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Ratio et ResNew England Classical Journal 38.4 (2011) 267-284

teaching the text and images: Reeds and Riches in Classical Literature and the Nile Mosaic of Palestrina

David K. UlrichNoble and Greenough School

This investigation highlights the rich appreciation that students may gain from combining the visual elements of classical art with textual descriptions by classical authors. The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina is

the most complex and intriguing representation of Egypt’s mighty river.� Hippopotami, crocodiles, and ichneumons run rampant on terrain dry and wet. Persea trees, doum palms, and lotus blossoms dot the landscape. Hunters chase their prey, commoners fish and farm outside of their huts, celebrants parade through temples and sanctuaries, merchants and soldiers attend to their martial and commercial affairs, while others lounge extravagantly in the glory of the river’s abundance. Nilometers measure the critical level of the waterway, which is, for its part, plied by canoes, ships, and galleys. In short, the tesserae teem with vital and vibrant abundance.

Nile Mosaic from the Temple of Fortuna. Palestrina, Italy. Nimatallah /Art Resource, NY

� For the most detailed discussion of the Nile mosaic with images, see Meyboom, and also Ferrari, Steinmeyer-Schareika, Schmidt, Versluys and Whitehouse. National Geographic, July 20��, includes online images.

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In contrast, the vast majority of the coins that portray the Nile River offer a markedly simpler presentation. Constraints of space dictate a narrow selection of items that can be incorporated into numismatic fluvial imagery. While there exist some Nile coins with nilometers, crocodiles, lotus plants and hippopotami, the most common visual catalog features—in addition to the allegorical River God—only two recurring items: the cornucopia and the reed.2 Why is the reed, which is so pronounced in numismatic renderings of the Nile, seemingly absent in the most complex representation of that river?� Moreover, inasmuch as the most common coin imagery portrays the Nile offering a cornucopia and wielding a reed scepter, can one logically infer that the reed is the source of power from which the riches of the cornucopia proffer?

Tetradrachm of Alexandria under Hadrian, AD ��2-�� Struck, Billon; Harvard Art Museums/Arthur M. Sackler Museum

© President and Fellows of Harvard College

Preliminary to the substance of our inquiry, the following basic activities provide a general framework for methodology in a classroom setting: (�) discuss the necessity of using a variety of sources to assess themes in the classical world, especially combining visual and textual evidence; (2) show a sampling of Nile coins, and discuss both the common and disparate elements of the collection; (�) let students investigate the various uses of reeds, giving a list of passages especially from Pliny, and also from Oppian, Ovid, Vergil, Herodotus, Theophrastus, and Diodorus Siculus; (4) let them come up with other sources as well and determine whether they are valid or not; (5) discuss overall impressions of the Nile

2 As an example, the tetradrachm of Alexandria under Hadrian, AD ��2-���. See also Imhoof-Blumer, �7�-42� and accompanying plates.

� The word “reeds” in this paper encompasses the following terms. Latin: (h)arundo, calamus. Greek: κάλαμος, δόναξ. Botanical taxonomy: arundo donax (Giant Cane), phragmites australis (Common Reed).

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Mosaic: what the class sees and how they interpret the mosaic in its entirety; (6) invite students to engage in the rhetorical exercise of describing in vivid detail the visual evidence of a scene herein presented (ekphrasis), and ask students to draw the scenes as they imagine them; (7) let each group determine whether reeds are present in the scene and provide evidenced arguments for or against; (8) share conclusions and revisit the larger discussion of how visual and textual evidence corroborate thematic discussions of the classical world.

Students may wonder, why reeds? Amid so many spectacular items represented in the Nile Mosaic (exotic creatures, elegant architectural elements, elaborate river travel, and intriguing human interactions), the focus on reeds may seem bland. We note however that the reed is ubiquitous along the shores of rivers, as demonstrated by its inclusion on the reverse of so many river coins. We also find engaging the sharp contrast between the simplicity of the reed in its botanical form and the complexity of its use in ancient society, as attested by the visual evidence at Palestrina and in the textual references of classical authors—the two media for our classroom investigation of this remarkable paradox in the ancient sources and world.

As teachers of both the methodology and the content, we will conduct our own research with the following scheme: (�) identify scenes in the Nile Mosaic where the reed is present; (2) mine classical literature for poetic and scientific references to the reed as they pertain to the visual evidence of the Nile Mosaic, especially Pliny’s Naturalis Historia for the uses of the plant, Oppian’s treatises on hunting and fishing (Cynegetica and Halieutica), Vitruvius’ De Architectura, as well as secondary allusions in works such as Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Vergil’s Aeneid and Eclogues, and Petronius’ Satyricon; and (3) assess the reed’s influence on the fluvial abundance suggested by the coins and the Nile Mosaic. Armed with our texts, ultimately we pose larger questions about the investigation for and with our students, moving from specific visual details to broader cultural themes. How does the reed relate to the myriad beasts that roam the upper register of the mosaic? How does it mediate human interaction, dictate dwelling and architectural structures, and condition fluvial commerce and comfort in the lower register?

The Nile Mosaic is commonly divided into nineteen sections, based primarily on the Dal Pozzo copies.4 Placed together in the current reconstruction in Palestrina, the mosaic is striking in the division between the scenes of the upper and lower registers. In the upper portion of the mosaic, fantastic animals (labeled in somewhat cryptic Greek) and exotically depicted men engage in hunt-and-chase scenes amid a rocky backdrop, mostly barren of vegetation. The lower scenes present activities of a more refined nature: religious processions, military assemblies, and leisurely gatherings. Here, lush vegetation surrounds and adorns advanced

4 See Helen Whitehouse (Oxford, �976).

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architectural structures, and transport is provided by numerous maritime crafts.5

In his detailed inventory, P.G.P. Meyboom catalogs fourteen different species of flora throughout the mosaic,6 but Section �8 is notably the only section in which the reed (here, arundo donax) appears clearly in its natural state.7 Many of the areas where one would expect to find the reed, i.e. growing along the banks of the river, have been lost in the reconstruction. Much of the marshy foliage that does appear, therefore, is a posterior addition to the mosaic, and cannot enter into the present discussion. Meyboom also highlights the difficulty of identifying all plants with absolute certainty: “other (water) plants are frequently depicted as well . . . specific kinds of flowers and plants can rarely be distinguished.”8 We shall investigate whether we can make more certain identifications of the reed in its natural state, and more importantly, in its manipulated forms in the Nile Mosaic. Of the nineteen sections, there are six vignettes that most clearly illustrate the sway of reeds in the day-to-day activities represented: �, �5, �6, �7, �8 and �9. Our discussion will follow the progression of the sections from wild to civilized content.

Section �8 (Wild and Natural) is located in the bottom left corner of the mosaic. A wild scene, there is little to suggest the presence of man. One hippopotamus attempts to hide in the reeds, though it looks like it has already received spear wounds from some prior incident. A companion hippopotamus raises its head from the water to the left of the foliage. Additionally, two crocodiles rest along the edge of the brush, one lying low, another descending into the water graced by lotus blooms. To bring students into the discussion, ask them to reflect on where they have seen reeds growing locally. What does the presence of reeds indicate about the environs? What sort of wildlife might one find in the immediate vicinity of the reeds? How might creatures use the reed for survival?

The appearance of the reed in this section illustrates its use as an indication of wet conditions. Vitruvius, in De Architectura, advises looking for the reed, among other plants, in order to establish secure sources for wells and fountains:

Signa autem, quibus terrarum generibus supra scriptum est, ea invenientur nascentia: tenuis iuncus, salix erratica, alnus, vitex, harundo, hedera aliaque, quae eiusmodi sunt, quae non possunt nasci per se sine umore. Solent autem eadem in lacunis nata esse,

5 For a literary parallel, see how Strabo contrasts the “nomadic and resourceless life” of the Aethiopians against the “civic and cultivated life” of the Aegyptians along the Nile. Geography, �7.�.�.

6 Meyboom, pp. 26�-264.7 Ibid., p. �2. 8 Ibid., p. 264.

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quae sidentes praeter reliquum agrum excipiunt ex imbribus et agris per hiemem propterque capacitatem diutius conservant umorem. The following growths will be found to show where the kinds of soil already described are found; the slender bulrush, the wild willow, the alder, the agnus cactus, reeds, ivy and the like which cannot grow without moisture. These plants usually grow in marshy places; for these, settling below the level of the rest of the ground, receive water from the rains and from the rest of the land in winter, and because of their capacity to retain the moisture.9

Since the presence of these plants promises a continued supply of water, essential for fertility and crop production, this appearance of the reed indeed suggests abundance. Hence the traditional association of the reed with the river gods. The depiction of the river gods Nilus and Tiberis is remarkably similar. Both lounge majestically in the watery domain, wielding reeds and surrounded by objects that signify the abundance of their respective rivers. In book eight of the Aeneid, a majestic River Tiber greets a war-wearied Aeneas, stretched in fatigue along his banks. The young hero hears the prophecy concerning the founding of Alba Longa from the river god, who appears peering above the poplars, mantled in marsh plants, and crowned with reeds:

huic deus ipse loci fluvio Tiberinus amoenopopuleas inter senior se attollere frondesvisus (eum tenuis glauco velabat amictucarbasus, et crinis umbrosa tegebat harundo)tum sic adfari et curas his demere dictis: (Aen. 8.��-�5)

He dreamed that before him the very god of the place, Tiberinus of the pleasant stream, raised his aged head among the poplar leaves; fine linen draped him in a mantle of grey, and shady reeds crowned his hair. Then thus he spoke to him, and with these words took away his cares.

The river god’s promises of new beginnings and prosperity are perhaps all the more effective because his attributive crown of reeds also promises life and abundance.�0

9 Vitruvius, De Architectura, 8.�.�. All quotations and translations of classical authors are from the Loeb Classical Library.

�0 For the imagery of reeds as it pertains to abundance on the Ara Pacis, see Zanker, �72ff.

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A humorous anecdote by Pliny relates that a hippopotamus, after eating too much, will attempt to lessen the contents of its bowels by impaling his leg upon the sharply cut reeds:

Hippopotamus in quadam medendi parte etiam magister existit; adsidua namque satietate obesus exit in litus recentis harundinum caesuras speculatum atque ubi acutissimam vidit stirpem inprimens corpus venam quandam in crure vulnerat atque ita profluvio sanguinis morbidum alias corpus exonerat et plagam limo rursus obducit. (Pliny, Naturalis Historia, 8.60.96)

The hippopotamus stands out as an actual master of medicine; for when its unceasing voracity has caused it to overeat itself it comes ashore to reconnoitre places where reeds have recently been cut, and where it sees an extremely sharp stalk it squeezes its body down on to it and makes a wound in a certain vein in its leg, and by thus letting blood unburdens its body, which would otherwise be liable to disease, and plasters up the wound again with mud.

Students may decide whether the reed here is characterized as a provider of abundance, or not. In any event, what do Pliny’s words imply about how reeds might have conditioned life for local fauna? We see, at the very least, that the reed signals the presence of water, which is useful per se. Beyond that, we may begin to imagine other applications of the reed for humans and beasts alike.

Section � (Savage and Primitive) is the most sparse and barren scene of the Nile Mosaic. Located top and center, it crowns the mosaic with two dark-skinned hunters with loin-cloths shooting at their terrestrial and avian prey with bows and arrows. The animals that inhabit the rocky tiers—the ΝΑΒΟΥC,�� the hyena, and various birds, as indicated by their Greek labels—indicate that this scene is the furthest removed, both structurally and ideologically, from the civilized world at the bottom of the mosaic. This is a scene of exoticism and primitivism. Invite students to imagine themselves confronted with the challenge of procuring alimentation and defending against potentially hostile neighbors. How could a reed prove useful in such a situation?

Pliny remarks on the difficulty of living in an environment devoid of trees,�2 and we can imagine life here to be equally challenging. And yet as destitute and foreboding as this scene appears, the hunters in the

�� The nabus is an Aethiopian term for a giraffe, although it appears here more similar to a dromedary. See Meyboom, Appendix �, pp. ��9-�2�.

�2 Pliny, NH, �6.�.2-4. He questions: quaenam qualisque esset vita sine arbore ulla, sine frutice viventium. “What is the nature and what are the characteristics of the life of people living without any trees or any shrubs?” He characterizes the Chauci as one such group, describing them as misera gens, “a miserable race.”

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rocky recesses of the Nile Mosaic have somehow been able to fashion a successful hunting weapon to gather their sustenance. The reed may be manipulated to engage in what Oppian terms the τριχθαδίην θήρην θεὸς ὤπασεν ἀνθρώποισιν, ἠερίην χθονίην τε καὶ εἰναλίην ἐρατεινήν, “triple sort of hunting god hath bestowed on men—in air and on earth and on the sea delightful.”�� This one plant allows man to create limed-reeds for aucupium (fowling),�4 angling rods for piscatus (fishing),�5 and arrow shafts for venatio (hunting), as we witness here.

Pliny puts a high premium on the military might of the reed; its power of destruction and death is a major factor in his admiration. In a striking assessment of arrow warfare, he relates the scope of the reed’s presence and power:

calamis orientis populi bella conficiunt, calamis mortem adcelerant pinna addita, calamis spicula addunt inrevocabili hamo noxia, fitque et ex ipso telum aliud fracto in vulneribus. his armis solem ipsum obumbrant; propter hoc maxime serenos dies optant, odere ventos et imbres, qui inter illos pacem esse cogunt. ac si quis Aethiopas, Aegyptios, Arabas, Indos, Scythas, Bactros, Sarmatarum tot gentes et orientis omniaque Parthorum regna diligentius conputet, aequa ferme pars hominum in toto mundo calamis superata degit. (Pliny, NH, �6.65.�59-�60)

the peoples of the East employ reeds in making war; by means of reeds with a feather added to them they hasten the approach of death, and to reeds they add points which deal wounds with their barb that cannot be extracted, and if the weapon itself breaks in the wound, another weapon is made out of it. With these weapons they obscure the sun, and this is what chiefly makes them want calm weather and hate wind and rain, which compel the combatants to keep peace between them. And if anybody should make a rather careful reckoning of the Ethiopians, Egyptians, Arabs, Indians, Scythians and Bactrians, and the numerous races of the Sarmatians

�� Oppian, Cynegetica, �.47-48.�4 At Trimalchio’s feast in Petronius’ Satyricon, birds fly around the room,

where parati aucupes cum harundinibus fuerunt et eos circa triclinium volitantes momento exceperunt, “as they fluttered around the dining-room there were fowlers ready with limed-reeds who caught them in a moment” (ch. 60.9). During a religious procession in Apuleius’ The Golden Ass, a birder is identified: nec qui diversis harundinibus alter aucupam cum visco, alter piscatorem cum hamis inducent, “after him went one with reeds and lime, betokening him a fowler, and another with hooks, declaring a fisher” (Apuleius, The Golden Ass, ��.8). For a description of the fowler’s equipment, see Oppian, Halieutica, �.�2 and Cynegetica, �, 62-66; �.487-488. In addition, reed-nets were used by the Egyptians to hunt quail. (Diodorus Siculus, �.60.�0)

�5 See discussion of Section �7 below.

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and of the East, and all the realms of the Parthians, almost one-half of mankind in the whole world lives subject to the sway of the reed.�6

The same bows and arrows used for hunting the hyena in the Nile Mosaic might be turned periodically against neighboring tribes.

References to the reed as a weapon abound in this context, harundo—as a reed shaft—serving metonymically as a term for the arrow itself. A common appearance in scenes of hunting and warfare in the Aeneid,�7 the arrow-tipped reed can also touch affairs of the heart. After Aeneas’ arrival to Carthage, Vergil likens Dido wandering the city in her burning passion to a deer having been pierced by an errant hunter’s shaft:

uritur infelix Dido totaque vagatur urbe furens, qualis coniecta cerva sagitta,quam procul incautam nemora inter Cresia fixit pastor agens telis liquitque volatile ferrum nescius; illa fuga silvas saltusque peragratDictaeos; haeret lateri letalis harundo. (Vergil, Aen. 4.68-7�)

Unhappy Dido burns, and through the city wanders in frenzy—even as a hind, smitten by an arrow, which, all unwary, amid the Cretan woods, a shepherd hunting with darts has pierced from afar, leaving in her the winged steel, unknowing: she in flight ranges the Dictaean woods and glades, but fast to her side clings the deadly shaft.�8

�6 For additional evidence, as Herodotus leads into a discussion of the battle of Thermopylae (Book 7), he catalogs the weapons carried and the armor worn by the approaching armies of the Persian Empire. Notable among the various instruments of death are the reed arrows (ὀιστοὺς δε καλαμίνους) slung in quivers by the Persians (ch. 6�), and, as we may infer, the Medes, who were “equipped like the Persians.” Ethiopians also appear in Herodotus’ line-up with short arrows, pointed not with iron but with a sharpened stone (καλαμίνους ὀιστοὺς μικρούς), as do the native bows of reed (τόξα δὲ καλάμινα ἐπιχώρια) strung by the Bactrians (ch. 64), the bows of reeds and iron-tipped arrows of the same (τόξα δὲ καλάμινα . . . ὀιστοὺς καλαμίνους) by the Indians (ch. 65), and the reed bows of their country (τόξα ἐπιχώρια καλάμινα) by the Caspians (ch. 67). For Ethiopians, see ch. 69.

�7 See, in particular, Vergil, Aeneid, 5.525, �0.�40, and �2.�86 for the use of the reed as a shaft for hunting with the bow and arrow.

�8 The Cretan arrow, as Pliny notes, is of particular value in hunting: suum genus sagittario calamo, ut diximus, sed Cretico, longissimis internodiis, obsequiosum quo libeat flecti calefacto. “The reed used as an arrow is a special kind, as we have said, but the Cretan variety has the longest intervals between the knots, and when heated allows itself to be bent in any direction you please.” (Pliny, NH, �6.66.�66)

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The reed-shaft of Cupid’s desire sticks in her side and spurs her into an aimless frenzy. It appears few can escape the trajectory of love, or the reed. In all, the reed may be manipulated into practical tools of survival, weapons in order to hunt for food, or to defend oneself against enemies.�9

Amid vignettes of sophisticated architecture in the lower register of the Nile Mosaic, Section �5 (Simple and Agrarian) is an island of rustic domesticity, almost bucolic in nature. There is a large reed hut, outside of which two white-clad figures lounge. A companion herdsman drives his ox or cow toward the water to drink. A papyrus canoe carries a fisherman who angles the riches of the floodwaters. Students may debate the advantages and disadvantages of using the reed for construction purposes.

Nile Mosaic, Section �5. Nimatallah/Art Resource, NY

The reed was a common material for the construction of simple dwellings in many parts of the world, as Pliny relates:

�9 For students particularly interested in warfare, the following excerpt from Ammianus Marcellinus may be interesting: Malleoli autem, teli genus, figurantur hac specie: sagitta est cannea, inter spiculum et harundinem multifido ferro coagmentata, quae in muliebris coli formam (quo nentur lintea stamina), concavatur ventre subtiliter, et plurifariam patens, atque in alveo ipso ignem cum aliquo suscepit alimento. Et si emissa lentius arcu invalido,–ictu enim rapidiore exstinguitur,–haeserit usquam, tenaciter cremat, aquisque conspersa acriores excitat aestus incendiorum, nec remedio ullo quam superiacto pulvere consopitur. (AM, 2�.4.�4-�5) “But the fire-darts (a kind of missile) are made in this form: the shaft is of reed, and between this and the point is a covering of bands of iron; it looks like a woman’s distaff for making linen threads. It is skillfully hollowed out on the lower side with many openings, and in the cavity fire and some inflammable matter are placed. And if it is shot slowly from a somewhat loose bow (for it is extinguished by too swift a flight) and has stuck anywhere, it burns persistently, and water poured upon it rouses the fire to still greater heat; and there is no way of extinguishing it except by sprinkling it with dust.”

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tegulo earum domus suas septentrionales populi operiunt, durantque aevis tecta talia; et in reliquo vero orbe et camaras levissime suspendunt. (Pliny, NH, �6.64.�56)

The northern peoples thatch their homes with reeds, and roofs of this kind last for ages, while in other parts of the world as well reeds provide very light ceilings for rooms.

In his discussion of the battle at Pleiae between Philopoemen and Nabis of Sparta, Livy mentions temporary reed dwellings hastily constructed to provide shelter for the Spartan soldiers:

cum ibi stativa essent et pauci tabernacula haberent, multitudo alia casas ex harundine textas fronde, quae imbram modo praeberet, texissent. (Livy, Ab urbe condita, �5.27.�) When he [Nabis] had placed his base there and only a few had tents, the rest of the throng had huts woven out of reeds and thatched with leaves, which offered nothing but shade.

Diodorus Siculus describes the reed dwellings of the Egyptians as an ancient custom still in practice:

ἴχνη δὲ τούτων διαμένειν παρὰ τοῖς νομεῦσι τοῖς κατ’ Αἴγυπτον, οὓς ἅπαντάς φασι μέχρι τοῦ νῦν μηδεμίαν ἄλλην οἴκησιν ἢ τὴν ἐκ τῶν καλάμων ἔχειν, δοκιμάζοντας ἀρκεῖσθαι ταύτῃ. (Diodorus Siculus, �.4�.4)

Traces of these customs still remain among the herdsmen of Egypt, all of whom, they say, have no other dwelling up to this time than one of reeds, considering that with this they are well enough provided for.

Even in more complex architecture, the reed was used to create light roofs for rooms, and can thus be imagined in some of the more elegant structures in adjacent vignettes of the Nile Mosaic.

Section �5, therefore, provides evidence that the reed serves as a means of creating shelter, thus securing for man one of his most basic necessities. Although the reed seems to be an ideal plant, we must keep in mind the conclusion of the battle between Philopoemen and Nabis. The troops of the former began to launch fire at the huts of the latter, thus foreshadowing the defeat of the Spartan commander, as well as highlighting one of the major disadvantages of reed dwellings.

The central feature of Section �6 (Sacred)—located on the right-hand border of the lower register of the mosaic—is a religious procession

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parading through a four-columned structure with a rounded pediment. To the right of the idyllic shrine or temple, a stone sphinx keeps watch upon a sturdy stone pedestal. To the left, a clump of trees enhances the sacro-idyllic aura of the place. Four celebrants carry a small litter or tray (bearing an idol perhaps in the reconstruction). A host of gaily-dressed revelers follow along, piping sweet sounds to accompany the procession. In what ways could something as simple and mundane as the reed figure prominently in complex religious rites? In order to amass additional visual evidence, challenge students to find and explain pottery images featuring Marsyas, Pan, or Bacchic / Dionysic rituals that incorporate the reed.

Pliny provides a rather lengthy tangent on the use of reeds in fashioning musical instruments, describing such varieties used (“pipe-reeds,” “yoke-reeds,” “silky reeds,” “female reeds,” “eunuchs”), discussing the length of time needed to cultivate the mouthpieces for the pipes, and finally explaining the evolution of the instruments themselves. (Pliny, NH, �6.66.�64-�72) We may recall now the auditory aspect of reeds as attested in Ovid’s mythic relation of Pan and the metamorphosis of Syrinx (Ovid, Metamorphoses, Book �, 689-7�2) or Martial’s epigram on the fistula:

quid me compactam ceris et harundine rides? quae primum structa est fistula talis erat. (Epigrams �4. 6�-64)

Why do you laugh at me, compact as I am of wax and reed? The first pipe ever made was like me.20

Theophrastus, in a more scientific turn, evaluates the relative merits of reeds from various geographic climes and their suitability for music-making (Enquiry Into Plants, 4.��). Pliny distinguishes among different reeds in this capacity:

calamus vero alius totus concavus, quem vocant syringian, utilissimus fistulis, quoniam nihil est ei cartilaginis atque carnis. Orchomenio et nodi continuo foramina pervii, quem auleticon vocant; hic tibiis utilior, fistulis ille. (Pliny, NH, �6.66.�64)

but another kind of cane is hollow for its whole length; its Greek name means the flute-reed, and it is very useful for making flutes because it contains no pith and no fleshy substance. The Orchomenus cane has a passage right through even the knots, and is called in Greek the pipe-reed; this is more suitable for flageolets, as the preceding kind is for flutes.

20 Students may also see Vergil, Eclogues 2.�2, and Ovid, Metamorphoses, 6.�8�–400 (for the myth of Marsyas).

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General opinion, as voiced by Strabo among others, states that the best reeds can be found where:

γενέσθαι δέ φασι καὶ κατὰ Ὀρχομενὸν χάσμα, καὶ δέξασθαι τὸν Μέλανα ποταμὸν τὸν ῥέοντα διὰ τῆς Ἁλιαρτίας καὶ ποιοῦντα ἐνταῦθα τὸ ἕλος τὸ φύον τὸν αὐλητικὸν κάλαμον. (Strabo, Geography, 9.2.�8)

it is said a fissure in the earth opened up near Orchomenus, also, and that it admitted the Melas River, which flowed through the territory of Haliartus and formed there the marsh which produces the reed that is used for flutes.

While the preceding sections highlight the use of the reed in essential human activities, Section �6 shows that the reed may be used for less vital and more spiritual ends. The pan-flute and the αὐλός, as evidenced by the literary selections and the pottery images, provide much more than mere music.

In Section �7 (Commercial Transport), we see a host of nautical vessels. Pliny’s praise of trees in the beginning of Book Twelve of the Naturalis Historia makes the following claim: mille praeterea sunt usus earum sine quis vita degi non possit . . . arbore sulcamus maria terrasque admovemus, “moreover, there are a thousand other uses for trees which are indispensable for carrying on life. We use a tree to furrow the seas and to bring the lands nearer together.” (Pliny, NH, �2.2.5) Located in the bottom-right corner of the Nile Mosaic, one could easily overlook the commercial vignette, though it is bustling with movement and activity.

Nile Mosaic, Section �7. Nimatallah /Art Resource, NY

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A long ship with a papyrus sail speeds through the waters and threatens the serenity of an angler in a papyrus canoe. Further down, an oared galley seems dangerously close to a two-towered structure with a dovecote, outside of which a woman tends to her fishing creel. To the bottom right, a man takes a break from paddling his “coracle-like boat” (as Meyboom says) in a spot of water dotted with lotus blossoms, perhaps in awe of the scene unfolding in front of him. While we have already discussed the employment of reeds in the construction of (semi-) permanent structures, the class now has the opportunity to consider how reeds may be used to facilitate transport and commerce. How are reeds fashioned into simple canoes? What use might they have in the construction of larger craft? What sort of items might be transported in these various vessels?

Reeds were not only used to build static structures, but mobile objects as well. Construction of canoes and similar simple watercraft often incorporated reeds and other marsh plants, such as papyrus and rushes. On a passage on the history of ship-making, Pliny begins his narrative with this type of vessel, a tradition which continues into the present day:

Nave primus in Graeciam ex Aegypto Danaus advenit; antea ratibus navigabatur inventis in Mari Rubro inter insulas a rege Erythra. reperiuntur qui Mysos et Troianos priores excogitasse in Hellesponto putent cum transirent adversus Thracas. etiamnunc in Britannico oceano vitilis corio circumsutae fiunt, in Nilo ex papyro ac scirpo et harundine. (Pliny, NH, 7.56.206)

Danaus first came from Egypt to Greece by ship; before that time rafts were used for navigation, having been invented by King Erythras for use between the islands in the Red Sea. Persons are found who think that vessels were devised earlier on the Hellespont by the Mysians and Trojans when they crossed to war against the Thracians. Even now in the British ocean coracles are made of wicker with hide sown round it, and on the Nile canoes are made of papyrus, rushes and reeds.

On one such papyrus or reed canoe on the left, we see clearly an angler in action. Regarding the capture of fish, the reed plays an integral role for piscatus. Oppian deepens our understanding of the fisherman plying the waters, describing the reed-pole as one of four ways of catching fish (in addition to nets, weels and tridents):

τέτραχα δ’ εἰναλίης θήρης νόμον ἐφράσσαντοἰχθυβόλοι· καὶ τοὶ μὲν ἐπ’ ἀγκίστροισι γάνυνται,τῶν δ’ οἱ μὲν δονάκεσσιν ἀναψάμενοι δολιχοῖσινὁρμιὴν ἵππειον ἐΰπλοκον ἀγρώσσουσιν. (Oppian, Halieutica �.72-75)

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Fourfold modes of hunting their prey in the sea have fishermen devised. Some delight in hooks; and of these some fish with a well-twisted line of horse-hair fastened to long reeds.

In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, the amazing ascent and fatal descent of Icarus into the sea is witnessed by a fisherman wielding his reed in the water: hos aliquis tremula dum captat harundine pisces, “now some fisherman spies them, angling for fish with his flexible rod.”2� (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 7. 2�7) Likewise, Glaucus recounts to Scylla his relationship with the sea: nam modo ducebam ducentia retia pisces, nunc in mole sedens moderabor harundine linum, “Now I would draw in the nets full of fish, and now, sitting on some projecting rock, I would ply rod and line.” (Met. ��.922-92�.) As for where to find the best fishing rods, Pliny advises that aucupatoria harundo e Panhormo laudatissima, piscitoria Abaritana ex Africa, “the reeds most approved for fowling come from Palermo, and those to make fishing-rods are from Abarsa in Africa.” (Pliny, NH, �6.66.�72)

While ships of larger proportions used various types of lumber in their construction, the reed was still an important component of the vessels, as it was used as a waterproof caulking between the seams: ubi lignosiore induruit callo . . . contusa et interiecta navium commissuris feruminat textus glutino tenacior rimisque explendis fidelior pice, “in places where it grows very hard and woody in structure, it is pounded up and inserted between the joints of ships to caulk the seams, holding better than glue and being more reliable for filling cracks than pitch.” (NH, �6.64.�58) Greek historians offer numerous examples of watercraft that were fashioned in part or in whole by reeds.22 Whether in Babylon, India, or Egypt, navigation in the ancient world relied on reeds.

The vessels here allow alternately the capture of fish, the deployment of troops, and the transport of goods, perhaps the fish or lotus blossoms culled from the reed canoes. Some of the commerce may also have dealt the fish being caught in a creel outside the hut. Diodorus explains the use of a creel, a wicker basket for carrying newly caught fish, in his description of Babylon:

παρὰ γὰρ τοὺς αἰγιαλοὺς ἱστᾶσι καλάμους πυκνοὺς καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους διαπεπλεγμένους, ὥστε τὴν πρόσοψιν εἶναι δικτύῳ παρὰ θάλατταν ἑστηκότι. κατὰ δὲ πᾶν τὸ ἔργον ὑπάρχουσι πυκναὶ θύραι, τῇ μὲν πλοκῇ ταρσώδεις, τὰς στροφὰς δ’ ἔχουσαι πρὸς τὰς εἰς ἑκάτερα τὰ μέρη κινήσεις εὐλύτους. (Diodorus Siculus, �.22)

2� Students may also see the depiction of the scene by Bruegel, Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (ca. �558).

22 Herodotus, �.�94; Strabo, Geography, �6.�.9 and �6.�.�5; Diodorus Siculus, 2.�4.

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Along the beaches they set reeds close to one another and interwoven, so that their appearance is like that of a net which has been set up along the edge of the sea. And throughout the entire construction there are doors which are fixed close together and resemble basket-work in the way they are woven, but are furnished with hinges that easily yield to movements of the water in either direction.

As is now clear, fish, fowl and other fauna are frequently ensnared and then traded by man’s clever manipulation of the reed. With the use of the reed and the procurement of dwelling and nutrients, man has been able to establish himself along the shores of the river. Now we see that he is able to navigate the riverscape, and ply his wares as well, all because of this pliable plant.

In contrast to the busy commerce of the last section, the most sumptuous action of the mosaic takes placed under an intricately crafted reed structure, the pleasure pergola, in Section �9 (Leisure and Pleasure).

Nile Mosaic, Section �9. Johannes Laurentius / Art Resource, NY

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Vines creep along the airy trellis covering, and lotus blossoms color the water. Beneath the trellis, two couches—one with a red mattress—provide comfort for small groups engaged in amorous and musical celebration. Figures with bare torsos figures partake of wine on the far side of the waterway. Those on the near side are slightly more clothed, and salute the lovers across the way. On both couches, musicians play instruments (a harp and a flute, respectively) to accompany the merriment. A man punting his reed or papyrus canoe passes seemingly unnoticed. Beyond fulfilling the bare necessities of existence, how might reeds allow for some of life’s more pleasurable pursuits as seen in this vignette and beyond? The discussion at this point may branch out into areas not expressly exhibited in the Nile Mosaic (such as reeds used for writing, weaving, pipes, etc.), and may inspire related research projects.

Based on Pliny’s notes, the mattress may indeed be stuffed with the plumes of a reed:

Cetero . . . tenuatur in cacumina crassiore paniculae coma, neque hac supervacua–aut enim pro pluma strata cauponarum replet (Pliny, NH, �6.64.�58)

For the rest [of the varieties of reed] . . . taper gradually off to the top with a rather thick tuft of hair, which also is not without value, as it either serves instead of feathers to stuff the beds of innkeepers

It is possible that these self-same revelers in the pleasure pergola are partaking of fruits of the vine. The process of viticulture was aided by reeds as well, as Strabo discusses:

ἡ δ’ ἄμπελος ἐν ἕλεσι φύεται, καλαμίναις ῥιψὶν ἐπιβαλλομένης γῆς, ὅση δέξαιτ’ ἂν τὸ φυτόν, ὥστε φορητὴν γίνεσθαι πολλάκις, εἶτα κοντοῖς ἀπωθεῖσθαι πάλιν εἰς τὴν οἰκείαν ἕδραν. (Strabo, Geography, �6.4.�)

The vine grows in the marshes, as much earth being thrown on hurdles of reeds as the plant may require; so that the vine is often carried away, and then is pushed back again to its proper place by means of poles.

While reeds are instrumental in the realm of negotium, they also serve to soften the harshness of daily life and provide otium. Additional suggestions from the class as to possible uses of reeds may fuel debate. Underscore the importance of credible textual and visual sources, and encourage students to question the evidence produced in support of each claim.

With the objective then of bridging text and art, here are reminders of how Pliny’s description of reeds parallels the Nile Mosaic. The scope

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of the subject matter of both works is broad and segmented. At times the presentation flows smoothly; at times we encounter isolated information dropped into a discordant context. Pliny begins (NH,�2.�-�) with an overview of the role that plants—trees, plants, and especially reeds—have played in the development of civilization. He lauds the value of each plant in turn, presenting a detailed explanation of the various uses, both in Italy and abroad. With respect to the reed, he mentions that among all plants, reeds hold the esteemed position of effecting war, peace, and amusement, and describes tangentially the characteristics of distinct varieties (�65-�70). Most importantly, Pliny illustrates the utility of the plant by highlighting its manipulation into useful applications for day-to-day life: roofs (�56); pens (�57); bedding (�58); ship-caulking (�58); arrows (�59); lances (�6�); flutes and pipes (164-165); fencing (168); plaiting (168); pipes again, with a digression into music (170-172); fowling (172); fishing (172); and vine props (�7�).

Stylistically, Pliny’s text mirrors the Nile mosaic, in that it meanders through vivid vignettes that are loosely connected, but each one fascinating in itself. Pliny’s passages and the Nile imagery treat similar themes. Nilotic scenes, as defined by Versluys, are “illustrations of the (flooded) Nile and the banks of the river with the flora, fauna, structures and activities of the population, and scenes which intend to show this or which contain a combination of specific, associative elements referring to this.”2� Pliny’s account of the reed, in similar fashion, contains concentrated passages that highlight how the plant has influenced the fauna, flora, architectural structures, and activities of man. Reeds appear, for example, not only in the purposeful discussion of plants, but also in a discussion of hippopotami in the animal kingdom, in details of dwellings, in descriptions of battle, in digressions on music, and in a treatment of maritime history.

Taken separately, Pliny’s words intrigue the reader, and images from the Nile Mosaic entice the spectator. By pairing the visual and textual evidence, however, we are able to appreciate the ubiquitous nature of reeds in the fluvial setting. We come to understand how and why Pliny declared that the reed is esteemed among plants: Principatum in his tenebunt harundines belli pacisque experimentis necessariae atque etiam deliciis gratae, “The primacy among these will be held by the reeds, which are indispensable for the practices of war and of peace and are also acceptable for our amusement.” (Pliny, NH, �6.6�.�56) The varied manifestations of the reed show how man has manipulated his natural surroundings in order to procure dwelling, bedding, and alimentation; to partake in commerce, transport and warfare; to obtain pleasure with writing, decoration and entertainment. It remains ultimately up to students to decide, via investigative skills honed in two media, whether the reed on Hadrian’s tetradrachm is the most apt element to depict the abundance of the Nile, but there can be no doubt that the

2� Versluys, p. 40.

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combination of information culled from a detailed study of the reed in classical authors and an attentive analysis of the Nile Mosaic is enriching indeed.24

Bibliography

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________. Pflanzenbilder auf griechischen Münzen. München: Hirmer VerlagMünchen GmbH, 2000.

Ferrari, Gloria. “The Geography of Time: The Nile Mosaic and the Libraryat Praeneste.” Ostraka 8.2 (�999) �59-�86.

Imhoof-Blumer, “Fluß- und Meergötter auf griechischen und römischenMünzen (Personifikationen der Gewässer),” SchweizerischeNumismatische Rundschau, 2�:�7�-42�

Jashemski, Wilhemina F. and Frederick G. Meyer (edd.). The Natural Historyof Pompeii. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Meyboom, P.G.P. The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina: Early Evidence of EgyptianReligion in Italy, Leiden: E.J. Brill, �995.

Schmidt, Eva. Studien zum Barberinischen Mosaik in Palestrina. Strassburg:Heitz, �929.

Steinmeyer-Schareika, Angela. Das Nilmosaik von Palestrina une einePtolemäische Expedition nach Äthiopien. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt VerlagGmbH, �978.

Versluys, M. J. Aegyptiaca Romana. Nilotic Scenes and the Roman Views ofEgypt. Leiden: Brill, 2002.

Whitehouse, Helen. The Dal Pozzo Copies of the Palestrina Mosaic. Oxford:British Archaeological Reports, �976.

Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. (trans. AlanShapiro) Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 20�0.

24 I would like to offer sincere gratitude to Leona Cottrell and Brian Hores for inspiring evening chats, to Peter White for preliminary proofing, to Margaret and Anders for their patience, to my colleagues for their support, and to the editor of NECJ for helpful suggestions throughout the crafting of this piece.