission warns that about 115infants and toddlers drown eachyear from hazards in the home, likebuckets of liquid, toilets and bath-tubs (U. S. Consumer ProductSafety Commission, 2003). A studythat looked at the causes of injurydeaths for children aged 0 to 6 yearsin Louisiana (1994) and Alaska(1993-1995) showed that “inad-equate supervision” accounted for43% of these deaths (Landen, Bauer,& Kohn, 2003). And the highest rateof injury death was for infantsunder one year of age.

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Unsafe or improperly usedequipment is also responsible formany injuries to babies. In 1999,about 8,800 infants under 15 monthsof age were treated in emergencyrooms for injuries related to the useof baby walkers, and one-fourth ofthese accidents involved severeinjuries (American Academy ofPediatrics, 2001). Because of theincreased mobility of infants inwalkers, some of these injuries haveinvolved poisoning and burns. Inone study, baby walkers “accountedfor 45% of falls down stairwayscausing head injuries in children”under two years of age. A Con-sumer Product Safety Review (2002)showed that 122 infants and tod-dlers under age two died whilesleeping in adult beds between 1999

and 2001, most due to suffocation orentrapment. “Most deaths (97%)involved children 1 year old oryounger.” Another report by thesame commission estimated thatabout 50 infants die from unsafecribs each year, in most cases due tothe use of older cribs (U. S. Con-sumer Product Safety Commission,1996). One large national surveyfound that 13% of children age 4and under were not restrained incar safety seats (National Safe KidsCampaign, 2002). Of the infantsunder one year of age who were insafety seats, nearly one-quarter(22.2%) of them were “inappropri-ately restrained.” These statisticsemphasize the necessity of makingsure that homes are safe for babies,and that equipment is both safe andproperly used.

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Parenting the First Year newslet-ters emphasize the importance ofmaking the environment safe forbaby. In the first issue guidelinesfor crib safety are provided, such asmaking sure crib slats are no morethan 2 3/8 inches apart. Co-sleep-ing is also discouraged because ofthe danger “that the baby mighthave trouble breathing if caught insoft pillows or blankets, or if par-ents roll over.” The newsletters tellparents how to correctly use infantcar seats and when a change to adifferent car seat is needed for olderbabies and toddlers. Parents arealso warned about the danger offeeding honey to infants under one-

year-old, and are advised to checkto see if their well water is safe forbaby’s formula. The newsletters listtips for choosing safe baby toys.For example, parents should “avoidtoys with small parts that couldcome off, like plastic eyes on stuffedanimals, and never give babies toyssmaller than 1 1/2 inches on allsides” since baby could choke onsmall parts. Safety tips for storingbaby’s toys are also given. Parentsare also warned about the danger ofbaby choking on round, firm,slippery foods like whole grapes,peanuts or pieces of hot dogs.

When baby gets up on his handsand knees parents are advised toremove crib toys that could presenta strangling hazard. Once babybegins sitting up, the newslettersinform parents about high chairsafety, such as always using the seatbelt and crotch strap, and neverletting baby stand in the high chair.Parents are warned about neverleaving baby alone in the bathtub,or around any source of water.Before baby gets mobile parents areadvised to baby-proof the house “tomake baby’s world a safe place forhim to learn and grow.” Parents aretold to “think twice about babywalkers” since “babies in walkershave fallen down stairs - even withsafety gates on the stairs.” And asbaby learns to stand and walk,

33


parents are cautioned to “watch fornew hazards” since baby “can reachfarther and higher” and “whenbaby uses furniture to pull herselfup, she may pull things over.”

The newsletters also recommendthat parents make a fire safety planand check for potential sources oflead that can poison baby. A list ofcommon household products thatare poisonous is also provided toparents so they can lock poisons outof baby’s reach. Parents who makeuse of the safety tips in the newslet-ters should provide more opportu-nities for their baby to explore andgrow in a safe environment. Par-ents’ comments indicated theymade use of this advice:

“I never put my baby in a walker

since I read how dangerous they

are.”

“I didn’t know honey wasn’t safe

for babies. Thanks for the

warning!”

“Keep our older son’s toys away

from the baby so he can’t put

them in his mouth.”

“Cut hot dogs and grapes into

tiny pieces so she won’t choke

on them.”

“I knew about watching my baby

in the bathtub, but I never even

thought about the danger of

drowning in toilets. Now I keep

a gate across the bathroom

door.”

A second benefit of safe homes isthat parents can then allow theirbabies more opportunity to explore,which researchers call “floor free-dom.” Letting infants exploresafely enhances their “potential forintellectual growth, skills mastery,and self esteem” (Berger & Thomp-son, 1996, p.284). One famousscientist, the Swiss psychologistJean Piaget, suggested that babiesand toddlers are like “little scien-tists” who learn by actively experi-menting with objects in their envi-ronment (Miller, 1993). “Locomo-tion provides children with newopportunities for learning abouttheir world. They can manipulateobjects and learn about size, form,and relationships of objects”(Brazelton, 1989, p. 226). Thenewsletters say, as research hasfound, that “to learn babies andchildren need to be able to exploreand to experiment,” and that“bright children were allowed toexplore when they were babies.”

34


6. Benefits of responding quickly tobaby’s cries.More than a third of parents (38%) reported they “respondmore quickly when my baby cried” as a result of reading thenewsletters.

Infants use crying to communi-cate their basic needs for food,warmth, human contact and relieffrom discomfort or pain (Puckett &Black, 2001). Research has shownthat the amount of crying decreasesover the first year by about one-half(Bell & Ainsworth, 1972; Hubbard& Ijzendoorn, 1991, 1994), as othertypes of non-crying vocalizationsbecome more common. This sameresearch found that when mothersresponded quickly infants stoppedcrying sooner. Over the course ofthe first year, mothers actuallyresponded more quickly to theirinfant’s cries.

But did quicker maternal respon-siveness when babies were aboutthree months old affect the amountof infant crying later in the year?The studies cited above reportconflicting results. For instance,Bell and Ainsworth (1972) foundthat when mothers responded morequickly to infant crying in the firstthree months, babies cried less laterin the year. However, because ofthe small sample size in this study(26 mothers), the researchers werenot able to statistically control for

some confounding variables.Hubbard and Ijzendoorn’s (1994)research with a larger sample (50mothers) replicated this earlierwork and used appropriate controlsin the analyses. These researchersshowed that mothers who were lessresponsive to infant crying in thefirst three months had babies whocried less in the first half of the year.But responsiveness by mothers didnot lead to differences in cryinglater in the year. Together thesestudies imply that respondingquickly today helps babies stopcrying faster today, but may haveno impact on how much babies cryin the future.

The authors of this replicationstudy suggested that mothers mayrespond differently to differenttypes of cries (differential respon-siveness). Mothers who are slowerto respond or unresponsive to small(less intense) cries may teach babiesto cry less, by not rewarding eachcry or fuss. Nevertheless, whenbabies cry intensely and are clearlyin distress this may be a differentkind of cry (attachment cry) thatrequires a quick response on the

35


part of the caregiver. Attachmenttheory proposes that when mothersrespond quickly to their infant’sdistress, babies learn to trust thattheir needs will be met and begin torealize they can have an impact ontheir world (Weinfield, Sroufe,Egeland & Carlson, 1999). Thisleads to a secure attachment withtheir caregivers and to the infantdeveloping a sense of self-efficacy,both of which are known to predictlater child competence. Overall theresearch suggests that parents neednot respond to every instance ofmild fussing - as long as baby’sneeds have been attended to - butcertainly a prompt response isimportant when baby is in distress.Of course, no parent should stopthemselves from comforting a babyany time they want to. There is no

evidence that a parent can “spoil” ababy with too much attention.

Other research demonstrates thebenefits of holding baby often. Oneexperimental study showed thatmothers who were induced to holdtheir babies more minutes per dayhad babies who cried less(Hunziker & Barr, 1986). Anotherstudy found that when mothersheld and soothed their extremelyfussy infants more at six weeks ofage, their babies were rated lowerin negativity by fifteen months(James-Roberts, Conroy & Wilsher,1998). Babies who are often in closephysical contact with their mothersmay not have to signal their needsby crying and may feel more con-tent. In many other cultures babiesare held in close contact with theirmothers most of the time.

36


The Parenting the First Yearnewsletters explain that babies cryto have their needs met and not toupset parents. Suggestions for waysto soothe baby’s crying are pro-vided, such as cuddling baby,rocking, providing steady sounds,removing sources of discomfort(e.g., wet diapers or scratchy tags onclothing) and wrapping baby toreduce startling. The newslettersalso tell parents that respondingpromptly to baby’s cries will oftenstop the crying sooner. Respondingto every mild fuss is not necessary,and in fact, some babies need to fussa bit before they can fall asleep.However, parents should alwaysrespond quickly when baby isclearly in distress, as this teachesbaby to trust that parents will meethis needs. Parents are also advisedto spend as much time holding babyas they can, as this is likely to re-duce how much baby cries. Whenbaby’s crying gets to be too muchfor parents, ideas are presented forhow to handle this: take a break andget a friend or relative to watchbaby; put baby in his crib and take ashower or vacuum so you can’t hearthe crying and check on baby againin 15 minutes; don’t get angry andtake it out on baby since he can’thelp crying - never shake baby!

Parents let us know by their com-ments that they listened to thisadvice:

“My baby cries a lot and I tried

all of the suggestions in the

newsletters. I was glad to know

it was okay to sometimes let him

cry when nothing works.”

“I tried carrying my baby around

more in a front or backpack and

she really seemed to cry less.

Thanks for the suggestion!”

“I get a friend to watch my baby

sometimes. It really helps to

take a break. I can handle the

crying better afterwards.”

37


Which Parents Need Our Help theMost?We have special concern for some parents, for whom earlyparenting might be especially difficult. First-time parents areoften inexperienced, and therefore we might expect them tohave more need for child-rearing information.

1. First-time parent

2. Teenage parent (age 19 or less).

3. Low education (less than high school diploma).

4. Low family income (less than $16,000 previous year).

5. Single parent (whether married or not).

6. Socially isolated (defined as not having “friends with children about the same age as your child”).

If any of these conditions was true of a parent, we placed them in the “risk”category. We then contrasted the self-reported behavior changes of risk-group and non-risk parents.

Category Number PercentageNon-risk 52 46Risk-Group 60 54

And prior research has shown thatparents in particular socioeconomiccategories are more likely to havedifficulty with the stressful firstyear of parenthood (Belsky, 1984;

Belsky & Vondra, 1989). Thesecategories are defined, and thenumbers of parents in each categoryare shown below.

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Effects on “At-Risk” and First-TimeParents?The risk-group parents reported more positive influence fromthe newsletters than the non-risk parents, in all six key areas ofbehavior change.

In two areas, these differences werestatistically significant. Risk groupparents were 23% more likely thannon-risk parents to say that readingthe newsletter caused them “toprovide more things for my baby tofeel, look at, and listen to.” Theywere 20% more likely to say thatreading the newsletter caused them“to respond more quickly when mybaby cried.” See Figure 8.

Risk group parents, who may beyoung, less educated, sociallyisolated, single, and/or low income,are more likely to have limitedknowledge of child development, aswell as parenting beliefs and behav-iors that are less optimal forchildren’s development (Okagaki &Divecha, 1993). They also may lackthe support they need to be sensi-tively responsive to their infants.

The newsletters appear to be aneffective way to provide knowledgeabout infant development to par-ents most in need of this informa-tion. In addition, the newslettersmay increase parents’ awareness ofways they can have a positiveinfluence on their baby’s develop-ment. This is suggested by the self-reported changes in parenting ofrisk-group parents.

39


First-time parents are inexperi-enced, and therefore it is no sur-prise they appreciated the newslet-ters. In fact, some parents’ com-ments seemed to be telling us thatthe newsletters were helpful be-cause they were first-time parents.

“My husband and I enjoyed

receiving your newsletter! It was

very useful and informational,

being first time parents we need

all the help we can get. Do you

have any further newsletters

‘after 1st year’?”

“I like the newsletter. Some

things I know, but some I didn’t.

It helps my husband because this

is his first baby.”

But other, experienced parentstold us it was helpful to them too:

“Great idea even for parents with

other children.”

“I enjoy the newsletter. Even

though this is my 3rd child, some

things I can’t remember from the

others, such as feeding sched-

ules, types of foods, etc. The

newsletter is short and concise,

so I have time to read it.”

In fact, even early childhoodprofessionals found value in thisnewsletter:

“Even though he is my 4th and I

am an RN, I’ve learned some

from it too. Now if you could

just put out a newsletter about

teenagers and pre-teens!”

“I am a child care provider. I

really enjoyed receiving the

newsletter, wish you could keep

sending them till the child was

‘18’. I’m keeping the newsletter

to pass on to my children to use

for their first children. Thanks

ever so much.”

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Figure 8.

“Reading the newsletters caused me to...

Effect of Parenting the First Year Newsletters on“Risk Group” Parents, as Compared to Non-Risk Parents

NOTE: The contrasts of “Respond morequickly...” and “Provide more things formy baby...” are statistically significantat p<.05.

48%

57%

55%

55%

37%

39%

28%

80%

68%

66%

54%

48%

Provide more things for my babyto feel, look at, and listen to."

Talk to my baby more."

Be less angry when my baby is difficult."

Smile, hug, and kiss my baby more."

Make the house safer for my baby."

Respond more quickly when my baby cried."

0% 30% 60% 90%


48%

Non-Risk Risk Group

41


Preventing Parents from HittingBabies: Results of Other UW-ExtensionResearch.An experimental test of the Parenting the First Year newsletter insix southeast Wisconsin counties has found that it prevents thehitting of babies by parents.

This evaluation contrasted overone thousand parents who gavebirth in the same hospitals, and whodiffered only in that some receivedthe newsletter series and some didnot. They were all surveyed whentheir children were 14 months old.

Those who received the newslet-ters had childrearing beliefs thatwere significantly less like those ofchild abusing parents, as comparedto parents who didn’t receive thenewsletters. They also reportedactually hitting their children lessoften. When asked “About howmany times did you have to slap orhit your infant last week?” mostparents reported zero. But onaverage, those who received thenewsletters reported hitting theirchildren less, about one-half timeper week less. Apparently thoseprone to physically hitting theirbabies did so less often if theyreceived Parenting the First Year.

Reasonable people may disagreeon whether a preschooler or schoolage child should be spanked by a

parent, but it is difficult to defendthe hitting of babies under anyconditions. Child developmentexperts tell us that discipline isessential to good child rearing, butthat physical punishment is notessential. Indeed, children who arephysically punished the most bytheir parents tend to become physi-cally aggressive with their agemates, and high levels of spankingor hitting have been shown to becounterproductive in changingchildren’s behaviors. Such hitting,of course, is never effective inmaking babies’ behavior better; itonly makes them cry more. Thatthe Parenting the First Year newslet-ter series prevented, on average, anestimated twenty-six occurrences ofbabies being hit across the year, byeach family, is an important impact.Based on this research, we estimatethat the distribution of the newslet-ter series through Badger CountyClinic prevented 9,300 occurrencesof babies being spanked or slappedlast year in Badger County.

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Can We Trust These Results?How reliable are self-report answers, where people answerquestions about themselves?We know that such questions, ifphrased carefully, can be accurate,but can also be prone to some well-known sources of inaccuracy.

The two most common sourcesof error are Response Set and SocialDesirability bias. “Response Set”refers to the tendency of somerespondents to answer all questionsthe same way, for example with a“yes” response. “Social DesirabilityBias” is the tendency of respondentsto exaggerate their favorable at-tributes or pleasing responses(people like to report “good news”in their questionnaire responses).Depending upon how they areworded, questions can elicit greateror lesser amounts of this bias.People also differ in this regard:some are more likely to exaggeratetheir answers so as to provide amore pleasing answer, while othersare less susceptible to this bias.

One way to check for the intru-sion of social desirability bias intoour results is with a “lie scale.”Using this method, we inserted twoitems into our list of outcomequestions. Each item asked aboutsomething that might have been inthe newsletters, but wasn’t. Hereare the two items:

“Reading the newsletters causedme to change how I diaper my

baby.”

“Reading the newsletters causedme to change how I wake my

baby in the morning.”

If a respondent reported (incor-rectly) having learned about both ofthese topics in the newsletters, thenwe would strongly suspect thattheir answers to these and all otherquestions were biased by eitherresponse set or social desirabilitybias, or by both biases.

In fact, only one respondentanswered “yes” to both items,which suggests a low intrusion ofthese biases into our results. Datafor this respondent was removedbefore completing the statisticalanalyses, to increase the accuracy ofour results.

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ConclusionsBased on the evidence presented in this report, we advance thefollowing conclusions:

1. Parents who responded to thesurvey found the newslettersuseful. Most reported they readevery article in every issue, andthen kept and filed them. Theyfound the newsletters were asuseful as information fromphysicians and nurses and weremore helpful than other sourcesof child-rearing advice we askedabout, including relatives andfriends.

3. Parents reported that reading thenewsletters led them to changetheir child-rearing behaviors insix key areas, each of which ispredictive of child developmentgains. Of greater interest, theparents who most often reportedbehavior changes were those ingreatest need: first-time parentsand parents living in “risk”situations. This suggests that theimpact of the newsletters isgreatest where the need is great-est. This contrasts with manyparenting support programs,which seem to attract participa-tion primarily by high-function-ing, non-stressed families(Powell, 1986).

4. Besides encouraging competentparenting, the newsletters mayalso be reducing child abuse inBadger County. Evidence from alarge field experiment of thenewsletter elsewhere in Wiscon-sin has shown that receiving thenewsletter prevents approxi-mately twenty-six occurrences(per family) of parents spankingor slapping their babies acrosstheir first year. We estimate,therefore, that the newsletterprevented over 9,300 instances ofparents hitting babies in BadgerCounty last year.

2. The newsletters were not onlyused by the initial parent (usuallythe mother), but were passed onto others as well. In about two-thirds of households, an addi-tional person (most often thechild’s father and even oldersiblings) regularly read thenewsletter. The fact that parentswould pass their newslettersalong to others is confirmationthat they find them useful. Mul-tiple readership of each newslet-ter also argues for multiplicationof effect, and cost efficiency ofthis method of parent education.

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RecommendationsThe continued distribution of the Parenting the First Year news-letters in Badger County seems well warranted by the evidenceof this evaluation.

Families in Badger County arefortunate to have The BadgerCounty Clinic, Badger CountyKiwanis, Badger County HealthDepartment and Badger CountyUW-Extension working together toprovide the newsletter. This col-laborative effort will require peri-odic communication to insurecontinuous delivery of parentinginformation that meets the needs ofBadger County families.

Some Badger County citizensbecome new parents without givingbirth: they adopt. Given theevidence of the value of the news-letter, the extra effort to identify andinclude these parents in the mailinglists may be warranted.

For families requiring additionalinformation, programs includingBadger County Clinic’s parentingclasses, Friends Helping Families(home visitor program for newparents experiencing high levels ofstress and isolation), post-partumphone calls by the Health Depart-ment, and others should continue.Perhaps several agencies and orga-nizations, especially those involved

in the newsletter project and newparents, could form a coalition toexplore other forms of support andinformation for new parents.

A Spanish language edition ofthe newsletter is available. If identi-fication of families preferring thisedition were made a routine part ofthe Badger County Clinic proce-dures, then this important subpopu-lation could also be reached.

A continuation of the newsletterinto the second and third years ofthe child’s life is available fromUW-Extension. Funding to con-tinue distribution of the parentingnewsletters is being sought.

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Azar, S. T., Robinson, D. R., Hekimian, E., & Twentyman, C. T. (1984). Unrealisticexpectations and problem-solving ability in maltreating and comparisonmothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(4), 687-691.

Azar, S. T., & Rohrbeck, C. A. (1986). Child abuse and unrealistic expectations:Further validation of the parent opinion questionnaire. Journal of Consultingand Clinical Psychology, 54(6), 867-868.

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