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Many new dynasties emerged after the seventh century. Map 1 shows the major ruling

dynasties in different parts of the subcontinent betweenthe seventh and twelfth centuries.

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Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Major kingdoms,seventh-twelfthcenturies

Locate theGurjara-Pratiharas,Rashtrakutas,Palas, Cholasand Chahamanas(Chauhans).Can you identifythe present-daystates over whichthey exercisedcontrol?

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The emergence of new dynastiesBy the seventh century there were big landlords orwarrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.Existing kings often acknowledged them as theirsubordinates or samantas. They wereexpected to bring gifts for their kingsor overlords, be present at their courtsand provide them with militarysupport. As samantas gained powerand wealth, they declared themselvesto be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a“circle” or region) and so on. Sometimesthey asserted their independence fromtheir overlords.

One such instance was that of theRashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initiallythey were subordinate to the Chalukyasof Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief,overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritualcalled hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). Whenthis ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas,it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer asa Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

In other cases, men from enterprising families usedtheir military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance,the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave uptheir traditional professions and took to arms,successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka andRajasthan respectively.

Administration in the kingdomsMany of these new kings adopted high-sounding titlessuch as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord ofkings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the threeworlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims,

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

Do you thinkbeing born as aKshatriya wasimportant in orderto become a rulerduring this period?

Fig. 1Wall relief from Cave15, Ellora, showingVishnu as Narasimha,the man-lion.It is a work of theRashtrakuta period.

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they often shared power with their samantas as well aswith associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.

In each of these states, resources were obtained fromthe producers, that is, peasants, cattle-keepers,artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled tosurrender part of what they produced. Sometimesthese were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who assertedthat he owned the land. Revenue was also collectedfrom traders.

Four hundred taxes!The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadurefer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes.The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, taken not incash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, orland revenue. There were also taxes on thatching thehouse, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess onsuccession to family property, etc.

Are any such taxes collected today?

These resources were used to finance the king’sestablishment, as well as for the construction of templesand forts. They were also used to fight wars, which werein turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in theform of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.

The functionaries for collecting revenue weregenerally recruited from influential families, andpositions were often hereditary. This was true aboutthe army as well. In many cases, close relatives of theking held these positions.

Prashastis and land grantsPrashastis contain details that may not be literally true.But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves– as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These werecomposed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionallyhelped in the administration.

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In what ways wasthis form ofadministrationdifferent from thepresent-daysystem?

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The “achievements” of NagabhataMany rulers described their achievements in prashastis(you read about the prashasti of the Gupta rulerSamudragupta last year).

One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found inGwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits ofNagabhata, a Pratihara king, as follows:

The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part ofMaharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orissa) fell before him evenas he was a prince …He won a victory over Chakrayudha (the ruler of Kanauj) …He defeated the king of Vanga (part of Bengal), Anarta (partof Gujarat), Malava (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata (forestpeoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa, Matsya (both kingdoms innorth India) …

Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land.These were recorded on copper plates, which were givento those who received the land.

Fig. 2This is a set of copperplates recording agrant of land made bya ruler in the ninthcentury, written partlyin Sanskrit and partlyin Tamil. The ringholding the platestogether is securedwith the royal seal, toindicate that this is anauthentic document.

See if you can findsome of the areasmentioned in theinscription onMap 1. Other rulersmade similarclaims as well.Why do you thinkthey made theseclaims?

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What was given with the landThis is part of the Tamil section of a land grant given bythe Cholas:

We have demarcated the boundaries of the land by makingearthen embankments, as well as by planting thorny bushes.This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water,land, gardens and orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals, ditches, rivers,silt-laden land, tanks, granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, anddeep lakes.He who receives the land can collect taxes from it. He cancollect the taxes imposed by judicial officers as fines, the taxon betel-leaves, that on woven cloth, as well as on vehicles.He can build large rooms, with upper stories made of bakedbricks, he can get large and small wells dug, he can planttrees and thorny bushes, if necessary, he can get canalsconstructed for irrigation. He should ensure that water is notwasted, and that embankments are built.

List all the possible sources of irrigation mentionedin the inscription, and discuss how these might have

been used.

Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskritpoem containing the history of kings who ruled overKashmir. It was composed by an author namedKalhana. He used a variety of sources, includinginscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts andearlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writersof prashastis, he was often critical about rulers andtheir policies.

Warfare for wealthYou may have noticed that each of these rulingdynasties was based in a specific region. At the sametime, they tried to control other areas. One particularlyprized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley.

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?For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara,Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control overKanauj. Because there were three “parties” in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the“tripartite struggle”.

As we will see (pp. 62-66), rulers also tried todemonstrate their power and resources by buildinglarge temples. So, when they attacked one another’skingdoms, they often chose to target temples, whichwere sometimes extremely rich. You will read moreabout this in Chapter 5.

One of the best known of such rulers is SultanSultanSultanSultanSultanMahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to1030, and extended control over parts of Central Asia,Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent.He raided the subcontinent almost every year – histargets were wealthy temples, including that ofSomnath, Gujarat.

Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was usedto create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. He wasinterested in finding out more about the people heconquered, and entrusted a scholar named al-Birunito write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabicwork, known as the Kitab-al Hind, remains an importantsource for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholarsto prepare this account.

Other kings who engaged in warfare include theChahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruledover the region around Delhi and Ajmer. Theyattempted to expand their control to the west and theeast, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas ofGujarat and the Gahadavalas of western UttarPradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler wasPrithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghanruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, butlost to him the very next year, in 1192.

SultanSultanSultanSultanSultan is anArabic termmeaning ruler.

Look at Map 1again and discusswhy theChahamanas mayhave wanted toexpand theirterritories.

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Look at Map 1 andsuggest reasonswhy these rulerswanted to controlKanauj and theGanga valley.

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A closer look–The Cholas

From Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to Thanjavur

How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly familyknown as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveridelta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings ofKanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancientchiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured thedelta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninthcentury. He built the town of Thanjavur and a templefor goddess Nishumbhasudini there.

The successors of Vijayalaya conqueredneighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size andpower. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to thesouth and north were made part of this kingdom.

Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2The Chola kingdomand its neighbours

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Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler,became king in 985 and expanded control over mostof these areas. He also reorganised the administrationof the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued hispolicies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lankaand countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy forthese expeditions.

Splendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculpture

The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, arearchitectural and sculptural marvels.

Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlementswhich grew around them. These were centres of craftproduction. Temples were also endowed with land byrulers as well as by others. The produce of this land

Fig. 3The temple atGangaikondacholapuram.Notice the way inwhich the roof tapers.Also look at theelaborate stonesculptures used todecorate the outerwalls.

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went to maintain all the specialists who worked atthe temple and very often lived near it – priests,garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians,dancers, etc. In other words, temples were notonly places of worship; they were the hub ofeconomic, social and cultural life as well.

Amongst the crafts associated with temples,the making of bronze images was the mostdistinctive. Chola bronze images areconsidered amongst the finest in the world.

While most images were of deities,sometimes images were made ofdevotees as well.

Agriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigation

Many of the achievements of theCholas were made possible through

new developments in agriculture. Lookat Map 2 again. Notice that the river Kaveri

branches off into several small channels beforeemptying into the Bay of Bengal. Thesechannels overflow frequently, depositingfertile soil on their banks. Water from thechannels also provides the necessarymoisture for agriculture, particularly thecultivation of rice.

Although agriculture had developedearlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it wasonly from the fifth or sixth century that thisarea was opened up for large-scalecultivation. Forests had to be cleared insome regions; land had to be levelled inother areas. In the delta regionembankments had to be built to prevent

Fig. 4A Chola Bronze Sculpture.Notice how carefully it is decorated.To find out how these images were made, see Chapter 6.

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flooding and canals had to be constructed to carrywater to the fields. In many areas two crops were grownin a year.

In many cases it was necessary to water cropsartificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation.In some areas wells were dug. In other places hugetanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Rememberthat irrigation works require planning – organisinglabour and resources, maintaining these works anddeciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the newrulers, as well as people living in villages, took an activeinterest in these activities.

The administration of the empireThe administration of the empireThe administration of the empireThe administration of the empireThe administration of the empire

How was the administration organised? Settlementsof peasants, known as ur, became prosperouswith the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groupsof such villages formed larger units called nadu.The village council and the nadu had severaladministrative functions including dispensingjustice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercisedconsiderable control over the affairs of the nadu underthe supervision of the central Chola government. TheChola kings gave some rich landowners titles likemuvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings),araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrustedthem with important offices of the state at the centre.

Fig. 5A ninth century sluice-gate in Tamil Nadu.It regulated the outflowof water from a tankinto the channels thatirrigated the fields.

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Types of landChola inscriptions mention several categories of land.

vellanvagailand of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors

brahmadeyaland gifted to Brahmanas

shalabhogaland for the maintenance of a school

devadana, tirunamattukkaniland gifted to temples

pallichchhandamland donated to Jaina institutions

We have seen that Brahmanas often received landgrants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number ofBrahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley asin other parts of south India.

Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assemblyor sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. Theseassemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions wererecorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stonewalls of temples. Associations of traders known asnagarams also occasionally performed administrativefunctions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleputdistrict, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way inwhich the sabha was organised. The sabha hadseparate committees to look after irrigation works,gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to bemembers of these committees were written on smalltickets of palm leaf and kept in an earthenware pot,from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets,one by one for each committee.

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Do you thinkwomenparticipated inthese assemblies?In your view arelotteries useful inchoosing membersof committees?

Were there anyBrahmanas in thishamlet?Describe all theactivities that weretaking placein the village?Why do youthink templeinscriptions ignorethese activities?

Inscriptions and textsThe working of a sabha according to the Uttaramerurinscription:

All those who wish to become members of the sabha should beowners of land from which land revenue is collected.They should have their own homes.They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.They should have knowledge of the Vedas.They should be well-versed in administrative mattersand honest.If anyone has been a member of any committee in the lastthree years, he cannot become a member of another committee.Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as thoseof his relatives, cannot contest the elections.

While inscriptions tell us about kings and powerful men,here is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth-century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives ofordinary men and women.

On the outskirts of Adanur was a small hamlet of Pulaiyas(a name used for a social group considered “outcastes” byBrahmanas and Vellalas), studded with small huts under oldthatches and inhabited by agrarian labourers engaged inmenial occupations. In the thresholds of the huts covered withstrips of leather, little chickens moved about in groups; darkchildren who wore bracelets of black iron were prancingabout, carrying little puppies … In the shade of the marudu(arjuna) trees, a female labourer put her baby to sleep on asheet of leather; there were mango trees from whose branchesdrums were hanging; and under the coconut palms, in littlehollows on the ground, tiny-headed bitches lay after whelping.The red-crested cocks crowed before dawn calling the brawnyPulaiyar (plural) to their day’s work; and by day, under theshade of the kanji tree spread the voice of the wavy-hairedPulaiya women singing as they were husking paddy …

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ImagineImagineImagineImagineImagine

You are present in an election for a sabha.Describe what you see and hear.

Let’s recallLet’s recallLet’s recallLet’s recallLet’s recall

1. Match the following

Gurjara-Pratiharas Western Deccan

Rashtrakutas Bengal

Palas Gujarat and Rajasthan

Cholas Tamil Nadu

2. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartitestruggle”?

3. What were the qualifications necessary to becomea member of a committee of the sabha in theChola Empire?

In China, an empire was established under the Tang dynasty, whichremained in power for about 300 years (from the seventh to thetenth centuries). Its capital, Xi’an, was one of the largest cities inthe world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians, Japanese and Koreans.

The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruitedthrough an examination, which was open to all who wished toappear for it. This system of selecting officials remained in place,with some changes, till 1911.

In what ways was this system different from those prevalent inthe Indian subcontinent?

China under the Tang dynasty

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4. What were the two major cities under the control ofthe Chahamanas?

Let’s understandLet’s understandLet’s understandLet’s understandLet’s understand

5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in theTamil region?

8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?

Let’s discussLet’s discussLet’s discussLet’s discussLet’s discuss

9. Look at Map 1 once more and find out whether therewere any kingdoms in the state in which you live.

10. Contrast the “elections” in Uttaramerur with present-day panchayat elections.

Let’s doLet’s doLet’s doLet’s doLet’s do

11. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with anypresent-day temple in your neighbourhood,highlighting any similarities and differences thatyou notice.

12. Find out more about taxes that are collected at present.Are these in cash, kind, or labour services?

KEYWORDS

samanta

temple

nadu

sabha

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