New Directions in WirelessCommunications Research

Vahid TarokhEditor

New Directions in WirelessCommunications Research

123

EditorVahid TarokhHarvard UniversitySchool of Engineering &

Applied Sciences33 Oxford St.Cambridge MA 02138USAvahid@seas.harvard.edu

ISBN 978-1-4419-0672-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-0673-1DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0673-1Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009928505

c© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the writtenpermission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York,NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use inconnection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computersoftware, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even ifthey are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or notthey are subject to proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

This book is dedicated to Dr. Vijay K.Bhargava of the University of BritishColumbia by his friends, colleagues,collaborators and former students, in deeprespect and admiration for his over 30 yearsof extraordinary leadership and innovation inthe field of communications research.

Preface

In recent years, there has been significant progress in the area of wireless systemdesign. Wireless local area networks have had enormous success and this is ex-pected to continue on into the foreseen future. Third-generation cellular systemshave been successfully deployed and are witnessing growing consumer demand.Fourth-generation systems are being deployed in the near future. Other emergingsystems include sensor networks, body area networks, wireless personal area net-works and positioning systems.

The above commercial success has ignited enormous advances in research inwireless system design in the last two decades. As a result, new concepts have beeninvented with amazing speed. This makes it important to have books available thatare close to ongoing research. This issue was first pointed out by a number of col-leagues who encouraged me to edit this work based on contributions from some ofthe foremost researchers in the area of wireless communications.

The book addresses a selected number of important emerging topics in wire-less system design. The authors were chosen from among leading internationalresearchers in their area. No system design is possible without understanding theunderlying channels, thus Chapter 1 focuses on this topic. Much of modern sys-tems use orthogonal division frequency multiplexing (OFDM) as the underlyingair interface. This is an old technology, but only recently has been put to massivecommercial use in wireless local area networks and cellular systems. Chapter 2discusses this important technology in great detail. Contention between multipleusers, channel estimation, synchronization, and various other issues in system de-sign requires sequences with low correlation properties and this is the topic of Chap-ter 3. Chapter 4 considers the scheduling problem, i.e., allocation of resources tomultiple users in a wireless system, an issue of critical importance in a multiusersystem. Chapter 5 considers the design of iterative receivers in order to achieve effi-ciencies near theoretical limits. Chapter 6 considers multiple-input multiple-output(MIMO) and multiuser multiple-input multiple-output (MU-MIMO) systems. Thesetechniques promise significant increase in spectral efficiencies of wireless systems.Yet another promising way to increase spectral efficiency is by producing directionalbeam patterns and Chapter 7 considers the use of distributed nodes for this purpose.

vii

viii Preface

This is a special co-operation between elements of a network. Other methods ofco-operation are discussed in Chapter 8. Interference is the main limiting factor inreducing the spectral efficiency of wireless systems, thus management, avoidance,and rejection of interference are important topics discussed in Chapter 9. An inter-esting solution to avoid interference is by using intelligent devices that can sense theenvironment and avoid transmission in occupied space–time–frequency resources.These cognitive devices have witnessed a recent explosion of interest for transmis-sion in TV band by secondary devices and other applications. This is the topic ofChapter 10. Chapters 11 and 12 study bidirectional-coded co-operation and theirmore general extensions known as network coding. Finally Chapters 13, 14, and 15discuss modern fourth-generation standards (LTE and WiMax) and standard pro-posals (UMB) and the realization of some of the topics covered in previous chaptersin practice.

The editor is grateful to Ian Blake for his assistance in compiling this volume.

Cambridge, MA Vahid TarokhDecember, 2008

Contents

1 Measurement and Modeling of Wireless Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1David G. Michelson and Saeed S. Ghassemzadeh1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 A Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Characterization of Wireless Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 Development of New Channel Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.5 Measurement of Wireless Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.6 Recent Advances in Channel Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.6.1 Channel Models for Ultrawideband Wireless Systems . . . 131.6.2 Channel Models for MIMO-Based Wireless Systems . . . . 161.6.3 Channel Models for Body Area Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.6.4 Channel Models for Short-Range Vehicular Networks . . . 201.6.5 Channel Models for 60 GHz and Terahertz Systems . . . . . 22

1.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2 OFDM: Principles and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Nicola Marchetti, Muhammad Imadur Rahman, Sanjay Kumar,and Ramjee Prasad2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.2 History and Development of OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302.3 The Benefit of Using Multi-carrier Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.4 OFDM Transceiver Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.5 Analytical Model of OFDM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.5.1 Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.5.2 Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372.5.3 Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.5.4 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.6 Advantages of OFDM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.6.1 Combating ISI and Reducing ICI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.6.2 Spectral Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

ix

x Contents

2.6.3 Some Other Benefits of OFDM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.7 Disadvantages of OFDM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.7.1 Strict Synchronization Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452.7.2 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452.7.3 Co-channel Interference in Cellular OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.8 OFDM System Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462.8.1 OFDM System Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462.8.2 OFDM System Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.9 Multi-carrier Based Access Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492.9.1 Definition of Basic Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.10 Single-Carrier vs Multi-carrier, TDE vs FDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522.10.1 Single-Carrier FDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522.10.2 Single-Carrier vs Multi-carrier, FDE vs TDE . . . . . . . . . . 542.10.3 Analogies and Differences Between OFDM and SCFDE . 542.10.4 Interoperability of SCFDE and OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.11 OFDMA: An Example of Future Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582.12 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3 Recent Advances in Low-Correlation Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Gagan Garg, Tor Helleseth, and P. Vijay Kumar3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.2 Cyclic Hadamard Difference Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.3 The Merit Factor of Binary Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.4 Low-Correlation QAM Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.4.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773.4.2 Quaternary Family A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783.4.3 Canonical 16-QAM Family CQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783.4.4 Extensions and Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.4.5 Example: Generation of a 16-QAM Sequence . . . . . . . . . . 83

3.5 Low-Correlation Zone Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843.6 Additional Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.6.1 Merit Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.6.2 QAM Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873.6.3 Low-Correlation Zone Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

4 Resource Allocation in Wireless Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Jon W. Mark and Lian Zhao4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954.3 The Inverse of �S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994.4 Convergence of Power Distribution Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Contents xi

4.4.1 With Zero Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004.4.2 With Nonzero Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024.4.3 With Power Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034.4.4 Capacity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4.5 Optimal Data Rate Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.5.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.5.2 Optimal Spreading Factor (OSF) Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074.5.3 Rate Selection for GRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.6 Joint Rate and Power Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084.6.1 OSF-PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084.6.2 GRP-PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

4.7 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5 Iterative Receivers and Their Graphical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119Ezio Biglieri5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195.2 MAP Symbol Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.2.1 Factor Graphs and the Sum–Product Algorithm . . . . . . . . 1215.2.2 The Basic Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.3 Channel and Codes: A Menagerie of Factor Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245.3.1 Modeling the Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245.3.2 Modeling the Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

5.4 Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275.5 Multiuser Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305.6 MIMO Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315.7 Multilevel Coded Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335.8 Convergence of the Iterative Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6 Fundamentals of Multi-user MIMO Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Luca Sanguinetti and H. Vincent Poor6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1406.3 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

6.3.1 Capacity Region of the Gaussian MIMO MAC . . . . . . . . . 1426.3.2 Gaussian MIMO Broadcast Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

6.4 Open- and Closed-Loop Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1586.4.1 Open-Loop Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596.4.2 Closed-Loop Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6.5 System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1606.5.1 Receiver Design for Uplink Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1606.5.2 Transmitter Design for Downlink Transmissions . . . . . . . . 161

6.6 Limited Feedback Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

xii Contents

6.6.1 Channel Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676.6.2 Random Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1686.6.3 Transceiver Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

6.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

7 Collaborative Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175Hideki Ochiai and Hideki Imai7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757.2 System Model and Beam Patterns of Fixed Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

7.2.1 Array Factor and Beam Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1787.2.2 Beam Patterns of Linear Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807.2.3 Beam Patterns of Circular Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

7.3 Collaborative Beamforming by Randomly Distributed Nodes . . . . . 1857.3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867.3.2 Average Beam Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887.3.3 Distribution of Beam Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907.3.4 Distribution of Maxima in Sidelobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

7.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

8 Cooperative Wireless Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199Behnaam Aazhang, Chris B. Steger, Gareth B. Middleton,and Brett Kaufman8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

8.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998.1.2 Physical Layer Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

8.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2028.2.1 Wide Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2028.2.2 Multiple Flows and Flow Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2038.2.3 Cooperative Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

8.3 Learning About the Environment: Network State Information . . . . 2058.3.1 NSI Overhead Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2068.3.2 NSI Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

8.4 Finding the Optimal Cooperative Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2078.4.1 Routing Cooperative Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2078.4.2 Trellis Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2088.4.3 Timing, Interference, and Duplexing Management . . . . . . 2098.4.4 Traversal Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

8.5 Network Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2108.5.1 Filling the Trellis: Gathering States, Edges, and NSI . . . . 2118.5.2 Filling the Trellis: Metanodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

8.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Contents xiii

9 Interference Rejection and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Arun Batra, James R. Zeidler, John G. Proakis, and Laurence B. Milstein9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2179.2 Self-Interference Among Cooperating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

9.2.1 Interference Suppression to Enable Spectrum Sharing . . . 2189.2.2 Effects of Interference on Channel State Estimation . . . . . 220

9.3 Interference Mitigation in Block-Modulated MulticarrierSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239.3.1 Interference Mitigation in an Uncoded Multicarrier

System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2249.3.2 Interference Mitigation in Coded Multicarrier Systems . . 2339.3.3 Doppler Sensitivity of OFDM in Mobile Applications . . . 235

9.4 Interference Suppression in Broadcast MIMO Systems . . . . . . . . . . 2369.4.1 Linear Precoding of the Transmitted Signals . . . . . . . . . . . 2379.4.2 Nonlinear Precoding of the Transmitted Signals:

The QR Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2399.4.3 Vector Precoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2449.4.4 Lattice Reduction Method for Precoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

9.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

10 Cognitive Radio: From Theory to Practical Network Engineering . . 251Ekram Hossain, Long Le, Natasha Devroye, and Mai Vu10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25110.2 Information-Theoretic Limits of Cognitive Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 253

10.2.1 Cognitive Behavior: Interference Avoidance, Control,and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

10.2.2 Information-Theoretic Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25410.2.3 Interference Avoidance: Spectrum Interweave . . . . . . . . . . 25510.2.4 Interference Control: Spectrum Underlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25610.2.5 Interference Mitigation: Spectrum Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.3 Cognitive Sensing with Side Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26410.4 Interference Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

10.4.1 A Network with Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26710.4.2 A Network with Primary Exclusive Regions . . . . . . . . . . . 268

10.5 Practical Cognitive Network Engineering: Interference ControlApproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26910.5.1 Single-Antenna Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27010.5.2 Multiple Antenna Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

10.6 Practical Cognitive Network Engineering: InterferenceAvoidance Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27310.6.1 Single-Hop Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27410.6.2 Multi-hop Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

10.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

xiv Contents

11 Coded Bidirectional Relaying in Wireless Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291Petar Popovski and Toshiaki Koike-Akino11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29111.2 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29311.3 Two-Way Relaying with Decoding at the Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

11.3.1 The Uplink Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29511.3.2 The Broadcast Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29611.3.3 Improved Broadcast Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29711.3.4 Numerical Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

11.4 Two-Way Relaying Without Decoding at the Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30211.4.1 Amplify-and-Forward (AF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30211.4.2 Denoise-and-Forward (DNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30311.4.3 Compress-and-Forward (CF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30511.4.4 Numerical Illustration and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

11.5 Achieving the Two-Way Rates with Structured Codes . . . . . . . . . . . 30711.5.1 Parity-Check Codes for Binary Symmetric Channels . . . . 30711.5.2 Gaussian Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

11.6 Signaling Constellations for Finite Packet Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31211.6.1 XOR Denoising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31211.6.2 Adaptive Denoising with Quintary Cardinality . . . . . . . . . 31311.6.3 End-to-End Throughput Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

11.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

12 Minimum Cost Subgraph Algorithms for Static and DynamicMulticasts with Network Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317Fang Zhao, Muriel Medard, Desmond Lun, and Asuman Ozdaglar12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31712.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

12.2.1 Wireline Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32012.2.2 Wireless Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

12.3 Decentralized Min-cost Subgraph Algorithms for Static Multicast . 32412.3.1 Subgradient Method for Decentralized Subgraph

Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32512.3.2 Convergence Rate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32812.3.3 Initialization and Primal Solution Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . 33412.3.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

12.4 Min-cost Subgraph Algorithms for Dynamic Multicasts . . . . . . . . . 34012.4.1 Nonrearrangeable Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34012.4.2 Rearrangeable Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34212.4.3 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

12.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

Contents xv

13 Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351Masoud Olfat13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35113.2 UMB Overall Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35213.3 UMB Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

13.3.1 Superframe Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35613.3.2 UMB FL Channelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36013.3.3 Reverse Link in UMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

13.4 UMB MAC Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37413.5 Other PHY/MAC-layer features in UMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38413.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

14 Mobile WiMAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389Masoud Olfat14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38914.2 Standardization Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

14.2.1 WiMAX Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39114.3 WiMAX Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

14.3.1 Network Reference Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39414.3.2 ASN profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39514.3.3 Mobility Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

14.4 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39914.4.1 S-OFDMA Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40114.4.2 Subchannel Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40214.4.3 Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40614.4.4 Channel Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40714.4.5 Multiple Antenna Modes in Mobile WiMAX . . . . . . . . . . 40914.4.6 Power Control and Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

14.5 Medium Access Control Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41614.5.1 Quality of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42014.5.2 Power Saving Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42114.5.3 Multicast Broadcast Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42214.5.4 Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42314.5.5 Security and Authentication in WiMAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

14.6 WiMAX Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42614.7 Future Work Toward IMT-Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

14.7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

15 An Overview of 3GPP Long-Term Evolution Radio AccessNetwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431Sassan Ahmadi15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

15.1.1 Chronology of 3GPP Air Interface TechnologyDevelopment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

xvi Contents

15.1.2 3GPP LTE System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43315.2 Overall Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43415.3 LTE Protocol Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43615.4 Overview of the LTE Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

15.4.1 Multiple Access Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43815.4.2 Operating Frequencies and Bandwidths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43915.4.3 Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44215.4.4 Physical Resource Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44315.4.5 Modulation and Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44415.4.6 Physical Channel Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44415.4.7 Reference Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44615.4.8 Physical Control Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44815.4.9 Physical Random Access Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45015.4.10 Cell Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45215.4.11 Link Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45215.4.12 Multi-antenna Techniques in LTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

15.5 Overview of the LTE Layer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45415.5.1 Logical and Transport Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45515.5.2 ARQ and HARQ in LTE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45815.5.3 Packet Data Convergence Sublayer (PDCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

15.6 Radio Resource Control Functions (RRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45815.7 Mobility Management and Handover in LTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46015.8 LTE Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46215.9 Future Work Toward IMT-Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46215.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

List of Contributors

Behnaam AazhangCenter for Multimedia Communication, Department of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, Rice University, e-mail: aaz@rice.edu

Sassan AhmadiIntel Corporation, Oregon, e-mail: sassan.ahmadi@intel.com

Arun BatraDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California,San Diego, e-mail: abatra@ucsd.edu

Ezio BiglieriUniversitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain, e-mail: e.biglieri@ieee.org

Robert CalderbankPrinceton University, Princeton, NJ, e-mail: calderbk@princeton.edu

Natasha DevroyeDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinoisat Chicago, e-mail: devroye@ece.uic.edu

Gagan GargDepartment of Computer Science and Automation, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, e-mail: gagan.garg@gmail.com

Saeed S. GhassemzadehAT&T Labs - Research, Florham Park, NJ, e-mail: saeedg@research.att.com

Tor HellesethDepartment of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway,e-mail: torh@ii.uib.no

Ekram HossainDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Manitoba,e-mail: ekram@ee.umanitoba.ca

xvii

xviii List of Contributors

Stephen D. HowardDefence Science and Technology Organisation, Edinburgh, Australia,e-mail: Stephen.Howard@dsto.defence.gov.au

Hideki ImaiChuo University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, e-mail: h-imai@elect.chuo-u.ac.jp

Brett KaufmanCenter for Multimedia Communication, Department of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, Rice University, e-mail: bkaufman@rice.edu

Toshiaki Koike-AkinoSchool of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University,e-mail: koike@seas.harvard.edu

P. Vijay KumarDepartment of Computer Science and Automation, Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore, e-mail: vijayk@usc.edu

Sanjay KumarCenter for TeleInFrastruktur (CTIF), Aalborg University, Denmark,e-mail: sk@es.aau.dk

Long LeDepartment of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, e-mail: longble@mit.edu

Desmond LunThe Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, e-mail: dlun@broad.mit.edu

Nicola MarchettiCenter for TeleInFrastruktur (CTIF), Aalborg University, Denmark,e-mail: nm@es.aau.dk

Jon W. MarkDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo,e-mail: jwmark@bbcr.uwaterloo.ca

Muriel MedardMassachusetts Institute of Technology, e-mail: medard@mit.edu

David G. MichelsonUniversity of British Columbia, e-mail: davem@ece.ubc.ca

Gareth B. MiddletonCenter for Multimedia Communication, Department of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, Rice University, e-mail: gbmidd@rice.edu

Laurence B. MilsteinDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California,San Diego, e-mail: milstein@ece.ucsd.edu

Hideki OchiaiYokohama National University, Hodogaya, Yokohama, e-mail: hideki@ynu.ac.jp

List of Contributors xix

Masoud OlfatClearline, Herndon, VA, e-mail: masoud.olfat@clearline.com

Asuman OzdaglarMassachusetts Institute of Technology, e-mail: asuman@mit.edu

Vincent PoorDepartment of Electrical Engineering, Princeton University,e-mail: poor@ princeton.edu

Petar PopovskiDepartment of Electronic Systems, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmarke-mail: petarp@es.aau.dk

Ramjee PrasadCenter for TeleInFrastruktur (CTIF), Aalborg University, Denmark,e-mail: prasad@es.aau.dk

John G. ProakisDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California,San Diego, e-mail: jproakis@ucsd.edu

Muhammad Imadur RahmanEricsson Research, Kista, Sweden, e-mail: muhammad.imadur.rahman@ericsson.com

Luca SanguinettiDipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Informazione, Universita di Pisa, Pisa, Italy,e-mail: luca.sanguinetti@iet.unipi.it

Songsri SirianunpiboonDefence Science and Technology Organisation, Edinburgh, Australia,e-mail: Songsri.Sirianunpiboon@dsto.defence.gov.au

Chris StegerCenter for Multimedia Communication, Department of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, Rice University, e-mail: chrissteger@gmail.com

Mai VuDivision of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University,e-mail: maivu@deas.harvard.edu

James R. ZeidlerDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California,San Diego, e-mail: zeidler@ece.ucsd.edu

Fang ZhaoMassachusetts Institute of Technology, e-mail: zhaof@mit.edu

Lian ZhaoDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ryerson University, Toronto,e-mail: lzhao@ee.ryerson.ca

Acronyms

2G second generation3G third generation3GPP The Third Generation Partnership Project3GPP2 The Third Generation Partnership Project 24G fourth generationAAA accounting, authorization, authenticationAAS advanced antenna systemAF amplify and forwardAFD average fade durationAK authentication keyAM adaptive modulationAMC adaptive modulation and codingARQ automatic repeat requestASN access service networkAWGN additive white Gaussian noiseBAN body area networkBC broadcast channelBCH broadcast channelBD block diagonalizationBEP bit error probabilityBER bit error rateBF beamformingBLAST Bell Labs Layered Space TimeBPA belief propagation algorithmBPSK binary phase shift keyingBS base stationBSC binary symmetric channelBTC block turbo codeBWA broadband wireless accessCC convolutional codeCCE control channel elements

xxi

xxii Acronyms

CCH common control channelCCI co-channel interferenceCDMA code division multiple accessCF compress and forwardCID connection IDCIR channel impulse responseCIR carrier-to-interference ratioCLPC closed-loop power controlCNR channel-to-noise ratioCQI channel quality indicatorCQICH channel quality indicator channelCR cognitive radioCSI channel state informationCSN connectivity service networkCTF channel transfer functionCWG Certification Working GroupDCD downlink channel descriptorDE density evolutionDF decode and forwardDFE decision feedback equalizerDL downlinkDNF denoise and forwardDPC dirty paper codingDRCH distributed resource channelDS direct sequenceDS-CDMA direct sequence code division multiple accessDSA dynamic spectrum allocationDSL digital subscriber lineDSSS direct sequence spread spectrumEAP extensible authentication protocolECC error correction codingECM EPS connection managementEIRP effective isotropic radiated powerEM expectation maximizationEPC evolved packet careEPS evolved packet systemERV error vector magnitudeE-UTRAN evolved UTRANEXIT extrinsic information transferFA foreign agentFCH frame control headerFDD frequency division duplexFDMA frequency division multiple accessFDE frequency domain equalizationFEC forward error correction

Acronyms xxiii

FFT fast Fourier transformFH frequency hoppingFHSS frequency hopping spread spectrumFL forward linkFMT filtered multitoneGBC Gaussian broadcast channelGMW Gordon, Mills, and Welch (sequences)GP guard periodGRP greedy rate packingGW gatewayGZF greedy zero forcingH-ARQ hybrid ARQIC interference cancellationICI inter-carrier interferenceIETF Internet Engineering Task ForceIP Internet ProtocolISI inter-symbol interferenceITS intelligent transportation systemITU International Telecommunication UnionJDF joint decode and forwardLAN local area networkLBF linear beam formingLBS location-based serviceLC linear combiningLDPC low-density parity checkLLR log-likelihood ratioLTE long-term evolutionMA multiple accessMAC medium access controlMAI multiple access interferenceMAN metropolitan area networkMAP maximum a posterioriMBS multicast broadcast servicesMBSFN multicast and broadcast single frequency networkMC multi-carrierMC-CDMA multi-carrier code division multiple accessMCH multicast channelMFSK M-ary frequency shift keyingMIMO multiple input multiple outputML maximum likelihoodMLSE maximum likelihood sequence estimationMLSSE maximum likelihood symbol-by-symbol estimationMMSE minimum mean square errorMMSEC minimum mean square error combiningMPC multipath component

xxiv Acronyms

MRC maximal ratio combiningMS mobile stationMT multi-tone or mobile terminalsMU multi-userMuD multi-user diversityMUD multi-user detectionNAP network access providerNBI narrowband interferenceNLOS non-line of sightNRM network reference modelNSI network state informationNWG Network Working GroupOFDD orthogonal frequency division duplexingOFDM orthogonal frequency division multiplexingOFDMA orthogonal frequency division multiple accessOSF optimal spreading factorOTA over-the-air activationPAM pulse amplitude modulationPAPR peak-to-average power ratioPC power controlPCCH paging control channelPDCP Packet Data Convergence ProtocolPDCCH physical downlink control channelPDN packet data networkPEF prediction error filterPER packet error rate = probability error ratePHS payload header suppressionPHY physical layerPMK pairwise master keyPMP point to multipointPOMDP partially observable Markov decision processPSK phase shift keyingPTS pilot time slotPUSC partial usage subchannelPUCCH physical uplink control channelQAM quadrature amplitude modulationQoS quality of serviceQPSK quadrature phase shift keyingRACH random access channelRBF random beamformingRF radio frequencyRLC radio link controlRRM radio resource managementRRA radio resource assignmentRRC radio resource control

Acronyms xxv

RSSI received signal strength indicatorRTD round trip delayRTTG receive transmit transition gapRWG Regulatory Working GroupSA security associationSAE system architecture evolutionSAP service access pointSC single carrierSDMA space division multiple accessSDU service data unitSF space frequencySFBC space frequency block codeSGW service gatewaySIMO single input multiple outputSINR signal to interference+noise ratioSIR service to interference ratioSM spatial multiplexingSNR signal-to-noise ratioSOFDMA scalable OFDMASPA sum product algorithmSPWG Service Provider Working GroupST space–timeSTBC space–time block codeSTC space–time codingSS spread spectrumTCM trellis-coded modulationTCP transmission control protocolTD transmit diversityTDE time domain equalizationTDMA time division multiple accessTEK traffic encryption keyTRAN terrestrial radio access networkTTG transmit/receive transition gapTTI transmission time intervalsTUSC tile usage of subchannelsTWG Technical Working GroupUCD uplink channel descriptorUL uplinkULP ultra-low powerUMTS universal mobile telecommunication systemsUTRAN universal terrestrial radio access networkUWB ultra-wide bandVBLAST Vertical Bell Labs Layered Space–Time ArchitectureVNA vector network analyzerVoIP voice over IP

xxvi Acronyms

VSA vector signal analyzerWCDMA wideband code division multiple accessW-OFDM wideband orthogonal frequency division multiplexingWAN wide area networkWiMAX worldwide interoperability for microwave accessWLAN wireless local area networkWMAN wireless metropolitan area networkZF zero forcing