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Managing Farm Ponds for Fishing

Greg Yarrow, Professor of Wildlife Ecology, Extension Wildlife Specialist

Fact Sheet 19: Revised May 2009

South Carolina has numerous farm ponds that are used for irrigation, watering livestock, and recreation. Even though most of these ponds are not used for recreational activities, they could provide excellent fishing opportunities if they were properly managed.

Ponds can be managed to attract wildlife and to provide a variety of recreational activities, including swimming, fishing, and aesthetics. It may be difficult to manage for all of these things simultaneously, so the pond owner must decide what activity is the most important and structure management decisions around that goal.

If the pond is managed for recreational fishing, this chapter should help you understand how ponds work and the basic principles of managing farm ponds.

Understanding How Ponds Work

Small farm ponds are man made and not natural environments. They must be carefully managed to provide productive, recreational fishing. Think of a pond as a garden or an orchard. It must be properly laid out, fertilized, seeded (stocked), weeded, pruned (selectively harvested), and protected from acts of nature (e.g., oxygen depletions) to be bountiful.

Good pond management includes:

enhancing food availability for fish, controlled harvesting to maintain the balance of predator and prey populations, controlling weeds, and preventing situations that may cause fish kills.

These are not simple tasks. Ponds are complex ecological systems and require personal commitment and insight for productive management.

No two ponds are exactly alike. Ponds close to one another, but on the same watershed (surrounding area from which the pond receives rainfall or water drainage), will be slightly different. These differences are not well understood. However,  we do know that soil characteristics and localized variations in the watershed are unique for each pond. Factors critical to managing a pond include:

plankton, fish populations, and water quality.

Plankton, the microscopic and near-microscopic organisms that are suspended in the water of a pond, are important because they  are essential to the creation of oxygen in a pond. Fish need oxygen to survive, and oxygen is not freely available in pond water. It must dissolve into the water before it becomes available to the fish. Dissolved oxygen comes from the air or through the process of photosynthesis. Aquatic plants, primarily phytoplankton and other algae, release oxygen directly into the water as a by-product of photosynthesis, the most important source of oxygen in water.

Plankton are classified as phytoplankton (plants) and zooplankton (animals). All phytoplankton are algae; however, not all algae are phytoplankton. Both phytoplankton and zooplankton are important in fish pond management.

Phytoplankton, at the bottom of the aquatic food chain, are eaten by zooplankton and insects. Small fish eat the zooplankton and insects. Small fish are food for larger fish (the ones you are trying to catch). An adequate phytoplankton population is essential for producing a large and healthy fish community.

The color or clarity of pond water can be related to plankton populations or to suspended sediments and organic matter. Productive water (water that will support healthy fish populations) has a green tint that is produced by chlorophyll pigments contained in the billions of phytoplankton suspended in the water. A large population of phytoplankton is called a bloom. These blooms can die off or “crash” rapidly. This causes the water to appear dark or black. When this happens, the dead phytoplankton begin decaying. This process uses oxygen and may reduce oxygen to levels at which fish are stressed or die. Phytoplankton die offs are common in deep hillside ponds or ponds where manure or fertilizer from the watershed drains into the pond.

Sediments (silt, sand, or dirt) washed into ponds after heavy rains can also change pond color. Normal color should return within a few days as the particles settle. Ponds that receive too much sediment can become unproductive. This situation can cause fish to die because plants become shaded (reducing the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis and oxygen production). Also, fish gills can become clogged with the sediment particles, making it difficult for fish to breathe.

Water Quality

Pond dynamics are also affected by water quality. Factors such as pH (whether the water is acid or base), alkalinity, and dissolved oxygen affect fish health and pond productivity. Some aspects of water quality fluctuate daily, weekly, or monthly. Dissolved oxygen and pH cycle each day. Alkalinity can change over a period of time, ranging from several weeks to months, depending on the pH of the watershed or soils on the bottom of the pond.

As discussed earlier, photosynthesis is critical to the production of oxygen in a pond. Because photosynthesis is driven by the energy in sunlight, oxygen production does not occur at night. Therefore, dissolved oxygen levels rise throughout the day. After sunset, oxygen slowly declines as plants and animals consume oxygen to breathe (respiration). In a well-managed pond, nighttime dissolved oxygen levels should not fall below 3 or 4 parts per million (ppm or mg/l). Oxygen levels below 3 ppm stress fish, and many species may suffocate and die when oxygen levels fall below 2 ppm.

Pond pH varies over the course of a day as a result of respiration and photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide released from respiration reacts with water, producing carbonic acid. During nighttime, more carbonic acid is formed because plants are now respiring (more carbon dioxide is produced). The pond becomes more acidic and pH is lowered. Acidic pH levels vary from 1 to 6.9. The lower the number, the more acidic a compound is as a liquid. During daylight, phytoplankton use carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. This reduces acidity and increases pH. Pond pH normally fluctuates between 6.5 and 9. If the pH drops below 5 (e.g., perhaps because of acid runoff in mining areas) or rises above 10 (low alkalinity combined with enhanced carbon dioxide removal by dense phytoplankton or algal blooms), fish may become stressed and die.

Alkalinity is related to pH. The amount of base (something like baking soda) in water defines what is known as alkalinity. These bases, usually bicarbonates, react with acids and minimize pH changes. Alkalinity can increase the availability of carbon dioxide and other nutrients to phytoplankton. A total alkalinity of 20 ppm or more is necessary for good pond productivity.

Basic Principles of Fish Pond Management

Good fishing in farm ponds depends on an understanding of and the ability to follow some basic rules. To properly manage farm ponds for fishing, you should be aware of some simple guidelines:

1. proper pond construction and watershed management;2. removal of unwanted and overpopulated species of fish;3. liming and/or fertilization;4. fish species selection and stocking;5. harvest and record keeping;6. evaluation of pond balance; and7. weed control.

Pond Construction and Watershed Management

One of the first principles of good pond management is the proper construction of the pond. Poorly constructed ponds are hard to manage. Water levels may change dramatically if there is seepage or if the watershed area is not large enough. Shallow areas may cause aquatic weeds to grow and spread rapidly. In addition, erosion and contamination from the watershed may make pond management difficult or impossible.

A good farm pond in South Carolina should have 3 to 5 acres of watershed per acre foot of pond volume. Ponds supplied by a watershed covered with forests require more area than ponds on field or pasture watersheds. Spring-fed ponds can be located on smaller watersheds. If the pond is placed in an area where the watershed is too large, an encircling diversion ditch can be used to prevent or minimize rapid pond flushing (changing or movement of water through a pond).

Shallow areas, less than 2½ feet deep, stimulate aquatic weed growth by allowing sunlight to reach the pond bottom. To remedy this problem, pond banks should be built with slopes of 2:1 or 3:1 ratios (horizontal distance to height). Levees should be high enough to allow a minimum depth of 2½ feet.

Livestock can cause severe erosion damage on pond banks and levees. The eroded sediments slowly fill the pond and create shallow areas enhancing weed growth. In addition, animal wastes may wash into the pond during periods of heavy rainfall. This can cause water pollution or nutrient overload problems. To prevent this from happening:

locate livestock watering areas below the pond, do not allow livestock to graze or roam on watershed land, and fence the pond to keep cattle away.

Ponds should also be separated from agricultural row-crops or fields by a grass barrier. Pesticides, herbicides, and contaminated soils or vegetation can wash into a pond and kill fish. By placing grass strips 50 to 100 feet wide around the pond, you can reduce soil erosion and chemical runoff from neighboring pastures and fields.

A common problem with farm ponds is leakage due to improper construction. Soils for pond construction must contain a minimum of 20% clay, and the dam should be constructed with a compacted clay core. Trees or other woody vegetation should not be permitted to grow on pond dams. Ponds should have a drain so you can easily regulate water levels. Contact the local U.S.D.A. NRCS office for more advice and help on farm pond design.

Fish Removal

People do not usually catch many fish from ponds that are poorly managed or ignored. Fish populations often become imbalanced or contaminated with unwanted species. Typically, unmanaged ponds become crowded with small, stunted green sunfish or bullhead catfish. The best remedy in these situations is to eliminate all fish and start over. Destroying unwanted fish is easy and inexpensive, and it requires less chemicals if the pond is partially drained and the fish are concentrated. However, fish can survive in small puddles. Treat all puddles regardless of size.

Rotenone is a registered aquatic chemical which can be used to kill fish. Contact the SCDNR district fisheries biologist, or Extension aquaculture specialist for information about purchasing and applying rotenone.

Rotenone dissipates from the water within 3-20 days depending on water temperature and weather conditions. Generally, it is safe to stock fish 2 weeks after applying rotenone during spring, summer, and autumn. To check for residual rotenone, place a few small fish in a minnow bucket and float them in the pond. If the fish are alive after 24 hours, it is safe to stock fish.

Pond Fertilization

Just as you would fertilize fields to increase crop yields, you should fertilize a pond to provide phytoplankton with adequate nutrients for growth. Proper fertilization increases food availability throughout the food chain and indirectly increases the total amount of fish a pond can support. Ponds should be limed before fertilizer is applied. Liming is important because it increases pH and alkalinity. Even without fertilization, this may improve available nutrients which can support a phytoplankton bloom.

Fertilizing ponds will increase fish production by a factor of two or three. Infertile ponds will seldom produce more than 200 pounds of fish per acre. Well-managed, fertile ponds will support 300 to 600 pounds of fish per acre. If the pond is not fished often or if the pond receives some natural fertilization, use half the recommended fertilizer rates, or do not fertilize at all (Table 1 lists application rates for commercially available fertilizers). Once you start a fertilization program, it should be continued, or fish growth may become stunted due to reduced food supply.

Fertilizers are labeled with N:P:K ratios or the percent composition of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). The equivalent of 8 pounds of phosphate per acre is a commonly recommended treatment rate (Table 1). You should be aware that not all fertilizers work well in ponds because they may not contain enough of the limiting mineral. In most ponds, phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient. It becomes unavailable to phytoplankton because it is tied up by bottom sediments as a result of chemical precipitation and decomposition. The phosphorus in the bottom sediments then promotes rooted weed or algae growth. Nitrogen is rarely limiting in older ponds. New ponds may need nitrogen; however, once a pond is established it should not need nitrogen.

Lime Before FertilizingFertilization will not stimulate a good phytoplankton bloom if alkalinity is below 20 ppm. Check the alkalinity in the pond before applying fertilizer. If alkalinity and pH are low, the addition of powdered, agricultural limestone should raise pH and alkalinity. Do not use quick or slaked lime because these compounds can cause rapid pH changes which may kill the fish. The amount of

lime needed depends on chemical characteristics of bottom sediments or mud. You must take a soil sample from the pond bottom and have it analyzed to determine how much lime is required. 

To take a soil sample, collect mud from several locations in the pond. Combine and mix the samples, then spread the soil out to dry. After it has completely dried, send the combined sample for analysis to the Clemson University Soil Testing Lab. Your local County Extension Agent can assist you in processing your soil sample at Clemson University. Mark the sample “pond mud” so the right tests can be conducted. The analysis report you receive will indicate how much lime you should apply.

Another way to estimate the amount of lime required in ponds is to apply 1¼ to 1½ times the amount of agricultural lime used for crops in nearby areas. It is not possible to over treat a pond with agricultural limestone because limestone does not dissolve once the pH reaches 8.3.

Contact your county Extension office to determine the best method of applying lime. Lime must be spread evenly over the entire pond so it can react with the bottom mud. Because limestone dissolves slowly and is washed out of the pond with overflow water, repeat treatments every 3 to 5 years. Another alternative is to spread 1/4 the original application of lime into the pond each year.

When to FertilizeOne simple method used to determine when to fertilize measures the clarity of pond water. The depth of light penetration in water is a good indicator of the phytoplankton density or bloom. Light penetration can be measured using a Secchi disk. A Secchi disk can be made from an 8 inch diameter disk of plywood, metal, or plastic. Mark the disk into four equal sections and paint each set of opposing quarters white and black, respectively, so that it is visible underwater. Attach the disk to the bottom of a broomstick or pole with the painted surface facing up toward you. Paint a line on the pole at the distances of 12, 18, and 24 inches from the disk.

Lower the Secchi disk into the water until it just disappears from sight and record that depth. Use Table 2 as a fertilization guide based on Secchi disk measurements. Low Secchi disk readings in muddy water (suspended sediments) are not reliable estimates of phytoplankton blooms.

If you get a Secchi disk reading of six inches or less, the bloom is too dense and the water contains too much nutrient. Try to determine the source of the nutrient. Look to see if livestock manures or field fertilizers may have washed into the pond. If you cannot locate the source, you may have over fertilized the pond. Overfeeding fish can cause excess nitrogen and phosphorus. If this is happening, reduce or stop feeding and be prepared to aerate at night.

How to FertilizePhytoplankton have no roots and absorb nitrogen, phosphorus, and other required elements directly from the water. Granular fertilizers should not be broadcast directly into the pond because the granules sink to the bottom. The nutrients then become tied up in bottom sediments and are unavailable for phytoplankton uptake.

If granular fertilizers are used, they should be placed on a platform (e.g., a sheet of plywood) situated 12 inches underwater. (After floating the plywood on the water, place fertilizer on top of it. The platform will then sink to the proper depth.) Place one platform for every five acres of pond surface water. Locate the platform in an area of the pond which receives good wind and wave action to circulate the water. Granules placed on the platform will slowly dissolve and promote a bloom.

If you are using a liquid fertilizer, you must dilute it with water. If liquid fertilizer is undiluted, it will sink to the bottom and be trapped by sediments. Once diluted, liquid fertilizer can be sprayed or splashed into the pond. Apply the fertilizer evenly over as much of the pond surface as possible.

Do not fertilize ponds earlier than March 21 or before water temperatures have reached a minimum of 60° F. Fertilization should stimulate a phytoplankton bloom within two weeks. If a bloom does not appear, fertilize the pond again and continue fertilizing at two-week intervals. Do not fertilize more than 3 times. After a bloom has developed, fertilize the pond as necessary (Secchi disk guide, Table 2) to maintain it. Continue managing your phytoplankton until September 21 or until water temperatures have dropped to 60° F.

Fertilization is ineffective and should not be attempted in “flushing” ponds that have problems with flooding, large overflows, or flow-throughs because they rapidly lose fertilizer. Some ponds will flush many times in winter and early spring, but respond well to fertilization during late spring, summer, and fall.

Muddy ponds (visibility of 12 inches or less) do not usually respond to fertilization. Because of the shading effect, it is difficult to establish phytoplankton blooms in murky water. These ponds are unproductive and receives little photosynthetically produced oxygen. Contact your county Extension office for information about clearing muddy water.

Do not fertilize ponds with an aquatic weed problem because the fertilizer stimulates weed growth only. The nutrients are absorbed by unwanted vegetation, not by phytoplankton. You must control the weeds first. Establishing a fertilization program before weeds appear is one of the best methods to prevent weeds from becoming established. A good phytoplankton bloom can shade out weeds and compete for essential nutrients.

Species Selection and Stocking

The choice of fish to be stocked depends on the pond owner’s goals. The largemouth bass and bluegill sunfish combination is the most common strategy for stocking ponds for recreational fishing in South Carolina. The beauty of the bass-bluegill system is its simplicity. In a well-

fertilized pond, zooplankton and insect larvae will be plentiful enough to supply food for young bass and all sizes of bluegill. Bluegill grow rapidly and reproduce repeatedly throughout the spring and summer. The bluegill provide bass with an abundant food supply (forage). With proper harvest techniques, the bass will grow rapidly and prevent bluegill from overcrowding the pond. Several large bluegill will survive to reproduce and sustain good bluegill populations.

Channel catfish can be added to a bass-bluegill pond. However, catfish will compete with bass and bluegill for natural foods and lower the number of bass and bluegill caught. Table 3 gives recommended stocking rates for bass, bluegill, and catfish in new or renovated ponds. Blue catfish may be stocked instead of channel catfish. Blue catfish are better predators than channel catfish and will compete with bass for bluegill.

Fish can be obtained for new or renovated ponds from the SCDNR. Contact your local fisheries biologists or conservation officer for more information. Private hatcheries also sell fish and may offer varieties or hybrids selected for rapid growth. Contact your county Extension office for a list of live fish suppliers.

Bluegill should be stocked in early autumn (September) to make sure they have grown and matured enough to spawn in the spring. Bass should be stocked the following May or June so they can grow rapidly by feeding on young bluegill. This ensures that ample forage is available for bass because bluegill spawn three or four times between spring and fall. After the first season, bass should average one-quarter to one-half pound and can approach two pounds if forage is plentiful. Catfish may be stocked in the fall or spring. When stocking catfish with bass, make sure the catfish are as big as the bass being stocked.

Alternative Stocking Strategies

It is difficult to manage bass-bluegill populations in ponds less than one-half acre in size. These ponds should be stocked with catfish or other species. Catfish are good fighters when hooked and are excellent table fare. Stock 200 to 500 catfish per acre. At this level you should offer feed to the fish. If stocked alone, catfish may reproduce, and the pond can become overpopulated. Try to prevent spawning activity. Catfish are cavity  spawners, and reproduction can be prevented by:

1. removing all stumps, rock piles, etc. from the pond;2. not allowing muskrats or beavers to colonize the pond (catfish will spawn in the

burrows); and3. not placing containers (e.g., tires or milk cans) in the pond that might be used for

breeding.

Bass stocked at about 20 to 30 per acre can also help control catfish spawns. Other fish with potential for use in small ponds include blue catfish, redear sunfish, hybrid bluegill, threadfin shad, golden shiners, and fathead minnows. Species which should not be stocked into farm ponds include crappie, gizzard shad, bullhead catfish, and flathead catfish. These species rapidly overcrowd ponds and may reduce populations of desirable fish species.

Crappie are popular sport fish but are not desirable for small ponds (less than 50 acres). It takes 3 years for a crappie to reach a weight of one-half pound. A young, half-pound female crappie can produce 50,000 eggs in a single spawn. Just a few successful spawns during one season will overcrowd a pond with young crappie. When this group of young fish matures, they consume all available food. These young fish stop growing and become stunted. Young crappie also compete directly with young bass and bluegills for food. Large crappie will then feed on small bass and bluegill. It is virtually impossible to manage bass and crappie populations together in farm ponds. The end result is poor fishing for all species.

Redear sunfish (also known as “shellcrackers” because they eat snails) can be stocked with bass and bluegill. Redear sunfish grow larger than bluegill and are excellent sport fish. Shellcrackers are not as prolific as bluegill and do not provide sufficient spawns for bass forage. If you want redear sunfish, stock 20 to 25% redear in place of bluegill (for example, stock 300 bluegill and 100 redear per acre).

Many pond owners like to stock hybrid bluegill because, if they are fed (they can be trained to accept commercial fish feed), they grow rapidly and provide excellent angling. Hybrid bluegill are not sterile like most hybrids. Most of the fish are males, but if females are present, they will reproduce. Reproduction will lead to overpopulated ponds; therefore, predatory fish (bass) should be stocked at 20 to 30 fish per acre to feed on young hybrid bluegill. This combination works best for ponds 1/2 acre or less.

Some pond owners like to stock fathead minnows (1,000 per acre) as a forage fish in channel catfish ponds. These minnows are quickly eliminated if stocked with bass.In some ponds if the mountain regions of South Carolina rainbow trout will survive in ponds during late autumn and winter. They  should be stocked when water temperatures are below  65° F (usually mid to late October). Fingerlings (7-9 inches long) feed on insect larvae, small sunfish, or minnows, and they grow rapidly. Trout readily accept commercial feeds and may reach one pound by April if offered a trout chow. Rainbow trout die when water temperatures reach 70-72° F in April or May.

Harvest and Record Keeping

Ponds should not be fished for one year following stocking. After the first season, bass are often easy to catch. The most common problem in small ponds is removing too many bass. To maintain good fishing, you must carefully control how many pounds of fish are removed each year.

When bass are over harvested, the pond becomes overpopulated with stunted bluegill. If this happens, it is difficult to restore the balance of predator (bass) and prey (bluegill) in the pond. It may be necessary to poison the fish and start again. As a general rule, fertile ponds can sustain an annual harvest of 25-35 pounds of bass per acre. If the pond is infertile, you should not remove more than 10-15 pounds of bass per acre. Do not begin bass fishing in a new pond before bass spawn in the spring, when the water is above 60° F. By practicing catch and release with the bass, you can enjoy successful angling more often. Bluegill should be harvested also. A good general rule is to remove 10-15 bluegill for each bass taken or four pounds  of  bluegill for each pound of bass.

Catfish may be removed when they reach a size that satisfies the pond owner. Catfish must be stocked periodically to replace individuals that have been removed. Catfish spawns do not usually survive when bass and bluegills are present in a pond. Large catfish fingerlings (8 inches or longer) should be stocked into ponds with established bass bluegill populations to minimize bass eating small catfish.

Evaluation of Pond Balance

Ponds should be checked every 1 to 2 years to ensure that fish populations are in balance. Contact your local district fisheries biologist with the SCDNR for assistance. Pond balance can be evaluated from catch records and seine data. When using catch records, do not rely on your memory. Be sure to keep records about the number, species, and size of each fish caught.

Balance can also be checked with a 10  or 15 foot minnow seine. The best time to seine the pond is early summer. Try to seine several shallow areas of the pond. Record the size, number, and species of fish caught in the seine. If you catch both young bass and recently hatched bluegill fry in the seine, the pond is most likely balanced. The pond is out of balance when no young bass or bluegill fry but many intermediate-size bluegill (4 to 5 inches long) are caught in the seine. If large numbers of undesirable fish species are caught, it is time to poison the pond and start over.

Weed Control

Aquatic weeds are a common problem in farm ponds. Rooted aquatic vegetation furnishes habitat for some small aquatic animals and increases the food available to the fish. Vegetation also provides small fish with cover to hide from predators. However, if left unchecked, weeds can take over the entire pond and remove the nutrients required for phytoplankton production.

Aquatic weeds can be controlled using physical, chemical, or biological means. Physical control of plants (hand removal) like cattails is practical when they first appear. Woody vegetation along dams can be successfully controlled by hand.

Another option for aquatic weed control is to use herbicides (chemical control). However, many herbicides are not approved for aquatic use. The weeds in question must be accurately identified. Another problem associated with the use of herbicides is oxygen depletion. Oxygen depletions often occur after herbicides have been applied during hot weather in ponds with heavy  weed overgrowth. When considering herbicide control, check with your county Extension office, a fisheries biologist, or an aquaculture specialist for plant identification and treatment recommendations. Whenever applying chemicals, be sure to protect yourself and others by carefully following the label instructions.

One of the simplest and most economical long term methods of controlling rooted aquatic vegetation in new or recently  treated ponds is to stock grass carp. The grass carp or “white amur” is an Asian carp brought into the U.S. to control aquatic weeds. These fish are primarily  plant eaters once they reach a length of 10 inches. They do not stir up bottom mud like common carp or disturb the nests of other fish. During warm weather, grass carp can eat 30-40% of their body weight in weeds daily.

Grass carp prefer flowing water and will swim over a pond spillway if given the opportunity. An escape barrier can be placed across the spillway to prevent this from happening. Only sterile, triploid grass carp may be stocked in South Carolina. A list of certified triploid grass carp suppliers and information about building an escape barrier can be obtained from the SCDNR or the Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service.

The number of triploid grass carp that should be stocked depends on which weeds are present and how bad the problem is (see Table 4 for grass carp stocking rates). If large springs flow into your pond (this keeps the water cool), you might have to stock additional grass carp for effective weed control. If the pond contains large bass, you must stock 8-inch or longer grass carp fingerlings. Bass will eat the small grass carp.

A permit from SCDNR is required to stock grass carp in South Carolina.

For more information on aquatic weed control refer to the “2009 Pest Management Handbook” which is published by Clemson University’s Cooperative Extension Service. For an excellent site on aquatic plant management, visit Texas A&M's Aquaplant website.

Potential ProblemsAs already mentioned, most pond problems are related to improper management. One final problem which landowners should be aware of is fish kills related to pond “turnover.” Pond turnover is related to pond stratification or layering. Stratification occurs when surface water warms faster than deep water. The warm layer is lighter and does not mix with the cool, deep water. The cool water near the bottom becomes stagnant and does not circulate. In the deep, cool water oxygen becomes depleted and toxic compounds may be produced by bacteria and decaying organic matter. A turnover occurs when the upper layer cools quickly and mixes with the stagnant layer. The resultant mixture may not contain enough oxygen to support fish. Turnovers

usually take place after a cold, heavy rain or the sudden passage of a cold front. Immediate or preventive aeration may save the fish. Fish kills can also be caused by oxygen depletions resulting from phytoplankton bloom die offs or decomposing vegetation killed by herbicide applications.

Enhancement TechniquesIn addition to managing a pond correctly, several other techniques can improve farm pond fishing. Some of these techniques include: 1) adding fish shelters/habitat, 2) supplemental feeding, 3) checking and adjusting water levels, and 4) aeration.

Fish shelters. What did you do with last year’s Christmas tree?  When you are renovating old pastures, where do you pile up those eastern red cedar trees you removed? Did you ever think of anchoring them to the bottom of your pond to act as a refuge for fish? Artificial reefs or fish shelters  allow young fish to escape predation. Besides old Christmas trees, eastern red cedar, or brush, other good fish sanctuaries include stakes driven into the bottom of a pond (stake bed), rock piles, and tire reefs. These structures should be placed no deeper than two to six feet below the water. Do not place more than three structures per acre.

A good way to increase fish reproduction is to place nesting structures in the pond. Fish spawns can be encouraged  by furnishing breeding areas throughout the pond. If your pond has a silty bottom, spawning beds are necessary for successful fish reproduction. Spawning beds allow you to observe the reproductive success of your fish. Spawning beds are made by building a frame or box around 4 to 6 inches of sand and gravel. Place beds at several locations around the shoreline in 2 to 5 feet of water.

Supplemental feeding. Providing supplemental, commercial fish feed is a way to increase the growth of sunfish and catfish. Bass do not feed on artificial feeds but do benefit from the increase in small sunfish which they eat. If a pond owner decides to offer supplemental feed, offer the feed in the same area and at the same time each day. Do not overfeed fish. A good general rule is to supply  what the fish will eat in 10 to 15 minutes. Do not feed the fish more than 15 pounds of feed per acre each day. Fish can be fed from April through October. Winter feeding is not required but will improve bluegill growth and reproduction. If feeding is continued during the winter months, use a feed that sinks to the bottom of the pond, and do not offer more than three pounds of feed per acre daily.

Adjusting water levels. Another good way to control aquatic weeds, while improving bass growth and reducing sunfish populations, is to install a drain in the pond.  SCDNR, NRCS or the Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service has more information on drains. Ponds with drains have distinct management advantages. In relatively deep ponds, the water can be drawn down 2 to 3 feet in late fall and maintained at that level throughout the winter. Fall drawdown helps control aquatic weeds as a result of freezing and drying on areas of exposed pond bottom. Lowered water levels concentrate fish which increases forage availability to bass. Bass growth is improved and sunfish populations are reduced. Ponds should be allowed to refill during March and April.

Good management takes time and effort. However, the rewards are good food and lasting outdoor recreation for family and friends.

There are various fact sheets on pond management and aquatic weed control available on Clemson University’s Home and Garden Information Center.  Visit the web site at www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/.

About Department of Fisheries Department of Fisheries

 Since the inception of the then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) the DoF has had continuing as a front line public sector organization for fisheries development. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 the Central Fisheries Department of the then Pakistan was merged with the DoF of Bangladesh in April 1975. Later on in 1984 Central Marine Fisheries Dept. was merged with the DoF as a Marine Fisheries wing.

 

Organization in brief

DoF is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. It is headed by a Director General, who is assisted by four Directors (one reserve) and 2 Principal Scientific Officer (equivalent to Director). There are 1553 technical officers of different stairs and supporting staffs in the DoF. They render their services to achieve the mission and vision of then DoF. There are administrative set-ups at  division, district and Upazila (sub-district) levels headed by Deputy Director, District Fisheries Officer and Senior/Upazila Fisheries Officer respectively. Besides these, there are three fish inspection and quality control stations under DoF. Furthermore DoF also comprises of Marine Fisheries Station, Fisheries Training Academy, Fisheries Training and Extension Centers, and Fish Hatcheries.

 

Mandate

 

 

To disseminate improved aquaculture technologies through training and demonstration and to extend extension advisory services to the focal stakeholders.

To enhance fisheries resources through enacting conservation and management measures.

To assist the administrative ministry to formulate policies, acts etc.

To enforce quality control measures and issuance of health certificates for exportable fish and fish products.

To conduct fisheries resources survey and assessment of stock to develop fisheries database for proper planning.

To facilitate arrangement for institutional credit for fish and shrimp farmers, fishers and fish traders and entrepreneurs.

To facilitate alternative income generating activities for rural poor and unemployed people towards poverty alleviation.

To formulate and implement development projects /programs towards sustainable utilization of fisheries resources to ensure food security.

To disseminate improved aquaculture technologies through e-Extension service

 

Sister Organisation

a. Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI)(www.fri.gov.bd)

BFRI is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. This institute had been established in 1984. Under this institute there are 6 stations located at Mymensingh, Chandpur, Rangamati, Cox's Bazar, Bagherhat and Paikgacha (Khulna); and four substations at Santahar,

Jessore, Barisal and Saidpur. These stations conduct basic and applied research on freshwater aquaculture, inland fisheries management, lake management, fish diseases, marine fisheries, brackish water aquaculture, fish breeding genetics etc. Some of the technologies innovated by this institute are being disseminated to the fields by DoF.

b. Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation (BFDC)(www.bfdc-gov.org)

BFDC is also an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. This corporation had been established in 1964. BFDC is mainly involved in harvesting fisheries resources and developing marketing facilities in the country. BFDC has established fish harbors, landing and distribution centers, ice plants and processing plants in several locations of Bangladesh. In the past, BFDC played a vital role in supplying safe and quality fish in the domestic market.

c. Marine Fisheries Academy (www.mfa-mofl.net)

The Academy was established in 1973 with the technical assistance from former USSR to maintain proper and optimum management of sea fishes through developing expertise for Marine Fisheries. Ti is entrusted to train cadets skillful through modern techniques and equipments, in order to meet the challenges of millennium in shipping sectors. On completion of three years training in the academy qualified cadets are awarded with BSC (pass) degree from National University.

d. Fisheries and Livestock Information Department (FLID) (www.flif.gov.bd)

FLID is established in 1986 under the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock which has four branches in Dhaka, Rajshahi, Barisal and Comilla. This department of many booklets and leaflets

to transfer latest technologies and update information regarding the development activities in the fisheries and livestock sectors. A monthly bulletin is also published from FLID which have many update news, technology and information about fisheries and livestock development activities.

Fisheries Sector: Prospects and Potentials

a. National Contribution

Fisheries sector contributed 4.43%  to national GDP and 22.21% to the agricultural GDP and 2.73% to foreign exchange earnings by exporting fish fish products in 2010-11. Fish provides 60% of national animal protein consumption. Fisheries sector also  plays an important role in rural employment generation and poverty alleviation.

b. Source of Fish Production

There are three categories of major fisheries resources, these are-

 

1. Inland Capture (34%)2. Inland Culture (48%)3. Marine Capture (18%)

c. Inland Fisheries

Inland fisheries comprises of rivers, ponds, estuaries, beels, floodplains, haors, baors, brackish water etc. There are 260 fish and

24 prawn species in inland fresh water in the country. In early sixties inland fisheries contributed about 90% of total fish production of the country. Fish production from aquaculture has increased to a great extent but open water fish production is in slow progress. Now only about 34% of total fish production comes from inland open water.

 

d. Marine Fisheries

The Bay of Bengal is situated in the South of Bangladesh. There is a total of 166,000 sq. km. water area including Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Fishing is only confined within 200-meter depth. About 158 trawlers, 45,377 mechanized and non-mechanized boats are engaged in fishing. Pelagic and deep-sea resources are still untapped. In the year 2010-11 total fish production from Marine source was 5.46 lakh metric MT.

Recently Bangladesh has got the right to access 1.00 lakh sq. kilometer water area in  Bay of Bengal through International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) by the visionary and pragmatic leadership of Honorable Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina. DoF has planned to assess the fisheries resources in the Bay of Bengal for maximum sustainable yield. A research vessel is under process of procurement to conduct appropriate stock assessment. Vessel Tracking Monitoring System will also be developed.

Last 5 years fish production is shown in the following table

YearSource-wise production (MT) 

TotalInland open Closed Marine

2010-2011 1054585 1460769 546333 30616872009-2010 1029937 1351979 517282 28991982008-2009 1123925 1062801 514644 27013702007-2008 1060181 1005542 497573 25632962006-2007 10067761 955812 487438 2440011

 e. Fish production

In 2010-11 the total fish production is 30.62 lakh Metric Ton (MT). Average annual growth rate of fish production in last 3 years is 6.11%. The Production from closed water bodies is increasing very sharply due to dissemination of adaptive technologies and need-based extension services rendered by DoF.

Major group wise contribution in fish production (2010-2011)

There are 260 freshwater and 475 marine fish species in the country. About 12 exotic species are being cultured in the country.

National Fisheries Policy

A national fisheries policy has been adopted to make the aquaculture and fisheries management activities environment friendly and sustainable. The policy has been formulated aiming at the primary objective of increasing fish production through optimum utilization of the available resources. In this policy a separate chapter containing shrimp culture and export guideline has been incorporated. National shrimp policy rule is under consideration of the government employment generation and poverty alleviation have also been given importance in fisheries policy. National Fisheries Strategy has been developed and approved by the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock in 2006 on the basis of National Fisheries Policy. The Fisheries strategy comprises of 8 sub-strategies and action plan.

Development Activities

a. Annual Development Program

In addition to the normal activities of the DoF several development projects are being implemented aiming at boosting up fish production and conservation of fisheries

resources. In 2010-2011 a total of 25 investment projects 2 programs and 4 technical assistance Project has been in implementation.  technical assistance projects are being implemented. Through  the development activities habitat restoration, conservation of natural resources, community based resource management, human resource development, and alternate income generating activities etc. is implementing in this sector.

b. website for Fisheries

For quick and update information about DoF and aquaculture technologies , a fisheries website (www.fisheries.gov.bd) is running. To extend e-Extension services up to field level e--Extension program under Access to Information (A2I) is running in 10 upazilas. DoF has already developed a Software by using of which fish farmers can get the advice for modern aquaculture

c. Aquaculture Practices

i) Freshwater Aquaculture: Indian major carps and exotic carps are largely cultured in the country. Culture practices are mainly improved-extensive and semi-intensive. Beside Carp aquaculture, monoculture of Thi Pungus, Tilapia, Shorputi, Thai Koi are also practiced. Average fish production in the ponds is 3285 kg/ha/year. Freshwater prawn (m.rosenbergii) is also cultured along with carps in some areas of the country.

ii) Brackish Water Aquaculture: It is widespread in Satkhira, Khulna, Cox's Bazar and Bagerhat District. Tiger Shrimp p. monodon and giant prawn M. rosenbergii are the species of shellfish cultured in those areas. M. rosenbergii is largely cultured in southwest region of the country. The total production of shrimp and prawn in 2010-2011 was about 2.4 lakh MT.

iii) Fish and shrimp Hatchery: Fish hatchery especially carp hatchery started to come up in late seventies. At present there are 845 private nurseries, 76 Government fish Hatcheries and 124 Government fish seed multiplication farms in the country.

A total of 6,29,175.53kg spawn was produced from private and Government Hatcheries in the year 2011. Collection of fish seed from natural grounds has increased to about 4370 kg. In 2010-11 there were about 60 P.monodon (Bagda) Hatcheries and 80 M.rosenbergii (Galda) Hatcheries. About 59,500 lakh bagda post larva (PL) and about 12,000 lakh golda post larvae (PL) were produced in these hatcheries. almost all Bagda Hatcheries are located in Cox's Bazar region, but major culture grounds are situated in southwest region of Bangladesh.

d. Open water management

i) Fisheries Legislation: For fisheries resource conservation, management and maintenant and maintenance of quality of the fish and fish products the following major ordinances and rules are being enforced.

1. Tank Improvement Act, 19392. Fish Protection & Conservation Act,1950 (amended in 1995)3. The protection and Conservation of Fish Rules, 1985 (amended in 2008)

4. The fish & fish Products (Inspection & Quality Control) Ordinance, 1983.

5. The fish & fish Products (Inspection & Quality Control) Rule, 1997(amended in 2008)

6. The Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 19837. The Marine Fisheries Rules, 19838. Shrimp Culture Avikor Act, 1992

9. Shrimp Culture Avikor Rules, 1993

10. Fish Feed and Animal Feed Act, 2010; and Fish feed Regulation, 2011.

11.Fish Hatchery Act, 2010; and Fish Hatchery Regulation, 2011.

ii) Hilsa Fishery Management: Hilsa (Shad) is an important diadromous fish in the South and south-East Asia especially in Bangladesh. It is considered as national fish in the country and contributes to the national economy, employment and export. Hilsa has the highest contribution in the country's fish production as the single fish species. More than 11% of the country's fish production comes from Hilsa. In 2010-11 Hilsa production was 3.40 lakh MT, which values around10,000 crore taka. DoF has taken some steps to strengthen the on-going Hilsa management through jatka Conservation Project/Program like (1) to establish 5 Hilsa sanctuaries, (2) to arrange need based training to involve the hilsa fishers for effective intervention of alternation income generating activities, and (3) to support the hilsa fishers with 30 kg food grains/family/month during the ban periods for four months. A total of 20 thousand fishers in Hilsa sanctuary areas are being directly benefited through Alternate Income Generation Activities.

iii) Protection of Natural Breeding Ground Halda: DoF is restoring the natural Breeding habitats of the Halda river to protect natural breeding ground of Indian Major Carps. In 2012 the total natural collected spawn/hatchling is 1569kg.

iv) Fishers ID Card: Government has decided to issue ID card to the fishers community of the country through a project under DoF. Through this development project database of genuine fishers will also be developed.

v) Integrated Natural Resource Management: DoF is implementing integrated natural resource management system by local users contributors to conserving the biodiversity and livelihoods in the selected wetlands and floodplains in the padma-Jumna rivers delta region through a development project.

vi) Fish Habitat Restoration: In 2011-12 total 970 water bodies (areas about 2,123ha) have been developed by 07 development projects under DoF. As a result additional 3,000 MT fish will be produced annually. In addition 450 hectare Modhumoti Baor has been excavated mechanically in this fiscal year. About 60 ha Hurasagar river will be re-excavated in the coming years.

Export of Fish & Fish Products

There are162 fish processing plants in the country. Out of 162 plants European Commission has approved 74 plants. HACCP has already been introduced in fish processing establishments. Major importing countries are European countries, USA and Japan. About 98% of total fish products are exported to those countries. Remaining are exported to the countries in Southeast Asia and Middle East.

 

Year

Source-wise production

Other fish products

Total

Quantity (MT)

Value (Crore Taka)

Quantity (MT)

Value(Crore Taka)

Value (Crore Taka)

20010-2011

54891 3568.2 41578 1035.63 4603.83

2009-2010

51599 2885.21 26044 523.31 3408.52

2008- 50368 2744.12 22520 499.29 3243.41

20092007-2008

49907 2863.92 25992 532.36 3396.28

2006-2007

53361 2992.33 20343 360.56 3352.89

Major export items of fish products are raw shrimp block frozen, IQF shrimp and white fish, PUD and P&D shrimp block frozen, consumer pack of raw frozen shrimp, chilled & frozen Hilsa, dry, salted and dehydrated fish, live fish, eel fish & crab and a little quantity of value added fish and shrimp products. Production of Crab through fattening in 2010 was 7756 MT of which 634.7 MT was exported by earning Tk. 375.88 crore. DoF has three inspection and quality control stations located at khulna, chittagong and Dhaka facilitated with testing laboratories. DoF is entrusted with the responsibility to ensure the quality of the products as Competent Authority. 

Fish Production and Resource Conservation Campaign

 Campaign for boosting fish production and resource conservation fish week is being observed usually in between July and September every year. Raising awareness of the people through the country for the conservation and management of fisheries resources is also an objective of this campaign. It is a national program and is inaugurated by the Honorable Prime Minister of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh.

FISHERIES RESOURCES INFORMATION ON BANGLADESH

(2010-2011)

     Water Area   

 

      (a)   Closed Water Body (Culture based)        i) Pond & Ditches :        ii) Oxbow lake :        iii) Shrimp Farm :        (b)     Open Water Body (Capture based)          i) River & Estuaries (without Sundarban)          ii) Beel          iii) Kaptai Lake          iv) Flood Plain :        (c)  Marine Fisheries       i) Territorial Water :       ii) Exclusive Economic Zone :       iii) Continental Shelf       iv) Coast line :  

2.                 Fish Production       i) Open Water (capture) :       ii) Closed Water (Culture) :       iii) Marine Fisheries 5,46,333 mt.

3.     (a)    Export of Fish & Fish Products       i) Quantity       ii) Value (BDT)       iii) Contribution to export earning :        (b)     No. of Fish Processing Plants :        (c)    No. of EU aooroved Plants :  

4.      Contribution in GDP  5.               Fish Intake/Demand  

     i) Per capita Annual Fish Intake :       ii) Annual Total Fish Needed :         

     iii) Contribution in Animal Protein supply :  6.               Fish Hatchery/Nursery  

     i) Fish hatchery :       ii) No. of Fish Nursery :       iii) Fingerling Production :  

     iv) Natural Fish Fry Collection :  7.                Shrimp Hatchery  

     i) Bagda Hatchery :       ii) Galda Hatchery :       iii) Galda PL Production (Pieces) :       iv) Bagda PL Production (Pieces):  

8.              Other Public Sector Fisheries Infrastructure (No.)

 

     i) Fish/Shrimp Training Center :       v) Shrimp Demonstration Farm :       vi) Fish Landing Center :       vi) Shrimp Landing & Service Center :  

9.               Marine Fishing Unit (No.)       i) Deep Sea Fishing Trawlers :       ii) Artisanal Mechanized Boats :       iii) Artisanal Non-mechanized Boats :  

10.                Fish Species (No.)       i) Freshwater Fish Species :       ii) Exotic Fish Species :       iii) Freshwater Prawn Species :       iv) Marine Fish Species :       v) Marine Shrimp Species  

Ocean & Coastal Management

Volume 92, May 2014, Pages 65–73

Communication strategies for managing coastal fisheries conflicts in Bangladesh

Khondker Murshed-e-Jahan a , , , , Ben Belton a , 1, , K. Kuperan Viswanathan b , 2, ,

 Show moredoi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.01.003Get rights and contentUnder a Creative Commons license

  Open Access

Highlights

•

A variety of types of conflict prevail in the coastal fisheries of Bangladesh.

•

A participatory communications framework for conflict resolution was developed.

•

Many conflicts were resolved through appropriate communication strategies.

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Communication plans reduced, but did not entirely eliminate, conflicts.

•

Informal institutions acted as effective mediators for conflict resolution.

Abstract

Fisheries management involves balancing the competing demands of different users of fishery resources. Conflicts among fisheries stakeholders arise due to differences in power, interests, values, priorities, and manner of resource exploitation. Conflicts also emanate from institutional failures in managing fisheries and enforcing laws and regulations. Effective targeted communication has a key role to play in managing conflicts between fisheries stakeholders. This paper assesses a fisheries conflict communication framework called FishCom, a tool for developing plans and strategies for managing conflicts in coastal fisheries in Bangladesh. FishCom is a structured participatory process intended for use by policymakers and fishery managers. The results show that effective communication plans can play a significant role in eliminating conflicts.

1. Introduction

In Bangladesh and many other developing countries, poverty, intense competition for fishery resources and ineffective resource management institutions increase the challenges in managing fisheries conflicts. Destructive fishing practices and competition between users of different classes of gear, resulting from ineffective governance and increasing population, are imposing severe stress on the coastal fisheries of Bangladesh. These factors also contribute to the increasing incidence of conflicts among fishery stakeholders (Kuperan and Jahan, 2010).

Conflicts take place in fisheries when groups or individuals seek the same resource using different methods or try to utilize the same space for their activities with either party seeking dominance (Bennett et   al., 2001 , Charles, 1992 and FAO., 2003). Conflicts over access and control of fisheries and aquatic resources are a global phenomenon. However, they have particular importance in developing countries where a significant portion of the population depends on capture fisheries for food and livelihoods. Conflict can lead to violence, but avoiding and shunning conflict is also problematic because unresolved problems may flare up again, often with renewed vigor (Salayo et   al., 2006 ).

While a conflict resolution model (Coser, 1967 and Zartman, 1991) assumes that each dispute needs to be conclusively resolved because of its destructive potential, the conflict management approach (Daniels and Walker, 2001) views some level of conflict as inevitable. The emphasis in this approach, which we adopt, is to manage conflicts in a way that can transform the dynamic towards positive change, and reduce the chances that it will turn destructive or violent. Conflict resolution refers to settling disputes with the approval of all parties, whereas conflict management refers to the long-term process of addressing conflicts constructively, some of which may never have a final resolution (Borg, 1992 and Charles, 1992). Conflict management may, in fact, offer better opportunities for achieving a more lasting and meaningful peace.

Institutions are widely viewed as evolving in response to incentives to take collective action so as to minimize conflicts and transaction costs. However, the presence of institutions does not guarantee conflict prevention. Institutional weakness is pervasive in fisheries and the coastal management sectors of most developing countries (Torell and Salamanca, 2002). In particular, legal and institutional frameworks which promote and protect access rights for small-scale fishers are often either weak or poorly implemented (Delgado et   al., 2003 ). Furthermore, the economic view of institutions and conflicts often fails to pay sufficient attention to the uneven distribution of power in society, since institutions and rules emerge through bargaining and strategic conflict, where the weaker actors often have no choice but to comply with the outcome (Knight, 1992).

Consequently, existing institutions are unlikely to favor or fairly represent the interests of poor resource users when they differ from those of more powerful users. Thus, the need for institutional representation in management decisions, including those about conflicts, may represent an important motivator for fishers to become involved in conflict management processes (Nielsen et   al., 2004 , Pomeroy et   al., 2001  and Pomeroy et   al., 2007 ). However, in practice, small-scale fishers' low levels of social capital often mean that they are excluded from opportunities to participate in formal conflict management processes, where such options exist. This implies a need for more participatory and inclusive conflict management processes such as those described in this paper.

Although there is no single formula for dealing with conflict, a consistent conclusion in studies of fisheries conflicts is the need for interactive conflict management strategies and improving communication between the different layers of fisheries management (Garforth, 2005, Kuperan et   al., 2003 , Best, 2003, Mason and Spillmann, 2002 and Bennett et   al., 2001 ). Communication among stakeholders, either between actors directly involved in conflicts or those who may play a role in negotiations, is integral to the process of framing problems (Coser, 1956). Communication is also vital for ensuring participation in the implementation of management decisions relating to natural resources and in settling any consequent disputes that may arise among stakeholders (Dugan, 1996). The guiding principle is to frame strategic communication in a way that orients stakeholders towards managing conflicts constructively and equitably (Moore, 1996).

In the present study, communication planning for conflict management is addressed as a tool for resolving conflicts or establishing consensus-building processes in coastal fisheries. This communication framework can be used by fisheries managers in collaboration with fishery stakeholders to identify conflicts, to pinpoint their root causes and constraints to their solution, and to develop suitable strategies for improving communication between stakeholders with the capacity to influence policy and resolve or reduce conflicts. The overall objective of this study is to describe the use of this framework for resolving conflicts in the coastal fisheries of Bangladesh, and to evaluate its effectiveness.

2. Coastal fisheries of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a subtropical country situated at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, with 710 km of coastline. The fisheries sector provides livelihoods to millions of rural poor and contributes

significantly to national food and nutrition security. About 511 marine species, including shrimps, are present in Bangladesh's waters (Mazid, 2002). The country produced 3.06 million tons of fish in 2010–11, of which 0.55 million tons (18%) came from marine capture fisheries (DOF, 2012). About 92% of total marine catch comes from traditional gears such as gill net/driftnets, estuarine and marine set bag nets, trammel nets, bottom long lines and beach seines, and the remaining 8% comes from large-scale trawl fisheries (DOF, 2012).

A recent report on coastal fisheries in Bangladesh shows that catch per unit fishing effort is falling, and several species of marine shrimp and fish stocks are in decline (Hussain and Hoq, 2010). Non-compliance with fishing rules and regulations and the attempts of coastal fishers to support their livelihoods by any means possible, result in increasing fishing pressure, use of destructive fishing methods and gears, and a tendency to fish whatever is available, including larvae and juveniles. This not only causes serious damage to coastal fishery resources but also creates conflict between fishers and other resource users (Hussain and Hoq, 2010, ICZMP and WARPO, 2004 and Rouf and Jensen, 2001).

Marine fisheries management and enforcement of rules and regulations is centrally regulated by the Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 1983. The Department of Fisheries (DOF) is responsible for the management, conservation, supervision and development of marine fisheries and issuing licenses for all marine fishing in the Bangladesh territorial waters. At least twelve other government departments are also directly or indirectly involved in providing support for marine fisheries development. However, due to diversity of interest and lack of coordination, there is a considerable degree of rivalry and conflict between different ministries which has been identified as a major constraint in planning marine fisheries management and development (ICZMP and WARPO, 2004 and BOBP. 1997).

3. Materials and methods

As an exercise in action research, this study aimed to use the communication framework outlined above for understanding conflicts in the coastal fisheries of Bangladesh and to identify practical strategies for managing them. The framework was developed through a series of participatory discussions between stakeholders including government and NGO workers engaged in fishery management, and small-scale fishers. The next sub-sections describe the framework and corresponding tools.

3.1. The “Fisheries Conflicts Communication Framework” (FishCom)

FishCom is an approach for developing plans and strategies for managing fisheries conflicts which has previously been successfully applied to inland fisheries in Bangladesh ( Jahan et   al., 2009). FishCom is composed of a set of chronologically organized steps and tools for gathering, collating and evaluating information to guide participatory management of fishery conflicts ( Fig.   1 ). The four major steps and corresponding tools are discussed below.

Fig. 1. 

Fisheries Conflicts Communication Framework (FishCom): A tool for developing plans and strategies for managing fisheries conflicts.

Adapted from WorldFish, 2005.

Figure options

3.1.1. Information gathering

Information gathering is a crucial initial step. This enables understanding of the key issues related to a conflict and its causes, the values held and circumstances faced by its stakeholders, and their interrelationships. The information gathering tools used in the study include: a socioeconomic survey, an attitudinal Participatory Institutional Survey and Conflict Evaluation Exercise (PISCES), and group discussions. PISCES followed a field manual developed by Bennett and Jolley (2002), and employs a variety of participatory tools. These include: a Participatory Geographic Information Exercise (PGIE) to identify the location of conflicts; a time line exercise to evaluate conflicts from an historical perspective; institutional wheel analysis to identify communication partners who may help to resolve conflicts; and semi-structured interviews with stakeholders.

3.1.2. Communication planning & strategy

This step was designed to organize communication about conflicts to and between stakeholders. Tools include an Actor-linkage Matrix (ALM) and Communication Planning Matrix (CPM). The ALM is used to map interaction and flows of information between key actors (Biggs and Matsaert, 2004). Relevant actors in the study include fishery resource users, district and upazilla (sub-district) administrators, the media, NGOs working with fisher communities and policymakers. These actors were identified using the participatory approaches applied in the information gathering steps described above. In the ALM, the actors are listed along the top and

down the side of a square matrix. The cells are used to record a description of the state of communication relations between each pair of actors and constraints that distort communication.

Communication Planning Matrix (CPM) is a tool used for developing a communication strategy. The CPM identifies communication partners with whom a particular organization or project wants to communicate, and in each case defines, the objectives of communicating in resolving conflicts. It also specifies the content of the communication in order to reach the objectives and indicates the channels through which the communication with each partner could be conducted most effectively. The Communication Planning Matrix and Strategies (CPM-CS) is an expanded form of the CPM which includes the time-frame, implementers of interventions, and monetary and non-monetary costs of each option in conflict resolution. These details are necessary for the prioritization and selection of interventions to achieve objectives within a realistic time and budget schedule.

3.1.3. Implementation of communication interventions

In this step, actionable communication interventions were evaluated and pre-implementation activities were organized. Costs and logistical arrangements were considered and a variety of activities were implemented accordingly. These included meetings, workshops, dialogues, exchange visits, training on consensus building, distribution of leaflets and posters, and field rallies.

3.1.4. Impact measurement of communication interventions

This step measured changes in the livelihood outcomes of community members resulting from communication interventions. However, changes in livelihoods and socio-economic status are a long-term result of consensus building efforts. Due to the short time span of the project, this evaluation was conducted by comparing responses to an attitude statements survey carried out at the beginning and end of the survey. The attitude survey used structured attitude statements designed to obtain qualified and quantified perceptions of the conditions, norms, morals, values and priorities of fishers and conflict managers in relation to fisheries conflicts.

3.2. Study area and data

This action research work was jointly implemented by WorldFish Bangladesh and FAO's Empowerment of Coastal Fishing Communities for Livelihood Security (ECFC) project, in Cox's Bazar district. The ECFC project was undertaken by the Government's Department of Fisheries (DOF) with technical and financial support of FAO/UNDP for a period of six years from December 2000. The overall goal of ECFC was to initiate a process of change that enhanced targeted coastal communities' capacity by increasing their stock of livelihoods assets and reducing vulnerability to insecurity.

ECFC formed four tiers of institutions at different administrative levels within the district. Separate Village Organizations (VO) were formed for men and women at village level, aimed at the social mobilization and empowerment of fishing communities. Village Development Committees (VDC) were established to facilitate coordination of activities undertaken by men's

and women's VOs. The project also formed sub-district level fishers' networks (Upazilla Fishers Federations – UFF), and district level networks (District Fishers Federations – DFF).

These local institutions were formed to organize poor and marginal fishers and empower them to analyze their own situation, and develop and implement action plans to improve their individual and collective welfare. Fisheries Management Advisory Committees (FMAC) for the sustainable conservation of fisheries resources, comprised of a range of stakeholders' responsible for costal resource management, were also formed at upazilla and district level.

Fieldwork was organized in eighteen coastal fishing villages of Cox's Bazar, including two islands (Sonadia and St. Martin's), from October 2004, and completed in September 2006. Following FishCom, activities leading to the formulation of the communication strategy for conflict resolution started with gathering baseline information. The PISCES tool was applied in 10 different locations, covering all eighteen villages, to identify costal fisheries conflicts (Fig.   2 ). The exercise was conducted from late January 2005 to mid-February 2005. A series of workshops, meetings, and group discussions were conducted at the upazilla and village level from March 2005 to June 2005 to develop the communication planning matrix and strategy for conflict resolution.

Fig. 2. 

Map of Bangladesh with study location.

(Source: Authors own drawing using Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS) data). The Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh established the CEGIS as a scientifically independent center of excellence is

to support the management of natural resources for sustainable socio-economic development using integrated environmental analysis, geographic information systems, remote sensing, and information technology.

Figure options

Selected communication interventions were conducted in each study site from July 2005–June 2006 with the active participation of stakeholders. Activities included providing consensus building training and organizing workshops, meetings and dialogues among fishery stakeholders. During the study period ECFC also organized a number of awareness raising communication events such as field rallies, miking, 3 folk dramas, circulation of posters and leaflets, and mass media campaigns against illegal fishing practices. A number of exchange visits between Bangladesh and Indian fishery stakeholders were also organized to help develop a common understanding of fishery problems.

An attitude survey involving 167 fishery stakeholders and 53 conflict managers was implemented to measure the impact of communication interventions. Conflict managers included community leaders such as CBO leaders, village heads, local government body members, boat owners and fish traders' association leaders, respected persons of the locality, fishery officers, NGO and project staff, politicians and media personnel. An ex-ante attitude survey was conducted in January–February 2004 using face-to-face meetings and group discussions. The same set of questions was used from July 2006–August 2006 to assess changes in attitude as a result of communication interventions. A combination of general and site-specific attitude statements was compiled to cover subject matter including; understandings of conflicts, manageability of conflicts, prerequisites for conflict resolution, resolution processes, and responsibility in conflict resolution. Attitude statements were evaluated using the five-point Likert scale method, the range of which (‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘undecided’, ‘disagree’, ‘strongly disagree’) were adopted after discussion with the communities.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Conflicts in coastal fisheries

The diversity of resources and livelihood opportunities in coastal areas attracts various extractive interests (Marschke, 2012). Conflict scenarios have increasingly arisen as stagnating fishery harvests have coincided with pressures from population growth and a growing range of resource users from outside the area. Over time, competition between traditional and new entrants to the fisheries, along with institutional weakness have become major causes of conflict. The application of PISCES (used for information gathering under FishCom) identified several types of conflict in the study sites which are outlined briefly below:

4.1.1. Who controls the fishery?

Conflicts of this type relate to who determines the access, rights or entitlements of fishers to fish in a disputed area. Access issues are the root cause of this type of conflict. One such conflict was reported by fishers from Natmura village near the River Naf of Teknaf Upazilla who reported

that they had been forced to stop fishing in parts of the river surrounding a neighboring village after fishers there began to enforce a longstanding claim that the area ‘belonged’ to their village. The dispute occurred due to the assertion of pseudo-property rights based on residency and ancestral occupation, over an area of water which was formally designated as open access. This type of conflict may also occur due to rivalry over access to fishing grounds between small-scale traditional fishers and powerful local individuals, a situation found to be common in all the study sites. As a result of these dynamics, operators of fixed gear such as estuarine set bag nets (ESBN) and marine set bag nets (MSBN) reported having to move from locations where they had fished for generations to less productive areas after locally powerful individuals took control over the fishing grounds by use of verbal threats or, frequently, physical violence, and sometimes allowed them to fish only after receiving monetary payment, which is totally illegal.

Conflict over access rights also occurs when the fishers of bordering nations (Myanmar and India) enter Bangladesh's territorial waters or vice-versa, and become involved in conflict with local fishers. This type of transboundary conflict comes to the fore when the border security force of the neighboring nation seizes boats and nets and arrests fishers, claiming that they entered territorial waters illegally. These incidents are made more frequent because of unresolved issues of boundary demarcation at sea. Fishers face substantial losses when they are arrested. One fisher interviewed in Teknaf upazilla was caught by the Myanmar border security force with other fellow fishers in 2003 and reported that they were sent to jail after being arrested and faced severe torture while in custody.

Bangladesh has brought the issue of sea boundary demarcation with India and Myanmar to the UN Arbitration Tribunal. The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea offered a verdict on this longstanding dispute over the maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal between Bangladesh and Myanmar in 2012 (The Daily Star, 2012). Arbitration with India is expected to be settled in 2014. The Myanmar–Bangladesh verdict gave undisputed rights to both the countries to the fish in waters and to explore the natural resources beneath the seabed of their respective maritime boundaries and clearly demarcated the marine boundary between the two countries. The verdict has lessened the tension between the two countries – which nearly escalated into a conflict during 2008 when both countries sent their navy to the disputed area where Myanmar was drilling for exploring oil-gas – and is thus likely to have positive implications for transboundary disputes relating to the fishery.

4.1.2. How is the fishery controlled?

This type of conflict appears due to lack of implementation of regulations by enforcment agencies. Conflicts of this type in the study sites were due to indiscriminate fishing practices and resource sharing among rival groups of fishers. Monofilament net, mosquito net and small mesh net used for shrimp fry collection are banned by law for use in fishing yet are frequently used by the illegal gear operators at sea, which often creates conflict with other fishers. The use of trawlers encroaching in areas allocated for traditional fishers was one of the most common conflicts in the study area. The disputes result from inadequate enforcement of the Marine Fisheries Ordinance 1983, which aimed to curb the excess capacity of industrial trawlers by creating separate fishing zones – up to 40 m water depth for traditional gear and above 40 m water depth for trawlers.

4.1.3. Relationships between fishery users

Conflicts of this type occur when a group of fishers asserts that their fishing operations and rights are negatively affected by the action of another group of fishers or stakeholders. The study found that disputes gravitate around competing claims on fishing grounds mostly between active gears such as Small Mesh Drift Nets (SMD), but also occur between active and passive gears such as SMD and Marine Set Bag Nets (MSBN). When two parties fishing in the same area accidentally drift into each other and become entangled the nets may need to be cut, thereby also resulting in conflicts between the two parties.

Conflicts of this type can also happen between fishers and boat owners when the latter refuse to pay fishers' according to their earlier commitments, or are reluctant to provide safety equipment before the fishing voyage. Boat owners who were interviewed admitted that this often causes conflicts with fishers. However, owners stated that fishers did not always provide them with the true figures of fish catches. They suspected some fishers under their employ illegally sold fish at sea in order to gain extra benefits. According to owners, this is the main reason for conflict with the fishers they employ.

Fishers and boat owners also reported conflicts with fish traders due to the nature of market governance structures. Conflict arises when local fish traders create a syndicate and force the fishers or boat owners to sell their catch directly to them, preventing traders from other areas from competing. Fishers reported that they never received the perceived ‘true’ market value from these fish traders. Conflict also happened between money lenders and fishers when the latter failed to repay their loans.

4.1.4. How are fishery resources used?

This type of conflict arises when different uses of the aquatic environment create adverse impacts on the fishery resource or its users. Tourism, and shrimp and salt farming in the costal shoreline were all noted as causes of conflict with fishers. During historical trend analysis, fishers reported that mangrove destruction had increased many fold in recent decades due to shrimp and salt farming, with the result that they were now more vulnerable to natural disasters (cyclone, tidal waves etc.) as the natural buffer created by mangroves had been destroyed. Furthermore, shrimp and salt farming is also responsible for environmental changes in coastal areas such as increasing salinity and soil degradation, destruction of coastal vegetation and water logging, leading to irreversible changes to micro-flora and fauna and fish breeding habitats, as well as loss of income for poor coastal households (CPD, 1998).

Conflict between fish processing and tourism was reported in St. Martin's Island and Moheshkhali of Cox's Bazar district. In these areas fish drying is an important occupation for fishers, who have dried their fish close to beaches adjacent to fish landing sites for centuries. However, in order to make beach more attractive to tourists the authorities have imposed bans on drying fish near to the shore. Fishers were not opposed to the expanding tourism industry as it also provides income and employment for them, but they felt that government should make alternative arrangements before taking restrictive decisions of this nature, such as allocating other areas where they could dry fish.

4.1.5. Relationship between fisheries and non-fishery governance issues

This type of conflict relates to issues of corruption, bribery, lack of coordination and the over-lapping functions and jurisdictions of government agencies. Conflicts of this type mainly occur due to a lack of formal structures for fisheries management and conflict resolution, lack of transparency and poor governance. Issues identified by fishers during the study included encroachment of areas used for net/boat drying by powerful individuals in connection with law enforcement agencies, theft of fishing gear from landing sites, pirate attacks at sea, illegal toll/tax collection by authorities at landing sites, and corruption in the boat licensing process. Fishers run into conflict with law enforcers, including government fishery officers, whom they expect to protect their interests as mandated by law. According to the stakeholders, many local conflicts in fisheries could have been easily resolved or would not have arisen if there had been proper implementation and enforcement of rules and regulations, and good coordination between government agencies for the management of the resources affected.

4.2. Conflict management in coastal fisheries

The Actor-Linkage Matrix (ALM) analysis of conflicts in the study sites found a lack of communication among stakeholders even in the midst of brewing conflicts. In all the study sites, only fisher-to-fisher communication was evaluated as generally effective, because fishers lived in the same community and could meet face-to-face to discuss conflict issues. Formation of informal local level fishers' institutions by ECFC had positive impacts on communication between fishers and also created the opportunity for them to bring particular conflicts to the attention of government agencies. Most stakeholder groups had negative perceptions of the effectiveness of communication with government agencies and administrators. Communication between groups of stakeholders and the mass media were also generally rated as poor due to perceived bias in disseminating information. Most stakeholders criticized the prevalence of top-down communication practiced by the government or DOF. Meanwhile, researchers were evaluated as attempting to communicate with other stakeholders but with limited effectiveness due to lack of political profile, personnel and resources. Research outputs were also noted as having little influence on policymakers and they were criticized as not being understood by and explained to fishers.

The synthesis of Communication Planning Strategies identified a wide range of mostly participatory strategies for addressing fisheries conflicts. These often focused on reducing illegal fishing, reviewing fisheries policies and rules to reduce sources of conflicts, and building the capacity of fishers and institutions for managing conflicts. The cost associated with such strategies depends on the means of communication employed. Group discussions, informal meetings, direct contact or dialogues, and publicity through the mass media are generally cheaper than workshops, leaflets, posters and policy briefs. The most expensive communication channels included a video show for awareness-creation, trainings on conflict resolution methods and alternative income-generating activities, and lobbying for policy change. The cost of such communication strategies remains a constraint for poor coastal communities where institutional support is needed. The next section discusses a number of communication interventions applied in study sites during the study period.

4.2.1. Workshops and meetings for ensuring multi-stakeholder participation in conflict management

Meetings and workshops were found most effective among a wide range of communication strategies because they remained the best means to link communities, NGOs, government and fishers' organizations in direct interaction to reach some level of consensus on a particular dispute. As an example, ongoing conflict between the boat owners and fishers was common in all the study sites. In order to address these disputes, workshops and meetings were organized, at both the upazilla and district levels, to discuss possible solutions. In almost all cases these resulted in a common consensus between boat owners and fishers associations to resolve the issue by agreeing to prepare a written contract for recruitment, labor payment and safety provision, instead of verbal contracts, which were identified as the major reason for conflicts about payment between the boat owners and fishers.

In some cases it was also agreed to send boat owners' representatives on fishing voyages to reduce misunderstandings regarding illegal landings. In the absence of strict enforcement from the government, both groups urged close supervision by their associations for proper implementation of the decisions. Due to these initiatives, some fishers in the study started receiving written contracts for labor payment from boat owners for the 2006 fishing season, where none had been provided in 2005. However, although this was a positive step towards resolving these conflicts, there was concern among the fishers involved over whether the majority of boat owners who had agreed to this solution would honor it by drawing up and abiding by contracts in the absence of a formal system of governance to ensure that this was done.

4.2.2. Participatory Action Plan Development (PAPD)

Training of extension agency and NGO staff and community leaders on the Participatory Action Plan Development (PAPD) consensus building tool was found effective for developing community action plans for conflict resolution. The steps of PAPD include: identifying the most likely potential conflicts in an area; conflict solution analysis to assess the likely impact of actions needed to achieve these solutions, and; forming consensus on solutions (Sultana and Thompson, 2004, Barr and Dixon, 2001 and Holmes and Scoones, 2000). The PAPD method engages stakeholders who have existing or potential conflicts with fishers over the use of common fishery resources. This consensus building approach helped to resolve some critical conflicts in the study area.

In Moheshkhali Upazilla, Cox's Bazar district, for example, the dispute between fishers and local administration over fish drying places was identified as the most severe conflict. In order to make the place attractive to tourists, the local administration had banned fishers from processing or drying fish near the beach. This triggered a spate of arguments between locals and the authorities as fishers derived much of their livelihoods from fish drying. Through the PAPD exercise, fishers and the local administration agreed that an alternative spot would be allocated for fish drying activities. Fishers and enforcement officers who participated in the PAPD process explicitly understood the importance of conflict resolution and consensus building in the

development of an action plan for improving fishers' livelihoods and for sustaining the tourism industry.

4.2.3. Multi stakeholder committee for conflict resolution

ECFC formed a Fishery Management Advisory Committee (FMAC) at upazilla and district level to support the sustainable conservation of fishery resources. The committee was headed by the local administrative chief, and all other extension agencies and institutions involved in coastal fishery management, including fishers' representatives, were members. The committee was found to be very effective in managing fisheries conflicts through dialogue and discussion with the conflicting parties. According to fishers, this forum helped them to quickly bring disputes to the notice of the administration and other stakeholders.

FMAC had a good record of solving conflicts through informal or formal discussions. For example, fishers in Moheshkhali upazilla had used a public place of about 6 ha for boat landing and net drying for many years. Some powerful local people unexpectedly and illegally encroached on a large portion of this land and established settlements, then required fishers to pay for any use of the area and often harassed them physically. Fishers had previously attempted unsuccessfully to bring this issue to the attention of the upazilla level administration. However, after the issue was raised with a wider circle of stakeholders during the FMAC meeting, staff from the district level administration took immediate legal steps to free the area for the fishers.

4.2.4. Awareness raising in fishing communities

Social mobilization of communities through different awareness raising activities such as folk dramas, leafleting, posters, rallies, and miking was used to reduce illegal fishing practices in coastal areas. These initiatives, which were supported by the Department of Fisheries, allowed community members to raise their collective voice against illegal gear operators. The study revealed many examples where community initiatives were successful in reducing the use of illegal gears as well as conflicts. In study sites in Teknaf upazilla destructive monofilament gill nets worth approximately $39 000 were voluntarily surrendered by the owners of illegal gear due to persistent pressure from the fishers and the local administration ( Dainik Cox's Bazar, 2006). According to the fishers, significant reductions in numbers of shrimp fry collectors also occurred as a result of mass awareness raising activities and the self-enforcement activities of fishers and CBOs, with assistance from community leaders.

4.2.5. Informal institutions as conflict mediators

Generally people in rural Bangladesh are reluctant to use the formal legal system for conflict resolution due to the prohibitive costs associated with litigation and police action. Instead, many fishers prefer to settle the issue through saleesh (informal village level meetings). The transaction costs involved in using the informal system are much lower than that of the formal system. In most cases, fishers bring cases first to the head of the village or Union Parishad (the lowest stratum of the local government) who, along with a panel of elders, will summon the conflicting parties, hear their arguments and concerns, and come to a decision on the issue. Study participants noted that minor conflicts such as disputes between traditional gear users or conflict

between fishers, local traders and money lenders are generally settled by saleesh. According to the fishers we interviewed, one of the main advantages of settling the disputes locally was that the powerful local individuals involved in deciding the outcome of the saleesh could monitor and push for implementation of their decisions. However, in many cases this results in unfavorable outcomes when the illegal encroachers have good relations with the powerful.

ECFC attempted to improve the effectiveness of these local institutions by improving the skills of community leaders through engagement in workshops and meetings. During the study it was observed that these informal systems were also effective in dealing with some severe conflicts. In one particular case near Kutubdia Channel, locally influential individuals forcefully occupied grounds which a number of ESBN operators had fished for many years. When the fishers brought this to the notice of the Union Parishad chairman, he immediately called a saleesh where a decision was taken to allow them back into their fishing area.

4.2.6. Regional cooperation

Transboundary conflict is a major problem in coastal fisheries, causing much suffering for the fishers involved. Although this type of conflict is very difficult to control, building better communication between Bangladeshi officials and their counterparts in neighboring India and Myanmar may help to minimize problems. In order to foster cooperation, ECFC organized several exchange visits between the neighboring countries. Fishing community members and ECFC project staff shared their experience on fishery management issues with officials from neighboring countries during those visits. The better relationships that developed as a result of these visits helped fishers to resolve a number of disputes.

In one particular case, the Indian security force arrested 115 Bangladeshi fishers from Kutubdia upazilla claiming that they had entered Indian territory. The fishers were sentenced to one and half years in prison but, as a result of continuous dialogue between the officials of the two countries, were released after a month. The fishery officials and the Fishers Association of West Bengal of India played an important role in their release. There are no official statistics on how many Bangladeshi fishers are now in jail in India and Myanmar. The exchange of fishers is also a very cumbersome and time consuming process, but the example presented here indicates that discussions at the national, local and Fishers Association levels can help in resolving these problems. According to the stakeholders involved, regional forums such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) can also contribute in these types of instances.

4.3. Fishers' and conflict managers' attitudes to conflict resolution

An attitude survey was conducted in the study area to capture attitudinal changes that could be attributed to the communication interventions. Table   1 shows some significant changes in attitudes among fishers, although few such changes were found among conflict managers. Jahan et   al. (2009) also observed similar findings in a study of the inland fisheries of Bangladesh. They argued that fishers' attitudes are formed through direct observation of the causes and effects of conflict situations, meaning that they can easily recognize changes resulting from the conflict resolution process. In contrast, conflict managers are less likely to change their attitudes in the

short term as these are linked to their institutional positions which reflect their own interests as powerful actors. This means that they require more time to accept counter persuasion.

Table 1.

Attitude of fishers and conflict manager before and after intervention.

Attitude statementsFishers

t-ratio

Conflict managers

t-ratio

Before After Before AfterUnderstanding of ConflictsInflux of new people into fishing leads to severe conflicts in fisheries

1.73 (0.69)

1.68 (0.64)

1.531.84 (0.97)

1.79 (1.15)

−0.18

Too many people chasing fewer fish is a major cause of fisheries conflicts

1.92 (0.99)

1.78 (0.79)

1.621.74 (0.76)

1.72 (0.67)

0.16

If government agencies did their job properly, there would be very few conflicts fisheries

1.18 (0.39)

1.13 (0.33)

1.611.30 (0.46)

1.28 (0.45)

−0.32

Influence of powerful influentials in fishing is the major cause of fisheries conflicts

2.05 (1.05)

1.96 (0.97)

0.811.65 (0.61)

1.51 (0.74)

1.13

Destructive fishing practices are the reason for fisheries conflicts

1.52 (0.68)

1.44 (0.59)

1.511.30 (0.46)

1.28 (0.45)

0.24

Manageability of conflictsPowerful groups will always be able to win conflicts with less powerful fishers

2.08 (1.08)

2.10 (0.99)

−0.412.16 (1.23)

2.23 (1.41)

- 0.46

Local cooperation for conflict resolution will be effective if government agencies participate

1.75 (0.66)

1.66 (0.66)

2.18**2.00 (1.13)

1.63 (1.00)

1.86*

Communities can manage fisheries conflicts themselves

1.97 (1.01)

2.02 (0.91)

−0.973.28 (0.83)

3.16 (0.93)

1.06

Prerequisites for resolutionAll parties need to understand existing policy and regulations before a process of conflict resolution can begin

1.34 (0.49)

1.02 (0.24)

7.34*1.74 (1.03)

1.37 (0.49)

2.07**

Conflicts can be resolved if the community is organized and works together with government for resource management

1.40 (0.53)

1.28 (0.75)

1.73***1.40 (0.79)

1.21 (0.41)

1.75***

Fisheries conflicts can be resolved if fisheries rules are strictly enforced

1.99 (0.64)

1.45 (0.65)

9.77*1.81 (0.73)

1.72 (0.83)

1.15

Better understanding of one another's needs will make it easier to resolve conflicts

1.26 (0.53)

1.05 (0.29)

6.52*1.05 (0.21)

1.02 (0.15)

0.57

Attitude statementsFishers

t-ratio

Conflict managers

t-ratio

Before After Before AfterProcess of resolutionBy strengthening the capacity of local institutions, conflicts can be resolved

1.96 (0.77)

1.72 (0.86)

2.80*1.86 (1.21)

1.79 (0.89)

0.55

Conflicts can be resolved through dialogue and negotiation

2.17 (1.13)

1.60 (0.93)

6.96*1.77 (1.02)

1.23 (0.65)

4.77*

Conflicts between fishers can be resolved by bringing the parties together to discuss

1.95 (0.76)

1.80 (0.73)

3.141*1.70 (0.71)

1.23 (0.43)

3.35*

Responsibility for resolutionGovernment is the only agency that can manage conflicts

2.43 (1.42)

2.47 (1.38)

−1.341.93 (1.12)

1.91 (1.38)

0.14

The NGOs can support communities in managing conflicts

2.26 (1.40)

2.12 (1.26)

2.50*2.16 (1.38)

2.07 (1.47)

0.62

Fishers and their leaders should take the initiative to resolve conflicts

2.04 (1.28)

1.91 (1.23)

2.74*1.93 (0.99)

1.77 (1.04)

1.47

Local elites can play an important role in conflict resolution

1.55 (0.69)

1.41 (0.70)

1.79***1.70 (0.71)

1.51 (0.51)

1.39

Everyone has a social responsibility to help to resolve conflicts

1.63 (0.73)

1.38 (0.53)

3.52*1.33 (0.47)

1.23 (0.43)

1.16

Note: Figures in the parentheses indicates the standard deviation; *Significant at α = 0.10; **Significant at α = 0.05; ***Significant at α = 0.01.

Table options

Table   1 shows that significant attitudinal changes about the management of fisheries conflicts occurred among both fishers and conflict managers. As an example, in the final survey both parties expressed an increased consensus that greater cooperation between government and communities is required for better resource management. This new understanding inspired them to undertake joint awareness raising activities such as initiatives against illegal gear operators. During group discussions, the majority of fishers in the study sites reported that use of destructive gears had been significantly reduced due to these initiatives.

Fishers were in strong agreement that conflicts can be resolved, but that all parties need to understand existing policies and regulations before the process of conflict resolution can begin. For example, during group discussions it was found that many boat owners were not aware of the law regarding safety requirements at sea, and that conflicts start when fishers demand safety equipment from boat owners. Training on rules and regulations organized by ECFC was a factor in motivating them to comply with these regulations.

Both fishers and conflict managers expressed the view that dialogue and discussion between conflicting parties was necessary to resolve conflicts. They felt the necessity of a multi-stakeholder committee representing all the relevant stakeholders for facilitating discussion. The success of the FMAC in resolving conflicts in the study area influenced them in reaching this conclusion. Strengthening the capacity of fishers' organizations and strict enforcement of regulations by conflict managers were both also perceived to be helpful for fisheries conflict resolution.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

The economic value of aquatic and coastal resources and livelihood opportunities in the coastal waters of Bangladesh has attracted a diversity of users. Conflicts arise as small-scale fishers, who are present in millions, interact with stakeholders including other fishers. This often includes the authorities, who fail to properly enforce rules and regulations. The sector suffers further due to a lack of inter-agency coordination among the various government institutions with jurisdiction over fisheries. Such failures open up opportunities for the violation of management rules and regulations, and hence create conflicts in the sector. Even where lasting conflict resolution may not be possible it is important to manage conflict so that it can be channeled to constructive and collaborative solutions instead of leading to violence or deepening poverty.

The study showed that many conflicts can be resolved through appropriate communication strategies. A systematic communication and advocacy program with clearly defined approaches and a well-developed battery of information, education and communication materials can form the core of an intervention strategy to improve stakeholder interactions and resolve conflicts. FishCom was applied in the study area to resolve a number of such conflicts. In most cases, actors involved arrived at a greater level of consensus, indicating that more conflicts in fisheries could be resolved if FishCom were institutionalized through coastal resource management plans. However, FishCom is not a panacea for resolving all fisheries conflicts. Moving further in this direction would require harmonization of the functions and roles of a range of institutional stakeholders in organizing and implementing coordinated action plans for conflict resolution.

The study showed that government and community partnerships can support movement toward more effective ways of managing conflicts and improve fisheries management. Representation and participation of users in the conflict resolution process and involvement of fishers in the implementation of decisions are important factors in legitimizing a management system (Salayo et   al., 2008  and Pomeroy et   al., 2007 ). These lessons could enhance opportunities for formulating policies and influencing policy actions for involving communities in the improved management of conflicts over shared resources.

This study indicates that stakeholders recognized the value of multi-stakeholder forums in fisheries conflict management processes. They believed that the collective efforts of fishers, community members, and government and non-governmental organizations involved in fisheries management are required in order to design effective conflict resolution systems. Inter-sectoral analysis and dialogue undertaken by these stakeholders can facilitate better solutions to fisheries conflicts. The study shows that committees of this nature are able to represent a genuine interest

in fisheries development, and can turn conflicts into opportunities for facilitating more sustainable use of fisheries resources.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the many stakeholders whose participation in the series of activities under the Enabling Conflict Resolution for Better Fisheries Management: Experience from the Marine Fisheries of Bangladesh project formed the basis for much of these outputs. Acknowledgments also go to Mr. Alan Brooks, Portfolio Director, WorldFish, Bangladesh and South Asia (2006–2009) and Blake Ratner, Senior Research Fellow/Program Leader, Governance, WorldFish for their valuable suggestions and comments. The authors are also thankful to Dr. Dilip Kumar and Dr. Apurba Krishna Deb, Team Leader and National Project Coordinator respectively of Empowerment of Coastal Fishing Community for Livelihood Security (ECFC) Project. The authors are however responsible for any unforeseen errors and omissions. This paper is a contribution to the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems.