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Title Code:-UPENG04282 VOL: 1; No: 1 Dec 2017
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Of AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
NEW AGE MOBALIZATIONNEW DELHI – 110043
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Halfyearly
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Printed by : Pragati Press, Muzaffararnagar, U. P. Date of Publication : 18 Nov, 2017 Printing Place : Muzaffarnagar, U.P. On behalf of : Mrs. Jagesh Bhardwaj President, New Age Mobilization Published by : Mrs. Jagesh Bhardwaj President, New Age Mobilization
EDITOR-in-Chief
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj W.Scientist-DST WOS-B
S.V. P. U. A. & T. Meerut U.P. India Post Doctoral Fellow (Endeavour Award, Australia)
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Halfyearly
Published by : New Age Mobilization, New Delhi-110043 (REGISTRATION No. - S/RS/SW/1420/2015
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Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj W. Scientist, S.V.P.U.A.& T. Meerut Post Doctoral Fellow (EndeavourAward, Australia) www.svbpmeerut.ac.in www.researchgate.net/profile/Tulsi_Bhardwaj2 scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=1JBN-mwAAAAJ&hl=en
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
New Age Mobilization
New Delhi.110043
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ABOUT THE JOURNAL
NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development (print ISSN; online ISSN)
is published by NAMO, NEW AGE MOBILIZATION, every six months in a year. The main
mandate of the journal is –
-to accentuate R and D in the field and to network the scientific community around the world.
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
All correspondence may be made at the following address:
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj (Endeavour Fellow, Australia)
W. Scientist-DST WOS-B
Editor-in-chief, NAMO-IJARD
Department of Entomology
SVPUA&T, Meerut
U.P. India
E-mail: [email protected]
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NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
EDITORIAL
“Journey from laboratory to fields”
Agriculture is an eminent sector of Indian economy as well mother of most of the others
sectors thus very important for accelerating country’s GDP. Government expending considerably at
R&D in the field of agriculture but any how the application and of the recent technologies in the field
is lagging behind.
The global agri-research is today equipped with high yielding and efficient inputs (seeds and
fertilizers etc), high profile techniques, models of extension with latest approach of agribusiness. It’s
is mandatory to implement these technologies among the actual agri-practitioners for boosting the
growth of Country. The R&D and the extensionary-bodies in India have got a face lift since last
decade but no doubt the actual implementation has been ignored.
In the current global scenario of changing agri-research, role of technology delivery system is
very important as the basic laboratory research. Laboratory to field is just a bookish concept without a
well planned dynamic delivery system. To achieve the significant results, a focussed and well planned
strategic research is required. While implementing at grass root levels, multidisciplinary approach is
critical so a paradigm shift from single discipline oriented to multi-oriented approach is required.
The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development stimulates the multi-
sectoral stakeholders viz., researchers and extension professionals, agri-workers, innovative farmers,
development practitioners and students for motivating and igniting their passion through different
activities like bringing out research by providing them a common platform.
We are happy to bring out inaugural issue of September 2017 and the issue has enveloped the
research domain in the areas of instructional effectiveness of online content, development of scales
and indices for measuring behavioural changes, yield gap analysis, training needs, promotion of
pulses production, traditional folk media, impact assessment, extent of entrepreneurial success,
contextualizing community mobilization, adoption behaviour, capacity building and similar other
aspects.
I hope to add the other important issues like bio-pesticides; current techniques, hazardous
pesticides problems, women empowerment, gender mainstreaming, and agri-entrepreneurship as well
as ICT application in agriculture to cover in the following issues of the Journal.
I extend my heartfelt thanks to the members of the editorial team, who meticulously edited
the papers to maintain the quality as well to bring out the issue on time. I also express my sincere
gratitude to the authors for making their contribution while providing the journal current shape.
I wish all the best to them.
Tulsi Bhardwaj
Editor-in-chief
1 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Inaugural Issue, Dec. 2017
Potential of bioslurry generated from various raw materials to supplement
phyto-nutrients to tomato crop
Renu Singh*, R.K. Yadav2, Monika Srivastava
3, Ritu Tomar
4
*, 3 & 4 Centre for Environment Science and Climate Resilient Agriculture, ICAR-IARI, 2.Div. of Veg. Sc. ICAR-
IARI, New Delhi, India, 110012
Abstract To investigate the effect of biogas slurry (BGS), kitchen waste slurry (KWS) and ethanol slurry (ES) on
growth, yield and nutritional characteristics of tomato plant, a pot experiment was conducted in a Complete
Randomized Design with three replications. 20 different treatment combinations of BGS, KWS and ES were prepared
and they were compared by analyzing the different growth and nutritional qualities of tomato plant. The results
revealed that the morphological characteristics such as plant height, number of leaves and yield attributes such as
number of fruits per plant, average fruit weight is maximum in biogas slurry treated tomatoes while nutritional
qualities such as ascorbic acid, lycopene, β-carotene and total carotenoids is maximum in kitchen waste slurry
treatment. Hence, the present research works proved that the bio slurries are economical and an excellent source of
plant nutrients and can be utilized as a manure for enhancing tomato fruit quality and productivity.
Keywords: Tomato plant, Bio slurry, Yield attributes, Fruit quality
Cite this article: Singh R et.al., 2017. Potential of bioslurry generated from various raw materials to supplement phyto-nutrients
to tomato crop, The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, 1(1) 01-07.
Published: September 2017
Introduction
Biological wastes are generated every
day in large quantities which comes from
everywhere including household, restaurants,
shop, factories, sewage-plants, biogas plants
and poultry and livestock farms. To dispose
such large quantities of wastes, an effective
method of disposal is needed in order to
protect the environment. One of the methods
to use these wastes is to convert it into
manure for crop production. The use of
municipal solid wastes as bio-solids for crop
production has been investigated extensively
and accounted for increased yields of
vegetable crops such as okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus) (Bryan,1991), beans (Phaseolus
coccineus L.) (Ozores-Hampton,1 993)
tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill)
(Obreza,1994) and pepper (Capsicum
annuum L.) (Roe, 1993). Organic manure
enhances the growth, yield and quality of
crops (Sreenivasa, 2010). According to
Deksissa et al., (2008), poultry manure
contains high nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P)
and potassium (K) and it is an excellent
source of organic fertilizer. Adediran et al.,
(2003) had conducted a field experiment to
evaluate the effect of compost prepared from
organic waste material on two vegetable
crops, tomato and amaranthus and concluded
that compost could be used as a high quality
growing media and soil conditioner.
Use of bio-slurry is a cheap source of
plant nutrients and can offer extra benefits to
soil fertility and fruit quality of tomato (Yu,
2010) The improvement in nutritional quality
of fruit includes increase in the contents of
amino acids, protein, soluble sugar, β-
carotene, tannins and vitamin C. Besides
these advantages, application of liquid
organic manure not only increases crop
production but, also overcome the problem
of their disposal (Nileemas, 2010) Different
types of organic manures such as farm yard
manure (FYM), animal wastes, crop
residues, urban organic wastes are used for
enhancing soil fertility. Sewage sludge,
municipal wastes and industrial wastes are
also utilized for crop production. Yu et al,
2010 concluded that application of
Potential of bioslurry generated from various raw materials to supplement phyto-nutrients to tomato crop
concentrated bio gas slurry could increase
the amino acids, protein, β- carotene, soluble
sugar, vitamin C and tannins in tomato fruit
and thus, enhanced the tomato quality.
Therefore, in the present study objectives
were (i) To explore manurial potential of
biogas slurry, kitchen wastes slurry and
ethanol slurry alone as well as their different
combinations for enhancing tomato
production (ii) Impact of different slurries on
growth, yield and nutritional quality of
tomato crop.
Materials and methods
Experimental location and treatments
Biogas slurry (BGS), Kitchen waste
slurry (KWS) and ethanol slurry (ES) were
collected from the institute’s biogas plant,
post graduate hostels and ethanol
experimental setup respectively. The slurries
were analyzed for N, P, K and other elements
(Table 1). Twenty different treatment
combinations of BGS, KWS and ES were
prepared (Table 2). The respective treatments
were given at the time of filling of pots
containing 15 kg of sieved soil. 25 days old
uniform seedlings of tomato variety ‘Pusa
Rohini’ were transplanted in these pots.
Basal dose of P and K were applied as 1.42 g
single super phosphate and 0.38 g murate of
potash respectively. N was applied in two
splits with 50% of urea (0.53 g) for 10% of
(BGS, KWS and ES), 0.47 g for 20% of
(BGS, KWS and ES), 0.42 g for 30% of
(BGS, KWS and ES), 0.36 g for 40% of
(BGS, KWS and ES) and 0.30g for 50% of
(BGS, KWS and ES) and 0.30g for their
different combinations. The second dose of
N was given one month after transplantation.
Standard agronomical practices were
followed for plant nutrition and pathogen
prevention. Experiments have been
performed in triplicates and average values
have been considered. Fruits from each
treatment were harvested when 90% of the
attained maturity. After harvesting they were
kept refrigerated for analysis of anti-oxidant
properties. Parameters analyzed for
antioxidant properties were lycopene,
ascorbic acid, total phenols, β-carotene and
total carotenoids. Sampled tomatoes were cut
into small pieces and consecutively
homogenized in a domestic blender for 2
minutes and analyzed for various
antioxidant/biochemical constituents.
Growth and developmental Parameters
Plant height at first harvest was
measured with the measuring tape and
average of triplicates was computed. Number
of leaves per plant was recorded. Pericarp
thickness was measured with the measuring
tape or scale and number of locules was note
down. Average of triplicates was calculated
and analyzed. Root morphology was
determined using (Wiz Rhizo) software
model EPSON EXPRESSION 1680. It
determined root surface area (cm2), volume
(cm3) and diameter (mm). Phenology
features included number of days to
flowering, maturity and harvesting has been
recorded. Fruit weight of plants after
harvesting was recorded with the help of
digital balance and mean fruit weight per
plant was expressed as grams per plant.
Numbers of fruits/plant, yield per plant was
recorded and mean values were computed
and analyzed.
Determination of lycopene, total
carotenoids and β-carotene content
Lycopene, total carotenoid and β-
carotene was analyzed through
spectrophotometer. The absorbance was
measured at 503 nm for lycopene and at 452
nm for total carotenoids and β-carotene
respectively (Ranganna,1976). The result
was expressed as for lycopene mg lycopene/
100g sample, total carotenoids as mg total
carotenoid/100g sample and β-carotene as
µg/ 100 g sample.
Determination of Ascorbic acid and Total
phenols
Singh et.al.
Ascorbic acid was quantified by 2, 6
di-chloro-phenol indophenols titration
method. The result has been displayed as mg
ascorbic acid/ 100g sample (AOAC,1970).
Total phenolics were estimated
spectrophotometrically using Folinciocalteu
reagent (Singleton,1999). The absorbance
was measured at 650 nm against a reagent
blank. The result was expressed as mg
phenols/100 g material.
Statistical design and analyses
The experiment was performed in
Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with
three replications. All statistical analysis was
performed using Analyses of Variance
(ANOVAs) SAS Version 9.2.2 (SAS
Institute, Inc, Cary, NC, USA). It analyze
differences among the treatments for change
in plant height, number of leaves, fruit
number, total fruit weight, root weight, root
length and for chemical characteristics.
Before running ANOVAs, Levene’s
homogeneity of variance test was carried out
to check if any dependent variable
transformations were required. For a
significant F-test obtained from ANOVA
analysis, pair wise treatment mean
differences were obtained using differences
of least squares means with a Bonferroni
adjustment at p < 0.05. The Dunnett’s test at
the 0.05% significance level was performed
to calculate least significant differences
(LSDs) for chemical and physical properties.
Result and Discussion
The present research work was
conducted to evaluate the effect of different
doses of biogas slurry, kitchen waste and
ethanol slurry alone and in different
combinations on the growth and
development as well as on biochemical
characters of tomato plant.
Growth and developmental Parameters
It involved analysis of change in
plant height, number of leaves, fruit weight,
root morphology, number of days taken to
flowering, fruiting and harvesting etc.
Statistical analysis showed that the plant
height, no. of leaves and side branches are
significantly (p<0.05) affected by different
types of bio-slurries and their combinations.
The plant height is highest in treatment of
biogas slurry ranging from 21- 28 cm. The
plants grown using different percentage of
ethanol slurry had shown minimum height
(10-15 cm) (Table 3a). The maximum
number of leaves (98) was observed in
treatment 5 and it was followed by treatment
19 (90). The least number of leaves were
found in plants grown using ethanol slurry
(26-48). The number of days required for
flowering, fruiting and harvesting for
different treatments is reported in Table 3a
and Anova analysis proved that all these
parameters are significant (p<0.05) (Table
3b). The result showed maximum number of
days to flowering (79) in treatment 16
followed by 61 and 62 days in treatment 18
and 19 respectively. The least number of
days to flowering 38 was taken by treatment
2. Maximum number of days to fruiting 118
was observed in treatment 15 and minimum
was taken by treatment 3. The number of
days to harvesting was ranged from 126-143
and maximum time was taken by treatment
18 and minimum was treatment 2, 3 and 10.
The maximum root surface area is shown by
plants utilizing treatment 10 and minimum
by treatment 15. The root volume and
average diameter is observed in range of
0.82- 2.18 cm3
and 0.527-0.70 mm. Pericarp
thickness and number of locules has been
recorded maximum in biogas slurry treated
tomatoes and least in ethanol slurry treatment
(0.50 mm, 3) and (0.30 mm, 2) respectively.
Average fruit weight, no. of fruits and yield
are significant at (p<0.05). The average fruit
weight was computed maximum in biogas
slurry treatment (37 g) followed by kitchen
waste slurry (32 g) while in control it was 22
g. Compared to all the treatments, number of
fruits per plant has been recorded highest in
Potential of bioslurry generated from various raw materials to supplement phyto-nutrients to tomato crop
biogas slurry treatment i.e. 17 while in
control it was 8. Yield per plant has been
computed maximum in biogas slurry
treatment 2 kg/ plant followed by kitchen
waste slurry 1.6 kg/plant while in control it
was recorded 1 kg/plant.
Biochemical Parameters
Lycopene, β-carotene and total
carotenoids Analysis
Lycopene content, β-carotene and
total carotenoids was observed in the range
of 26-34 mg/100g, 11.61-12.87µg/100g and
23-26 mg/100g respectively. Maximum
lycopene content, β-carotene and total
carotenoids was shown in treatment 1, 10
and 11 respectively. All these parameters
did not have a significant difference with that
of control and with the different types of
treatments.
Ascorbic acid and Total phenol Analysis
Ascorbic acid plays an important role
in various aspects of plant life and also
beneficial for human health. It is a powerful
water-soluble antioxidant and plays a vital
function in the suppression of free radicals.
The ascorbic acid content is highest in
treatment 10. Ascorbic acid is significantly
affected by the different types of treatments
and showed a significant difference with that
of control. Fresh tomato possesses a
significant amount of phenolic compounds
(Re R- Bramley,2002) The total phenol
content is ranged from 130-160 mg/100g and
it is significant at p<0.05. The phenol content
is highest in treatment 10 followed by
treatment 1 and treatment 11.
Conclusion
The current study demonstrates that use of
different slurries as manure for tomato
production is very beneficial as it enhances
the tomato fruit quality, yield and other
properties. The morphological qualities such
as plant height, number of leaves and yield
attributes such as number of fruits per plant,
average fruit weight are highest in tomato
plants treated with biogas slurry while
nutritional qualities such as ascorbic acid,
lycopene, β-carotenene and total carotenoids
are maximum in kitchen waste slurry
treatment. Biogas slurry, kitchen wastes and
ethanol slurry are rich in nitrogen and other
nutrients, their use as manure not only
protects the environment from the adverse
impact of fertilizer, but also saves the
farmer’s income spent on buying it. All these
materials are waste products and their
utilization for tomato production overcome
the problem of their disposal.
References
1. Bryan, HH, Lance, CJ: Compost
trials on vegetables and tropical
crops. Bio Cycle. 27, 36-37(1991).
2. Ozores-Hampton, M, Bryan, HH:
Effect of amending soil with
municipal solid waste (MSW)
compost on yield of bell peppers and
eggplant. Hort. Sci. 28, 463(1993).
3. Ozores-Hampton, M. Bryan, HH:
Municipal solid waste (MSW) soil
amendments: Influence on growth
and yield of snap beans. Proc Fla
State Hort. Soc. 106, 208-210 (1993).
4. Obreza, TA, Vavrina, CS: Using
municipal solid waste compost as a
soil amendment. Citrus Veg
Magazine. 57, 8, 8-10 (1994).
5. Roe, NE, Stoffella, PJ, Bryan, HH:
Utilization of MSW compost and
other organic mulches on commercial
vegetable crops. Compost Sci Util. 1,
3, 73-84 (1993).
6. Sreenivasa, MN, Nagaraj, MN, Bhat,
SN, Beejamruth: A source for
beneficial bacteria. Karnataka J.
Agric. Sci. 17, 3, 72-77 (2010).
7. Deksissa, TI, Short Allen, J. Effect of
soil amendment with compost on
growth and water use efficiency of
Singh et.al.
Amaranth. In: Proceedings of the
UCOWR/NIWR annual conference:
International water resources:
challenges for the 21st century and
water resources education, July 22 –
24, Durham, NC (2008).
8. Adediran, JA, Taiwo, LB, Sobulo,
RA: Effect of organic waste and
method of composting on compost
maturity, nutrient composition of
compost and yield of two vegetable
crops. J. Sustain. Agri. 22, 95-109
(2003).
9. Yu, FB, Luo, XP, Song, CF, Zhang,
MX, Shan, SD: Concentrated biogas
slurry enhanced soil fertility and
tomato quality. Acta Agric. Scand.
Sect B. Soil Plant Sci. 60, 262-268
(2010). DOI:
10.1080/09064710902893385.
10. Nileemas, G, Sreenivasa, MN:
Influence of liquid organic manures
on growth, nutrient content and yield
of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum
Mill) in the sterilized soil. J. Agric
Sci. 24, 153-157 (2011).
11. Ranganna, S. Handbook of analysis
and quality control for fruits and
vegetable products. (2Edn), pp. 545
(1976). Tata Mc. Graw Hill
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12. AOAC Official Methods of Analysis
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13. Singleton, VL, Orthofer, R, Lamuela-
Ranventos, RM: Analysis of total
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Received on June, 2017, Revised on
August, 2017
Potential of bioslurry generated from various raw materials to supplement phyto-nutrients to tomato crop
Table 1 Characteristics of different types of manure
S.No. Biogas slurry
(BGS)
Kitchen waste
(KWS)
Ethanol
slurry (ES)
1 Total Nitrogen (N)
(%)
2.22 1.82 0.47
2 Potassium (K) (ppm) 4335.5 5465.5 516
3 Lead (ppm) 9.1 0 0
4 Calcium (ppm) 5379.55 4482.05 1190.55
5 Copper (ppm) 16.45 8.55 0
6 Iron (ppm) 1329.3 1118.8 109.5
7 Magnesium (ppm) 18.1 18.1 28.5
8 Manganese (ppm) 143.8 113.9 22.45
Singh et.al.
Table 2 Different treatment conditions for tomato production
Treatments
code
Amount added to soil (g pot-1
)
1 5.09
2 10.18
3 15.27
4 20.36
5 25.45
6 6.22
7 12.44
8 18.67
9 24.89
10 31.11
11 22.40
12 44.80
13 67.20
14 89.60
15 112
16 BGS (12.73g) + KWS (15.56g)
17 BGS (12.73g) + ES (56g)
18 KWS (15.56g) + ES (56g)
19 BGS (8.65g) + KWS (10.58g) + ES (38.08g)
20 13g FYM + 0.6g urea + 0.38g MOP + 1.42g SSP
Table 3a Effect of different treatments on morphological characteristics of tomato plant
Treatments
Code
Plant height
(cm)
Number of
leaves
Days to
flowering
Days to
fruiting
Days to
harvesting
1 21.0 62.7 49 104 142
2 17.3 57.3 38 100 126
3 24.0 74.7 40 88 126
4 24.7 87 42 103 130
5 24.7 98 52 104 137
6
15.7 36.7 49 111
142
7 20.0 50.3 48 105 141
8 17.7 57.0 41 105 142
9 19.0 57.3 41 108 131
10 16.0 69.7 46 108 126
11 14.0 37.0 49 108 142
12 14.3 42.3 44 108 142
13 12.3 34.7 50 106 140
14
10.0 45 42 114
141
15 15.0 48.0 40 118 136
16 16.7 52.3 79 103 142
Potential of bioslurry generated from various raw materials to supplement phyto-nutrients to tomato crop
Table 3b F-ratio and level of significance for different parameters in Tomato
Sample Column Interaction
Plant height, side
branches, no. of leaves
863.60 16.51 5.12
Root surface area, root
volume, root diameter
2679.8 10.52 11.55
Days to flower, fruit,
maturity
2615 5.14 3.46
No. of fruits, avg. fruit
weight
2085.5 42.63 22.63
Lycopene, β-carotene,
total carotenoids
9853.5 20.75 12.94
Total phenol, ascorbic
acid
79310.4 1108.5 1509.62
Level of significance: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001; ns: not significant.
17 16.0 50.0 40 104 142
18 17.0 57.5 61 104 143
19 20.5 90.3 62 105 140
20 28.3 93.7 44 104 137
8 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Inaugural Issue, Dec. 2017
Integrated Insect Pests Management in Organic Farming Gaje Singh
Department of Entomology,
S.V. P. University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut (U.P.), India 250110
Abstract The big challenge of the 21st century is the need to feed a fast growing population. There are other challenges
like improving the productive capacity of agricultural ecosystems, and the health and integrity of surrounding
environments for future generations. Organic farming is gaining popularity worldwide as it minimizes
dependence on chemical inputs, thus safe the natural resources and environment. In organic farming, insect
pests are the greatest challenge since genetically modified crops and synthetic chemical pesticides are not
allowed in organic agriculture production. The principle of integrated pest management (IPM) in cultivation of
organic production involves application of ecologically sound strategies. Major emphasis should give on
integration of various tactics and incorporated into the cropping system to prevent the damage caused by the
insect pests. The key strategies of IPM of organic farming are selection of resistance/tolerance varieties, planting
trap crops, following crop rotation, conservation and use of biological agents to manage the pest below
economic injury level (EIL).
Key words: Pest Management, Organic farming, IPM
Cite this article: Singh G. 2017. Integrated Insect Pests Management In Organic Farming, The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, 1 (1): 08-16.
Published: SEPT 2017
Introduction
The insect pest management in organic
farming involves understanding of basic
ecological principles using in an
agricultural ecosystem. The insect pests
management in organic farming dependent
on preventive methods of control rather
than curative methods which are based on
the ecologically safer management
methods. The priority should be given to
maintain the health of the ecosystem thus
plants should be resistance to attack by
insect pests. Sound management of
ecosystem through little modification in
the cultural practices such as trap crop,
sowing time, crop rotation, soil quality
management through the addition of
organic materials constitute the first
defence against the attack of insect pests
followed by use of the curative methods
like use of predators, parasitoids, plant
products and ecologically safer chemicals
forms the next line of defence against the
insect pests. ---*Corresponding Author’s Email Address:
Insect Pest Management Strategies:
Modification of cultural practices: Cultural practices are among the oldest
techniques used for pest suppression, and
many of the preventive practices used in
conventional and organic farming today
have their roots in traditional agriculture.
Slight modification in the cultural
practices will have an impact on the whole
ecosystem. The practices such as the crop
rotation, intercropping, soil management
with the addition of the organic
amendments will enhance the agricultural
biodiversity and thus have a greater role to
play in the management of insect pests as
well as the pathogens. The insect pests
which have an obligate relationship with
host plants can be controlled by adopting
crop rotation. Use of resistant host plants
forms another cultural method to reduce
the damage caused by insect pests. Trap
crop and intercrops will reduce the
incidence of insect pests on the main crop
that help in reducing the pest damage.
These methods have certain limitations
viz., have to be planned well in advance
and these are preventive in nature thus not
Gaje Singh
helpful in case of a severe outbreak of
insect pests.
Conservation of natural enemies: Many
pest populations can be managed by
enhancing the efficacy and augmenting
local abundance of the existing natural
enemies through modification of the
environment or existing practices, a
practice known as conservation biological
control. This practice is of immense
importance in case of organic farming thus
natural regulation of pest population can
be obtained through enhancement of the
activity of already existing natural enemies
in the production system. The practices
such as provision of the nectar providing
plants as hedge rows and shelter belts will
improve the efficacy of parasitoids and
predators in controlling the insect pests.
The production strategies such as
intercropping and trap cropping also
reported to augment the natural enemies by
providing alternative host as well as source
of chemical cues that enhance the activity
of biological control agents in the cropping
system. The planting of perennial flower
bearing plants around field has been found
to beneficial in increasing the activity of
the natural enemies in plantation crops.
Shelter belts increase the survival
percentage of natural enemies in the
absence of natural host by providing
alternate habitat.
Use of biological control agents: Inundative and inoculative release or
applying biological control agents such as
insect predators, parasitoids and bio-
pesticides (insect pathogens) have a
greater role to play in controlling the insect
pests in an insecticide free environment.
These agents can be used as curative
control methods in case of sudden
outbreak in the insect population. Some of
the commonly used and potential
biological control agents and bio-
pesticides for pest management in organic
crop production are listed below:
Bio-agents:
Predators-
They are free living, and they are usually
as big as or bigger than their prey. They
consume several too much prey over the
course of their development. Some
predators, including certain syrphid fly and
the common green lacewing, are
predaceous only as larvae. Other predators
are found in the field in different cropping
system are lady beetle, rove beetle, damsel
fly, dragon fly, mired bug, ground beetle,
and praying mantis, Conobertha, spiders,
etc.
Figure 1 Parasitoids
Parasitoid:
Parasitoid means parasite like. Although
parasitoids are similar to true parasites,
which are generally much smaller than
their hosts. As they develop, parasites
usually weaken but parasitoids really kill
their host.
Egg parasitoids: Trichogramma
spp.,Tetrasticus spp., Telenomus
spp.,Ooenocytus pyrillae, Epiricania
melanoleuca)
Larval parasitoids: Bracon hebetor,
Apanteles spp., Stenobracon spp.
Pupal parasitoids: Xenothopimpla spp.
Trichogramma spp.
These are small size insects which use
eggs of different borers and leaf folder
Integrated Insect Pests Management in Organic Farming
insects as a host. The adult female wasp
deposited her eggs inside the host eggs and
completes all stages in it. From parasitized
eggs the adult wasp emerged and searches
the host eggs to complete her life cycle.
One adult female wasp can damage 100
host eggs. This parasitoid available as
trichocard bears 18000-20000 eggs per
trichocard.
Figure 2Trichogramma spp. On host eggs
Figure 3Trichocard Using method
Trichocard Using method
Note : Trichocard should be cut in to 10
pieces before adult wasp emergence and
stapled at lower surface of leaf .
Bio-pesticides:
Biopesticides are certain types of
pesticides that are derived from natural
materials like plants (Botanical origin),
bacteria, fungi and virus (Microbial origin)
and certain minerals. When used as a
component of Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) programs these bio-pesticides can
greatly decrease the use of conventional
pesticides, while crop yields remain high.
The Bio-Pesticides control pests
selectively or with broad spectrum
approach. Bio-pesticides are usually
inherently less toxic than conventional
pesticides. Bio-pesticides are generally
target specific and affect only the target
pest and closely related organisms.
Bacteria: Bacillus Thuringiensis (B.t.):
Bt is a ubiquitous gram positive soil
bacterium. It has been isolated from soil,
stored grain, insect cadavers and the
phylloplane. Thus, 3 prevailing niches of
B.t. can envisaged:
(i) entomopathogen
(ii) phylloplane inhabitant
(iii) soil microorganism
B.t. is recognized by its parasporal body
that is proteinaceous in nature and
possesses insecticidal properties. It is a
bacterium which infected the insect and
produced disease. When B.t. treated crop is
ingested by insects the B.t. produce a
protein i.e. endo-toxin at mid gut (High
pH-9.0) . Withinminute the toxin bind with
specific receptors in mid gut wall.
Withinhours mid gut wall broken down
and allowing spores to enter in the body
cavity (Hemocoel). After 1-2 days larvae
die from septicemia. Affected larvae
become inactive – stop feeding –
regurgitate or watery excrement Head
capsule become large than body size and
larvae become flaccid & die. Body content
turn towards black as they decompose.
Use of B.t. species:
• Lepidoptera (B.t. Kurstaki &
aizawai)
• Coleoptera (B.t. tenebrionis)
• Diptera (B.t. israeliensis)
Figure 4 B.t. infected larvae
Fungi:
Beauveria bassiana (White muscardine
fungus)
Metarhizium anisopliae (green muscardine
fungus)
Gaje Singh
The entomopathogen invades the insect
body. The fungal hypha secretes enzymes
and attached to the insect cuticle and offer
germination, the hyphae penetrate the
cuticle and proliferate in insect’s body.
Once inside, the fungus replicates and
consumes the insect’s internal organs and
blood like fluid, the haemolymph. After
the insect dies, an antibiotic oosporein) is
produced that enable the fungus to out
compete intestinal bacteria. When
conditions are favourable the fungus grows
through the softer parts of the insect body,
producing the characteristic ‘White bloom’
appearance. High humidity or free water is
essential for conidial germination and
infection establishes between 24 and 48
h.The infected insect may live for 3 to 5
days after hyphae penetration and after
death the conidiophores bearing conidia
are produced on cadaver. The fungus is
insect specific.
Figure 5 Fungus as bio-control
B. bassiana is used as foliar spray.
Application rates depend upon the crop
and the pests to be controlled. The normal
application rate on commodity crop is 750
to 1,000 ml of product per hectare.
Formulation should contain conidia of B.
bassiana at a conc. of 2.3 107 spores/ml
or ~ 5 108 spores/g. The formulation
may be kept up to one year if stored below
20 oC. The product may be used alone or
tank mixed with other product such as
sticking agents, insecticidal soaps. Not
used with fungicide and if used then 48 h
is awaited before applying fungicide.
Virus:
Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV):
Infection of baculovirus generally occur by
ingestion of occluded or free virion.
Ingested virion infect mid gut – occluded
bodies dissolve by protease enzyme and
free virion reach hemocoel, circulatory
system and respiratory system and attack
there. Symptoms: occur after 5-7 days of
infection Gradual change in colour
(infected larvae change light to dark brown
) heamolymph turns cloudy and milky
Larvae become less active and losses
appetite Shortly before dying larvae move
away from food and climb on elevated
location to hang. Prior to death integument
fragile and easily torn when handled and it
is typical system of NPV.
Figure 6 NPV
NPV infected larvae at least 250 larval
Equivalent (L.E.) of NPV is recommended
for every hectare. It contains 1x109 PIB
per ml. NPV may be mixed with water
along with jaggry and soap powder. It is
sprayed in the infested crop preferably in
the evening. The caterpillars while feeding
on the plant ingest the virus. The virus
multiplies rapidly within the body of the
caterpillars and kills them within 6 days.
The spray should be done during evening
hours on 1st and 2
nd larval stage of insects.
Entomopathogenic Nematodes (EPN):
These nematodes enter in the body of
insects and kill them, which causes disease
in insects called Entomopathogenic
Integrated Insect Pests Management in Organic Farming
Nematodes. The two genera of EPN i.e.
Steinernema and Heterorhabditis carry
Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria
respectively. Nematode relies on
bacterium for killing insect host and
creating suitable environment for its
development by producing antibiotics that
suppress competing econdary microbes.
Breakdown of host tissues into usable
nutrients Serve as a food source for
nematodes. Bacterium requires
nematode for protection from external
environment and penetration into host
haemocoel. It also inhibit the host’s
antibacterial proteins. EPN of the genus
Steinernema and Heterorhabditis are
symbiotically associated with bacteria
Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus,
respectively. They are lethal obligatory
parasites of insects, yet pose no threat to
plants, vertebrates and many invertebrates.
This has generated intense interest in the
development of these nematodes for use
against insect pests. Therefore, EPN are
promising biocontrol agents alternative to
chemical insecticides. It can provide
effective control of some of the
agriculturally important lepidopteran,
coleopteran and dipteran pests.
Figure 7EPN infected larva
For spraying of EPN 2.5-5.0 x 109
IJs
per hectare are used three times against
insects on crops. The 2.5-5.0 x 109
IJs per
hectare are used for soil application and
followed by irrigation. These biological
control agents will be useful when there is
a sudden outbreak in the pest population
unlike the earlier control measures which
are to be planned well in advance.
However, slow mode of action,
susceptibility of these bio agents to
environmental conditions and in ability to
control the pest below the economic
threshold level will hinder the large scale
use of bio control agents in organic
farming.
Use of botanicals and other bio-
chemicals: The use of botanicals and other
insecticides of mineral origin for the
control insect pests and application of
pheromone traps for monitoring, mass
trapping and mating disruption were used
as last options in the organic agriculture if
all the earlier methods have been failed.
Strict regulation of the chemicals that are
allowed for pest management in organic
cultivation is monitored by NPOP
(National programme for organic
production) for India and similar
organizations existed in different countries
to look after registration of chemicals for
use in organic cultivation of the crops.
The crude extracts as well as commercial
formulations from plants like neem,
pongamia, and tobacco that showed
efficacy in conventional agriculture for the
management of insect pests were allowed
in organic farming because of their less
residual action and ecological safety.
Neem: Neem is an ever green shade tree
grown in all parts of India. It bears flowers
in Feb-April and its fruit mature after four
months (generally 3rd
week of May-mid of
August). All plant parts
(stem,bark,leaves,twings, flowers and
fruits) are important and use for different
purposes. About 40 percent seed of the
seed weight consists of the kernel which
cotains 25-35 percent oil and 65-75
percent neem cack. One neem tree gives
50-100kg of seeds per year.
Plant products have been found to have
insecticidal, fungicidal, bactericidal, and
antiviral properties. Plant products play an
important role in evolving an ecologically
sound and environmentally safe insects
Gaje Singh
and diseases management system. They
are safer to non target organisms also.
Fig 8; Dried neem seed
Fig 8; Dried neem seed
Pass a heavy roller over dried neem seed.
Winnow and separate kernel from the seed
coat. 5 kg or 3 kg kernel of neem seed is
required to prepare 100 lit. of spray fluid.
Grind 5 kg or 3 kg of kernel with 20 lit of
water to get a fine paste. This fine paste is
kept for 12 hours and repeatedly filtered
and squeezed through a rough cloth and
made up to 100 lit, which is used for
spraying. About 800-1000 liters of spray
solution is required to spray one hectare of
different crops.
The microbial based insecticides such as
spinosad 45 SC was also approved for use
in organic agriculture in USA and UK. A
broad array of pest-repellent products,
including homemade herbal teas, plant
extracts, and fermentation products, and
industrial clay and rock powder products
(e.g., kaolin) are authorized for use in
organic agriculture: Nevertheless, the use
of homemade products has declined in
recent years because of the
Commercialization of standardized
industrial products.
Dashparni extract is the commonly used
homemade extract used to control the
insect pests in organic farming in India. It
is prepared by mixing the crushed neem
leaves 5 kg, Vitex negundo leaves 2 kg,
Aristolochia leaves 2 kg, papaya (Carica
papaya) 2 kg, Tinospora cordifolia leaves,
2 kg, Annona squamosa (Custard apple)
leaves 2 kg, Pongamia pinnata (Karanja)
leaves 2 kg, Ricinus communis (Castor)
leaves 2 kg, Nerium indicum 2
kg,Calotropis procera leaves 2 kg, green
chilli paste 2 kg, garlic paste 250 gm, Cow
dung 3 kg and Cow Urine 5 lit in 200 lit
water ferment for one month. Shake
regularly three times a day. Extract after
crushing and filtering. The extract can be
stored up to 6 months and is sufficient for
one acre.
Use of pheromone traps for mass trapping
and mating disruption for the management
of lepidopteron insect pests in commercial
crops and coleopteran pests in plantation
crops is largely encouraged in organic
farming as suitable alternative for the
insecticides.
Some of the commonly used animal
product based concoctions in organic pest
management in India are panchagavya and
dasagavya. Panchagavya, an organic
product has the potential to play the role of
promoting growth and providing immunity
in plant system.Panchagavya consists of
nine products viz. cow dung, cow urine,
milk, curd, jaggery, ghee,banana, Tender
coconut and water. When suitably mixed
and used, these have miraculous effects.
This product is known to have a
deleterious effect on the many insect pests
attacking various crops when used at the
dosage 3% solution.
Dasagavya is a variant of panchagaya
prepared by adding certain plant extracts to
panchagavya. Foliar extracts of weeds
such as Lantana camara, Leucas aspera,
Datura metal, Phytolacca octandra, and
Artemisia nilgirica, are then soaked in cow
urine in the ratio 1:1
(1kg chopped leaves in 1 litre cow urine)
for ten days were then added to
panchagavya.
Dasagavya may be sprayed once every
week for all vegetable and plantation
crops. Spraying dasagavya is effective in
Integrated Insect Pests Management in Organic Farming
controlling diseases such as leaf spot,
blight, and powdery mildew, rust of
vegetables and cut flower crops and tea
blister blight. Dasagavya also controls
pests such as aphids, thrips, white flies,
mites and also foliar caterpillars. Three
times spraying dasagavya on vegetable
crops @ 3% solution recorded higher
yields. These animal based products have
to be scientifically validated for their use
in the organic pest management.
Integrated Pest Management in Organic
Farming
Encouraging predatory beneficial
insects to control pests by serving
them nursery plants and/or an
alternative habitat, usually in a
form of a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or
beetle bank.
Encouraging beneficial
microorganisms.
Rotating crops to different
locations from year to year to
interrupt pest reproduction
cycles.
Planting companion crops and pest
regulating plants that discourage or
divert pests.
Using row covers to protect crops
during pest migration periods.
Using biological pesticides and
herbicides.
Using no-till farming, and no-till
farming techniques as false
seedbeds.
Using sanitation to remove pest
habitat.
Using insect traps to monitor and
control insect populations.
Using physical barriers, such as
row covers.
Conclusion
Pest management in organic farming is a
challenging task without the use of
insecticides. It involves careful planning in
advance through a slight modification in
the cultural practices as primary methods
of pest control. The use of environment
friendly tactics such as use of biological
control agents and other plant based
products as second line of defence
againstinsect pests. When these products
used alone or in combination with other
tactics as integrated pest management have
potential role to control insect pests and
increase the economic yield in organic
farming.
References:
1. Alexander D, Rajan S, Rajamony
L, Ushakumari K and Sajan
Kurien, 2009. The Adhoc Package
of Practices Recommendations For
Organic Farming. Kerala
Agricultural University 2009
2. Pujara D, Bhattacharya B and Das
M, 2013. Insect pest management
in organic agriculture. International
journal of plant protection. 6(2) :
467-472.
3. Selvaraj N, Anitha B, Anusha B
and Guru Saraswathi M, 2007.
Organic Horticulture.Horticultural
Research Station, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University,
Udhagamandalam.
4. Venkateshwarulu B, Balloli SS and
Ramakrishna YS, 2008. Organic
Farming in Rainfed Agriculture:
Opportunities and constraints,
CRIDA, Hyderabad.185
5. Yadav AK, 2011. Organic
Agriculture: Concept, Scenario,
Principals and Practices, National
centre for Organic Farming.
Ghaziabad; 60.
6. Zehnder G, Gurr GM, Kuhne S,
Wade MR, Wratten SD and Wyss
E, 2007. Arthropod Pest
Management in Organic Crops.
Annu. Rev. Entomol . 52:57–80.
Received on July, 2017, Revised on
August, 2017
Gaje Singh
Table1. Use of different trichogramma spp. against different crop insect pests
S.
No.
Insect pests Trichogramma
spp.
Releasing time and quantity
1 S. cane Top borer T. japonicum Start after 60 days after planting or occurrence of
insects, 100000-150000 eggs per ha. 4-6 time at
10 days interval
2
3
Rice stem borer
Rice leaf folder
T. japonicum
T. japonicum
Start after 30 days of transplanting or occurrence
of insects, 100000 eggs per ha. 6 time at 8- 10
days interval
4
5
Bhindi shoot and
fruit borer
Pod borer of
veg.pea
T. japonicum
T. Chilonis
Start after 30 days of transplanting sowing or
occurrence of insects, 100000 eggs per ha.4- 6
time at 8 days interval
6 Maize stem borer T. Chilonis
Start after 15 days of sowing or occurrence of
insects, 100000 eggs per ha.4- 6 time at 8 days
interval
7 S. cane Early
shoot borer
T. Chilonis
Start after 45 days of planting or occurrence of
insects, 100000-150000 eggs per ha. 6-10 time at
10 days interval
8
9
10
S. cane Stalk
borer
S. cane inter node
borer
S. cane
gurdashpur borer
T. Chilonis
T. Chilonis
T. Chilonis
Start after 90 days of planting or occurrence of
insects, 100000-150000 eggs per ha. 6-10 time at
8 days interval
11
12
13
American boll
worm
Pink boll worm
Spoited boll worm
T. Chilonis
T. Chilonis
T. Chilonis
Start after 45 days of sowing or occurrence of
insects, 100000-150000 eggs per ha. 6time at 8
days interval
14 Tomato fruit borer T. bressiliensis Start after 45 days after transplanting or
occurrence of insects, 100000 eggs per ha. 6 time
at 8 days interval
15 Diamond back
moth
T. bressiliensis Start after 20 days after transplanting or
occurrence of insects, 100000 eggs per ha.4-6
time at7- 8 days interval
Integrated Insect Pests Management in Organic Farming
Table 2: Crop wise application and dose against different insect
Crop
IInnsseecctt DDoossaaggee ((KKgg.. ppeerr hhaa..))
Cauliflower and Cabbage
DDBBMM,, CCaabbbbaaggee bbuutttteerrffllyy 11..00--11..5500
Brinjal
SStteemm bboorreerr,, FFrruuiitt bboorreerr 00..55--11..5500
Tomato, Okra Chickpea,
Cotton and Sunflower
FFrruuiitt bboorreerr 11..00--11..5500
Cauliflower ,Cabbage and
Cotton
TToobbaaccccoo ccaatteerr ppiillllaarr 11..0000
Table 3: Use of different entomophagous fungi against different crop insect pests.
Fungi Dose Crop Insects
Beauveria
bassiana
(White
muscardine
fungus )
Soil- 5-7 kg/ha. with 25-50 kg FYM
Foliar- 5-7 g/lit water along with
jaggary
Drenching- 2 kg in 400 lit of water/acre
along with jaggary
Chick pea,
Pigeon pea,
Cotton,
Tomato, Rice,
Cabbage
Fruit borer, Tobacco
cater pillar, Semilooper,
Termite, BPH, Grass
hopper, Leaf folder,
DBM, Aphid
Metarrhizium
anisopliae
(Green
muscardine
fungus)
Soil- 5-7 kg/ha. with 25-50 kg FYM
Foliar- 5-7 g/lit water along with
jaggary
Drenching- 2 kg in 400 lit of water/acre
along with jaggary.
Sugarcane,
Cotton,
Pigeon pea.
Tomato
Pyrilla, Fruit borer,
Grasshopper, Pod borer,
Rice bug
17 -28 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
Corresponding author’s email Address: [email protected]
Terminal heat stress in wheat: adaptation strategies to address
the impact on crop productivity
Sumitra Devi Bamboriya1, R.S. Bana2, Shanti Devi Bamboriya
3, Santosh
Ranva4, Jitender Singh Bamboriya
5 and Madhu Patial
6
1 Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan), 2,3 ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, 4Amity University, Jaipur, Rajasthan,5SKNAU, Jobner, Rajasthan,6ICAR-Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Shimla, H.P. India
Abstract Heat stress during the grain filling stage is an emerging limiting factor for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
productivity in South Asia as about a third of the wheat area in the Indo-Gangetic Plains is sown late. More than
50 per cent of wheat yield can be reduced by this stress, thereby; adaptation to heat stress demands an urgent
need and longer-term priority for ensuring food security. Common heat stress adaptation strategies include: (i)
stress avoidance by ensuring flowering during a relatively cooler period (either agronomically through changing
planting dates or genetically by modifying phenological patterns); (ii) reduce exacerbation of heat stress effects
by avoiding nutrient or water deficiency through improved resource management protocols and (iii) using
location-specific genetic adaptation strategies.
Key words: Adaptation strategies, Climate change, Conservation agriculture and Heat stress,
Cite this article: Bamboriya S. D. Bana R.S. Bamboriya S D, Ranva S, Bamboriya J S and Patia M., 2017. Terminal heat
stress in wheat: adaptation strategies to address the impact on crop productivity, The NAMO, International Journal
Agricultural Research and Development, 1(1) 17-28.
Published: Spt. 2017
Introduction
The increasing threat of the
changing climatic conditions is causing a
substantial impact on agricultural
production worldwide. No doubt, India has
made a spectacular progress in
accelerating wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
production from 6.5 million tonnes in
1950-51 to 97.4 million tonnes in 2016-17
(GOI, 2017 but, the increased temperature
can significantly cause yield reduction and
risks for future global food security
(Choudhary et al., 2014). Significant part
of India comprising North Western Plain
Zones, North Eastern Plain Zones, Central
Zones and Peninsular Zones receives
terminal heat stress during wheat growing
season. Approximately, 3 m ha area in
north eastern and north-west plain zones is
exposed to terminal heat stress, which at
reproductive and grain filling stage blocks
the synthesis and mobilization of
photosynthates, resulting in considerable
yield penalty (Gupta et al., 2013). Mishra
et al. 2015) reported yield loss of 33.6% in
wheat cultivars due to heat stress under
late sown conditions. Heat stress causes
multifarious, and often adverse, alterations
in plant growth, development,
physiological processes, and yield. So,
today, wheat production in India is gamble
in temperature. Continue rise in ambient
temperatures under changing climatic
conditions may impose a severe threat to
wheat production in India. Therefore,
increasing crop yield, while
simultaneously reducing the adverse
temperature impact is a major challenge
before wheat production. The growing
food demand and the threat of heavy crop
losses due to global climate change impose
Bamboriya et.al.
the urgency for development of strategies
to substantially improve wheat production.
Heat stress and its effect on the different
stages of wheat production
Heat stress has a number of
negative effects on crop growth and can
result in considerable yield reduction in
major cereals including wheat due to
reduced photosynthesis, pollen sterility,
kernel abortion and earlier senescence
resulting in lower grain number (Rezaei et
al., 2015b and Porter & Gawith 1999).
Due to climate change there will be an
increase in the number and severity of heat
waves (Gourdji et al., 2013b; Schar et al.,
2004 and Trnka et al., 2014) which may
negatively affect crop yield (Asseng et al.,
2015; Deryng et al., 2014 and Semenov
and Shewry, 2011).
Increased frequency of extreme high
temperatures of short duration, without
much difference in the average
temperature is more devastating. This alter
plant functioning resulting in reduced
photosynthetic area, plant biomass, seed
set and harvest index. Since, flowering and
pollination stage in wheat are the most
temperature sensitive stages (Gupta et al.,
2013), thereby supra-optimal temperature
occurring at these growth stages can result
in ≥10% yield loss (Reynolds et al., 2016).
In the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains
like Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh, heat
stress is major threat as the cool season is
of short duration (Mishra et al., 2015). In
these regions during early March the crop
often gets hit by high temperatures stress
which coincides with grain filling stage. In
western Indo-Gangetic Plains under
transplanted basmati rice-wheat, cotton-
wheat, sugarcane-wheat, potato-wheat and
pigeon pea-wheat cropping systems,
generally wheat planting gets delayed
which consequently leads to terminal heat
stress.
Ambient temperature above optimum
temperature (22-25°C) reduces the
vegetative growth and seed setting in
wheat. High temperature at sowing causes
inhibition of seed germination and
seedling growth. Emerging seedlings can
rapidly become desiccated with dried or
dead leaves if soil temperature is
considerably higher. Elevated temperature
during pollination stage leads to decreased
level of pollen shed, pollen reception on
stigma, pollen tube growth, pollen sterility,
fertilization and seed set. Even short
period of high temperature in the middle of
the day can reduce grain yield
considerably, when it occurs during the
flowering and thereafter. During crop
establishment, heat will accelerate
development and reduce leaf area, which
reduces the capacity to intercept light.
Heat stress through metabolic limitations
and oxidative damage to chloroplasts
triggers premature leaf senescence with
concomitant reductions in photosynthetic
rate, dry matter accumulation and grain
yield (Mathur and Jajoo, 2014).
During grain filling, as temperature
rises, development accelerates faster and
thereby shortens grain filling period.
Further, as a consequence of heat stress
inhibition of starch synthesis, increased
starch breakdown and premature rapid
increase in senescence cause reduction in
grain size and weight (and therefore HI).
Even a short exposer to heat stress during
reproductive stage has potential to reduce
the crop yield by a quarter. Terminal heat
stress can cause yield losses to the tune of
190 kg/ha for every one degree rise in
Terminal heat stress in wheat: adaptation strategies to address the impact on crop productivity
average temperature. Further, in water
scarcity conditions this yield reduction
may be even more severe (Modarresi et al.,
2010 and Garg et al., 2013). Even under
optimum or good management there may
be a decline in yield by 3-4% for every
1°C rise in mean temperature during grain
filling period. So, management aspects
which prevent grain filling stage to
coincide with heat stress are very crucial.
Effects of heat stress on different periods
of wheat ontogeny are given in Table 1.
Agronomic adaptation strategies to
address terminal heat stress effects in
wheat
1) Optimum sowing date
Sowing date is a non-monetary input and
is easiest pathway to alleviate the thermal
stress effect in wheat. The optimum time
of sowing for wheat crop in most of the
wheat growing tracts of India is first
fortnight of November. The sowing of
crop is delayed up to first fortnight of
January mainly because of late harvest of
paddy crop, delay in field operations and
climate changes. Delayed sowing exposes
the maturing crop to the terminal heat
stress. Wheat yield is reduced
approximately 50 kg/ha per day if planting
occurs after mid November. So,
advancement in wheat sowing date (before
November 15) is most promising and low-
cost mechanisms for farmers to avoid
terminal heat stress (McDonald, 2015. and
Aryal et al., 2016). Many times farmers
cannot plant before November 15 because
their crop has not yet been harvested. To
combat heat stress, cultivation of short and
medium duration varieties of Kharif
season crops and mechanical harvesting to
facilitate early wheat sowing are the major
suggested pathways. Davinder, (2010)
reported the superiority of early sown (25
November) wheat crop compared to late
sown (10 December) crop with respect to
growth parameters like plant height, dry
matter accumulation and tillers per meter
row length . Jat et al. ( 2013) reported that
the wheat sowing on 20 November
achieved maximum plant height, dry-
matter accumulation per plant and number
of tillers than delay sowing as the
availability of growing period length in 20
November sown crop leads to greater
accumulation of growing degree day and
photo thermal unit. High temperature also
found to decrease grain numbers (up to 56
%) and individual grain weight (up to 25
%) (Prasad et al., 2011). Samra et al.
(2002) observed significantly maximum
grain yield from 15 November sown crop
as compared to crop sown in December or
early January.
2) Irrigation management
Elevated temperature injury is commonly
connected with water stress, so proper crop
water management is vital. Field crops
provided with sufficient water can
transpire freely. So, as a consequence of
evaporative cooling, canopy temperature
may be 5°C lower than ambient
temperature. The plants with enough water
availability can cope up with high
temperature. Providing irrigation with
sprinklers may replenish soil moisture as
well as modify micro-climate and have
cooling effects on wheat. It was reported
that crops can withstand temperatures up
to 40°C by supplying sufficient water
because of meeting the transpiration
demand under heat stress, whereas under
limited water condition 40°C will kill
leaves (Kajla et al., 2015). Olsen et al.
(2000) found that the application of
irrigation water affects wheat yield mainly
due to increased transpiration, while water
use efficiency and harvest index was not
Bamboriya et.al.
found to be affected by irrigation. The use
of sprinkler irrigation under heat stress
conditions when the plant reached critical
temperature helps in reducing high soil
temperature stress and irrigating the crop
during evening time helps the crop to
recover from day time heat stress. Water
availability in soil profile is an important
factor to reduce heat stress. Long-term
observations (Bonfils and Lobell, 2007;
and Mahmood et al., 2006) and climate or
land surface modeling (Haddeland et al.,
2006; and Kueppers et al., 2007) efforts
have also shown that irrigation can
consistently reduce maximum daily
temperatures by up to 7.5°C.
3) Genotypic or varietal adaptation
The adversities of heat stress can be
minimized through cultivation of early
maturing or heat stress tolerant wheat
varieties. Bread wheat genotypes GW 190,
HI 1418, HUA 543, Raj 4014, Raj 4000,
Raj 4027, HD 2285, PBW 497, etc. are
promising under heat stress condition.
Durum wheat cultivar HI 8498, HI 8381,
and Raj 1555 produces higher yield than
bread wheat when sown very late (heat
stress conditions). Varieties such as PBW-
373 and HW 2045 possess terminal heat
stress tolerance character which can
overcome the adverse effect of high
temperature on wheat crop (DWR
Perspective Plan Vision, 2025). Since
wheat has a narrow genetic base so use of
available landraces from heat prone areas,
exploration of wild relatives and use of
generas like Agroyron, Thinopyrum,
Elymus etc. which has been proved to be
an excellent genetic resource can be used
for developing heat stress resistant
varieties. The important heat stress
resistant late sown varieties are mentioned
in Table 2.
4) Adoption of conservation agriculture
Conservation agriculture – consisting of
minimal soil disturbance and permanent
soil cover combined with sustainable crop
rotations – enhances farmers’ income and
helps crops to adapt to heat and water
stresses. Residues left on the surface
conserve soil moisture by reducing soil
evaporation and ensure continuous water
supply to crop. This ultimately ensures
enhanced transpiration and cooling effect
on crop canopy – thus avoiding terminal
heat stress. Secondly, sowing of wheat
seed directly into untilled soil and crop
residues in a single tractor pass, allows for
a drastic reduction in tillage intensity,
resulting in significant cost savings as well
as potential gains in wheat yield through
earlier planting of wheat. About one-third
of the wheat area in the Indian Indo-
Gangetic Plains (IGP) is sown late—often
linked to late maturing Basmati rice in the
north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains and
generally late rice harvesting. In these
regions zero till wheat planting potentially
would alleviate late wheat sowing problem
by allowing for timelier establishment.
No-till systems with plant residues
retention protect seedlings from high
temperature during initial growth period
and keep soil temperature down during the
day and reduce cooling at night. Further,
due to ample availability of moisture the
crop can cope up with the demand of
increased transpiration which in turn keeps
the canopy temperature lower and reduces
the terminal heat stress (Jena et al., 2017).
Mulching has been proved to increase the
productivity of wheat due to its role in
moisture conservation by reducing runoff
and evaporation as well as modification of
soil temperature (Cakraborty et al., 2008;
Huang et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005; Raman
et al., 2005 and Verma et al., 2004). In a
long-term trial in rice-wheat system at
Terminal heat stress in wheat: adaptation strategies to address the impact on crop productivity
IGP, Jat et al. (2009b) found that retention
of rice residue in rice-wheat system
reduced the canopy temperature in wheat
by 1–4°C than atmospheric temperature
between 138–153 days after sowing. Such
differences were reported due to
evaporative cooling effect on canopy
which is facilitated by soil moisture
conservation with residue mulching. Straw
mulching treatments was found to be
effective in mitigating reduction of 1000-
grains weight due to high temperatures at
the late grain filling stage, especially in
conventional tillage (Tang et al., 2013).
Adoption of zero tillage in cereal cropping
system in the IGP has been reported to
advance the planting time (Erenstein et al.
2012) and increase the thermal window for
wheat thus escaping from terminal heat
effect. Increase in 1% yield of wheat was
recorded with the practice of reduced
tillage as compared to conventional
method (Tendon, 1985).
Conservation agriculture specific wheat
cultivars are also available now, which can
help in a big way to mitigate the
temperature driven stress. The important
characteristics of the conservation
agriculture specific varieties are as
follows:
a) CSW 18: This variety is suitable for
early sown irrigated conditions under
conservation agriculture. It is resistant to
high temperature at seedling stage. It
escapes high temperature at maturity due
to early seeding. Average yield of this
variety is 6.28 t/ha.
b) HD 3117: It is suitable for late sown
irrigated conditions under conservation
agriculture environment. Average yield of
this variety under late sown (after 15
December) is 4.78 t/ha under tilled
condition and 4.79 t/ha under conservation
agriculture condition.
5) Nutrient management
Plant nutrients play a greater role in
improving the temperature stress tolerance.
Nutrients like K and Ca improve intake of
water which helps in stomata regulation
and enhances the temperature stress
tolerance by maintaining the plant body
temperature (Waraich et al., 2012).
Temperature stress induces the production
of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as
superoxide radical (O2.-) and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) (Xu et al., 2001). The
accumulation of ROS, damages membrane
lipids and can lead to the death of plant
cells (Molassiotis et al., 2006). Plants
possess enzymatic and non-enzymatic
antioxidants in order to scavenge ROS.
The enzyme antioxidants are superoxide
dismutase, catalase, glutathione
peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase and
glutathione reductase, while non-
enzymatic antioxidants include reduced
glutathione and ascorbate. Under heat
stress, Ca2+ requirement for growth is
high to mitigate adverse effects of the
stress (Kleinhenz and Palta, 2002).
Nitrogen in the form of nitric oxide (NO)
act a signal molecular mediating
responses to abiotic and biotic stresses
such as drought stress, salinity, UV-B-
radiation and heat stress (Crawford and
Guo, 2005 ). Nitric oxide may protect
plant against stress by acting as an
antioxidant directly scavenging the
reactive oxygen species generated under
high or low temperature stress
(Wendehenne et al., 2001). In addition,
Uchida et al. (2002) in northern blot
analysis demonstrated that NO protected
the chloroplast against oxidative damage
under heat stress by inducing expression of
Bamboriya et.al.
gene encoding small heat shock protein-26
(HSP26). Boron application improves the
CHO metabolism and decreases the
phenolic compounds in leaves. This in turn
reduces the production of ROS species,
enhances the photosynthetic rate and
reduces the cell damage (Waraich et al.,
2011). Manganese is reported to involve in
the activation of many enzymes in plant
systems, mostly in oxidation (Marschner,
1995) hence may play a role in
detoxification of ROS. Recently, it has
been reported that Mn has a crucial role in
diminution the production of oxygen free
radicals and increase the anti-oxidative
compounds and enzymatic activities
(Aloni et al., 2008) under temperature
stress. Freeman et al. (2010) reported
Selenium to delay leaf senescence and
increase the carbon supply for developing
grain under high temperature stress mainly
because of its anti-oxidative and defense
gene expression role. Xue et al. (2001)
reported that plants grown under high
temperature stress showed less senescence
related oxidative stress and maintained
green leaf color for a longer period when
treated with selenium. Foliar spray of zinc
increased the growth and yield attributes
under heat stress conditions as it provides
thermo tolerance to the photosynthetic
apparatus of wheat (Graham and Donald,
2001; Shahramlack et al., 2011).This may
also may be attributed to the increased
activity of superoxide dismutase which
helps in maintaining membrane thermo
stability by scavenging the free radicals
(Singh and Singh, 2011).
Conclusion
Global warming leading to heat stress is
one of the major factors affecting the
production of wheat in India and is getting
more severe with change in climate. High
temperature stress has a wide range of
effects on plants in terms of physiology,
biochemistry and gene regulation
pathways. However, strategies exist to
cope with the devastating effect of heat
stress by adopting improved agronomic
management protocols and exploiting
genetic advances. Although biochemical
and molecular aspects of heat tolerance in
plants are relatively well understood,
further studies focused on phenotypic
flexibility and assimilate partitioning
under heat stress and factors modulating
crop heat tolerance are imperative.
Nevertheless, the long-term solution to
heat stress cannot be found in any single
technology; it must draw from several
approaches, including adjustments to
management practices, selection of heat
tolerant varieties, residue application cum
zero till farming, efficient irrigation and
nutrient management technologies, and
mechanization.
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Terminal heat stress in wheat: adaptation strategies to address the impact on crop productivity
Table 1 Effect of heat stress on wheat growth, productivity and quality
S.No. Heat stress effect Reference
1. Reduction in dry mass and length of shoot as well as root, chlorophyll content
and membrane stability index
Gupta et al. (2013)
2. Detrimental effect on flower initiation, ovary and pollen development, below
average fertilization and subsequently yield loss due to reduced sink potential
Barnabas et al. (2008)
3. Significant decrease in grain yield (46.7%), thousand grains weight (20.6%),
grain filling duration (20.4%), kernel per spike (23.6%) and spikelet per spike
(11.7%) due to heat stress
Modarresi et al. (2010)
4. Reduction in thousand grain weight due to reduction in grain filling duration and
grain growth rate with increase in temperature
Garg et al. (2013)
5. Significant increase in grain protein content due to post anthesis exposure to heat
stress, whereas, a reduction in the glutenin/gliadin ratio having negative effect on
flour quality
Ashra, (2014)
Bamboriya et.al.
Table 2: Wheat varieties suitable for late sown conditions
Name of variety State(s) for which
released
Key characteristics
Kaushambi
(HW 2045)
North Eastern Plain Zone
(Eastern Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,
Sikkim, West Bengal,
Assam and Plains of far
Eastern States)
Suitable for irrigated late sown conditions
Average seed yield is 41.0 q/ ha
Early maturing and possesses terminal heat
tolerance,
Poorva
(HD 2824)
North Eastern Plain Zone
(Eastern Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,
West Bengal, Sikkim and
Plains of far Eastern
states)
Suitable for timely sown irrigated conditions
Average seed yield is 46 q/ha
Plasticity to delayed sowings making it suitable
for rice-wheat cropping system.
Urja
(HD 2864)
Central Zone (Gujrat,
Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jhansi
Division of U.P. and Kota
Division of Rajasthan)
Suitable for late sown irrigated conditions
Average seed yield is 42 q/ha
Pusa Gold
(WR 544)
National Capital Region of
Delhi
Suitable for irrigated late and very late sown
conditions
Average seed yield is 37.3 q/ha
Possesses genes for thermo tolerance and for
leaf rust resistance,
Fits well in intensive cropping systems
Pusa Tripti
(HD 2833)
Peninsular (Maharastra
and Karnataka) zone
Suitable for late sown irrigated conditions
Average seed yield is 38.9 q/ha
High degree of adult plant resistance to leaf and
stem rust,
Pusa Wheat 111
(HD 2932)
Central (MP,
Chhatishgarh, Gujrat, Kota
& Udaipur divisions of
Rajasthan) and
Penninsular (Maharastra
and Karnataka) zones
Suitable for late sown conditions
Average seed yield is CZ – 41.7 q/ha, PZ - 43.3
q/ha
High zinc content
Wider adaptability
Pusa Basant
(HD 2985)
North eastern Plains Zone Suitable for irrigated late sown
Average seed yield is 35-40 q/ ha
It has the lowest reduction in the 1000-grain
weight under very late sown conditions.
(Source: http://www.iari.res.in)
29-38 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
*Corresponding author’s E mail address: [email protected]
Media Selection and Integration Shilpi Verma & Shobhana Gupta*
KVK, Neemuch & RVSKVV, Gwalior, M.P. India
Abstract
The new technological advances on the eve of the end of the 19th century, a multitude of intrinsic and
extrinsic instructional media became available to both teachers and pupils. For effective use of the available
instructional media it became increasingly necessary to become both audio and visually literate in order to
interpret and understand messages from audio-visual materials/instructional media. This, however, confronted
teachers with the urge to become more acquainted with the ways of how to address media selection and
integration in a proper way. Appropriate selection of instructional media can improve the quality of teaching and
learning. It can help facilitate an effective teaching based on the learning objectives. As appropriate
instructional media are chosen in the delivery of the course content, students will be guided to improve their
learning, performance rate and achievement.
The paper deals about media/teaching materials that offer teachers powerful to make their teaching effective to
achieve specific classroom objectives. The paper throws light on effective media selection, its need and
importance, media as well as multimedia integration techniques. Instructional shed more light to curriculum
content and increase understanding of content. The whole point of instructional media is to improve the quality
of teaching and learning and therefore there is need to select and prepare media that meet this goal.
Key words: instructional media, teaching and learning
Cite this article: Verma S & Gupta S, 2017. Media Selection and Integration , The NAMO, International Journal
Agricultural Research and Development, 1(1) 29-38. Published: September 2017
Introduction
Using instructional media without
prior thinking of the implications to
learning is like shooting in the dark.
Effective teaching and learning requires
consideration of various factors among
which there is class size, composition and
learners’ backgrounds. Selection and
preparation of instructional media should
facilitate teaching and learning, help the
lecturer to clarify and emphasize taught
concepts and to motivate learners through
arousing their interest in the content
among other issues.
With the new technological
advances on the eve of the end of the 19th
century, a multitude of intrinsic and
extrinsic instructional media became
available to both teachers and pupils. For
effective use of the available instructional
media it became increasingly necessary to
become both audio and visually literate in
order to interpret and understand messages
from audio-visual materials/instructional
media. This, however, confronted teachers
with the urge to become more acquainted
with the ways of how to address media
selection and integration in a proper way.
Media and instructional Process
A medium (plural media) is a
channel of communication, derived from
the Latin word meaning “between”. The
term refers to anything that carries
information between a source and a
receiver. According to Dewdney & Ride,
2006, Flew, 2004, Heinich, 1996 definition
of media focuses on application of
technologies plus concepts and contexts.
Media are the means for transmitting or
delivering messages and in teaching-
learning perspective delivering content to
the learners, to achieve effective
instruction.
Instructional Technology/media for
learning-teaching process provide with the
tools to engage learners powerfully in the
learning process. It greatly enhances the
effectiveness of communication. If it is
properly designed, skilfully produced and
effectively used have great influence on
Shilpi Verma & Shobhana Gupta
teaching & learning because it produces
impact of:
• Save time
• Increase interest
• Hold attention
• Clarify ideas
• Reinforce concepts
• Add tone
• Prove a point
• Aid memory (Mohan, T. et al, 2001)
Media can be used effectively in
formal situation where students are
working independently or teacher is
working with other group of students.
Media play a significant role in the
education of students with exceptionalities
children with disabilities in particular need
special instructional treatment which is
supplemented with adaptation and
specially designed media for effective
instruction of such students. The most
common use of media in an instructional
situation is for supplemental support of the
instructor in the class room to enhance
learning. (Heinich, et al.1996). Every
application of media is somewhat unique
but in any case it must be guided by both
general principles of learning and the
context in which these principles are
employed. For the instructional use of
media programs are designed intentionally
to make the teaching-learning environment
more interesting and effective (Locatis &
Atkinson, 1990).
Instructional media encompasses all the
materials and physical means an instructor
might use to implement instruction and
facilitate students' achievement of
instructional objectives. This may include
traditional materials such as chalkboards,
handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real
objects, and videotape or film, as well
newer materials and methods such as
computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the
Internet, and interactive video
conferencing
Need of Media selection
Appropriate selection of
instructional media can improve the
quality of teaching and learning. It can
help facilitate an effective teaching based
on the learning objectives. As appropriate
instructional media are chosen in the
delivery of the course content, students
will be guided to improve their learning,
performance rate and achievement.
Whether traditional or newer
instructional media/materials, these are
indeed relevant to the process of teaching
and learning. Most notably, teachers also
have to take into consideration the students’
learning styles and preferences. Their
learning characteristics will also help
determine what and how to use them
effectively in instruction.
Figure1. - Lists media that you can use to
demonstrate certain phenomena.
Media have important advantages:
allow easy and repeated
reproduction of an event or
procedure
provide visual access to a process
or technique
provide a common framework of
experience to a large number of
learners
promote an Illusion of reality;
gain and hold the attention of the
learner
focus attention or highlight key
points
save time by avoiding wordy
explanations
create impact and facilitate the
understanding of abstract concepts.
Media Selection and Integration
Factors affecting Media selection
instructional method
type of learning task (objectives)
subject matter and required student
performance
learner characteristics (learning
style, skills)
target population – location, size
teachers’ attitudes/preferences,
skills etc.
physical attributes of the media
(sensory channels)
teaching space, lighting, facilities
(physical environment)
practical constraints – economic
(money) and administrative time ,
what’s available
Just as the educational process is
influenced by many factors, so is the
selection of instructional media.
Among these factors are: Characteristics of
the learners such as their experiences,
interests, motivations; characteristics of
the lecturer such as that persons' skills,
attitudes and preferences;
material factors including economic and
political constraints as well as cost, time
availability, ease of use and maintenance
of the medium chosen.
These factors are all inter-related as is
shown in Figure. However, for purposes of
this chapter, we shall discuss them in turn.
Figure 2 - Factors affecting the selection of
instruction media
Selection of Media
Media selection is also called
media planning. Media plan decides how
advertising time and space in various
media will be used to achieve
the advertising objectives and marketing
objectives of the company. The basic goal
of media plan is to find out that
combination of media which enables the
advertiser to communicate the ad-message
in the most effective manner at lower cost.
An advertising plan is decided by the
advertiser to achieve advertising
objectives. Advertising objectives are
decided keeping in view the marketing
objectives of the company. Media plan is
based on advertising plan. In other words
media plan is a part of the overall
advertising plan. In media plan following
main media decisions are taken:
Selecting suitable media to serve
the advertiser’s need i.e., selecting
media which can reach the target
audience.
Selecting best combination of mix
of media which is within the
advertiser’s ad-budget.
Selecting most suitable
media schedules. Media planning
helps to control wastage in
advertising. It ensures the optimum
utilization of resources spent on
advertising.
Definition:
According to Fryburger, “Media–
planning involves selecting appropriate
media for carrying advertising message to
target audience and deciding how much to
spend on each media and scheduling when
the advertisement is to run.” “Media-
planning is a decision process regarding
use of advertising time and space to assist
in the achievement of marketing
objectives.”
Concept of 5 Ws:
Wells Burnett In brief, media planning
includes the answer to following 5 Ws:
Whom: Whom do we want to reach? i.e.,
identifying target audience
Shilpi Verma & Shobhana Gupta
Where: Where the potential customers
located? i.e., identifying geographical area.
What: What type of message is to be
communicated? i.e., either the message is
informative or demonstrative in nature.
Which: Which media is to be selected for
communicating with our
potential consumers?
When: When is the ad need to be issued?
i.e., deciding month, day and time of
advertisement.
Factors affecting Media Selection: Following are the main considerations in
media selection
1) Nature of product: product to be
advertised can be industrial /technical
product or consumer product. Industrial
and technical products can be better
advertised in specific trade journals and
magazines. Consumer products can be
better advertised through mass media such
as television, newspapers, outdoor
advertising etc.
2) Nature of customers: an appropriate
media plan must be considered in its type,
no. of consumers, for whom the
advertising is to be done. Different
consumers differ in the age group, sex,
incomes, personality, educational level,
attitude etc.
3) Distribution of products: if the
product is to be distributed locally or
regionally then media with local coverage
and reach should be considered like local
newspapers, cable-network. If the product
is to be distributed on national level, then
media with national coverage will be
suitable.
4) Advertising objectives: The main
objective of every advertising campaign is
to get favorable response from customer,
but the specific objectives can be different.
If the objective of advertising campaign is
to get immediate results then fast media of
communication such as newspapers,
banners, pamphlets will be considered.
5) Nature of message: if the message is informative in nature,
then newspaper will be suitable. If ad-
message is to persuade consumers then
they need to be given emotional appeal,
rational appeal, demonstration of product,
then television is suitable.
6) Size of ad-budget: if amount of
advertisement budget is more, then costly
media like television, national dailies,
and popular magazines can be selected.
7) Media reach and coverage: such
media should be selected which has wider
reach and can cover out target customers.
8) Media cost: advertiser should compare
the cost of each media by considering the
no. of audience covered by such media. It
is possible that a media seems to be costly,
but if it can cover large no. of audience,
then cost per audience will be less.
Process and steps in media selection: Media planning involves following steps:
1. To know about target audience
2. To consider various factors
affecting media planning
3. To identify the geographical area
4. Establishing media objectives
5. Selecting suitable media
6. Selecting optimum media-mix
7. Media scheduling
8. Executing advertising program
9. Follow up and evaluation
Media selection is an integral part
of the Instructional Systems Design
process. In that role, media selection
ensures that a specific instructional
medium can support the attainment of a
given learning objective. The different
authors (Borich, 2002, Brown, Lewis,
Harcleroad, 1998, Kemp, 1998, Mehra,
1992, Chandra, 1989, McArtney, 1973)
give classifications of media in different
ways on the basis of those classifications a
common grouping/types of media may be
made as:
1. Print Media i.e. News Paper,
Magazines, Digest, Journals,
Bulletins, Handouts, poster etc.
2. Graphic Media i.e. Overhead
transparencies, Charts, graphs
Models, dioramas, Maps, globes
3. Photographic Media i.e. Still
Pictures, Slides, Filmstrips, Motion
pictures, Multi-images etc.
Media Selection and Integration
4. Audio Media i.e. Audiotape,
Audiocassettes, Records, Radio,
Telecommunication etc.
5. Television/Video i.e. Broadcast
television, Cable television,
(Videotape Video cassettes,
Videodiscs, Tele text, Video text
etc.
6. Computers i.e. Minicomputer,
Microcomputer etc.
7. Simulations and Games i.e.
Boards, Written, Human,
interaction, Machine etc.
The impact of use of media may increase
by applying the following principles.
Select material with appropriate
attributes.
Introduce material to learner by
relating it to prior learning and
indicating its relationship to
present objectives.
Present material under the best
possible environmental conditions.
Get feedback from
viewers/learners.
Evaluate inertial impact (Heinich
et al. 1996, Brown, Lewis,
Harcleroad, 1998, Kemp &
Daylon, 1998).
A teacher can make more effective
use of media if he/she understands
underlying concepts about teaching-
learning process. Behaviorists stress
external control over a learner’s behavior,
so specify behavioral (performance)
objectives; instructional design and media
are highly structured. While cognitivists
stress internal or learner control over
mental process, so specify cognitive
objectives, allow learners to employ their
own cognitive strategies. Instructional
design and media is less structured
(Hoban, 2002, Klein, 2002, Wisker &
Brown, 1996, Ausubel, Novak and
Hanesian 1978).
Teaching and learning are considered
complex processes, influenced by different
multiple factors, including use of media or
instructional aids, which results active
involvement of learners and makes
teaching more interactive. The importance
of interactive learning or academic
engagement is reflected from the following
quote from Killen Roy:
“Instructional activities must be arranged
so that students have appropriate
opportunities to engage in meaningful
learning (as opposed to rote learning).
Academic engagement will be evident
when students are on task, focused on
important issues and consciously striving
to learn. Students need to be seriously
engaged in learning in order to achieve
deep understanding. Academic
engagement is closely linked to students
commitment and motivation and to the
nature of interactions within class room
social systems” (Killen, 2003:19).
In order to make the learning experiences
of the learners more concrete and realistic,
teachers has to use and prepare specific
teaching materials. These instructional
gadgets help teachers to clarify, establish
and correlate concepts of learners. It also
help to teach abstract concepts in a
meaningful way.
“Teaching aids certainly amplify teachers’
effortful presentation more into
influencing instructions. The use of variety
of teaching aids has successfully
transformed most classrooms from
traditional setup, where teachers do most
of the talking and students are passive
listeners, into participatory learning
centers facilitating productive learning.
(Thomas, 2008:106)
Selection of Media: Five steps of
selection are:
1. Write an objective.
2. Determine the domain in which the
objective can be classified: Cognitive,
Affective, and Psychomotor.
3. Consider various factors affecting media
selection.
4. Consider various methods/techniques to
be adopted.
5. Select appropriate media.
(1) Write an Instructional Objective: The
first step in the selection of media is to
write an instructional objective. A good
Shilpi Verma & Shobhana Gupta
instructional objective has four
distinguishing characteristics. These are:
1. It describes something which the learner
performs or produces.
2. It stales an observable behaviour of a
product of the learner's behaviour.
3. It states the conditions under which the
behaviour is to occur.
4. It states the standard which defines
whether or not the objective has bee,
attained.
(2) Determine the Domain in which the
Objective can be Classified Cognitive,
Affective, Psychomotor: Once you have
specified or written the objective, you
determine the domain in which the
objective can be classified
(3) Consider various Factors Affecting
Media Selection:At this step, you are
expected to consider the various factors of
media selection in terms of the written
objective. Looking at the earlier example,
you can think of various media. Out of the
available media, a video programme
depicting a typing skill is more
appropriate. A learner can get command
over the video programme. He/she can
learn the typing skill on his/her own by
switching on and switching off the video
programme and then actually practicing on
a typewriter.
(4) Consider various Methods/Techniques
to be adopted: At this step, you are
required to consider various
methods/techniques to be adopted. For
example, you are following the lecture
method to discuss a new concept. In this
case, you can think of using OHP
transparencies to support your main points
in the lecture; even summarizing whatever
you have discussed in your lectured, in the
illustration of typing which we gave
earlier, you can think of demonstration as
method. For that, you may choose a video
programme which demonstrates the typing
skill. Hence, decisions of
methods/techniques also determine the
process of media selection.
(5) Selecting the Media: After comparing
the appropriate need of different media,
you can select the media. In this case, the
video programme depicting typing skill is
selected to help practice the methods on a
typewriter.
The factors affecting the selection of
media. All the factors which contribute to
the media selection may be categorized
into the following:
1. Pedagogical Utility
2. Human Factors
3. Availability and Accessibility
4. User Friendly
5. Cost
6. Effective Communication
7. Infrastructural Facilities
8. Time
9. Hardware
Need of Media Selection: We see that media have an
important role in the instructional process.
But, all media are not suitable or
appropriate for all types of instructional
tasks. Each medium has its own
capabilities or attributes. Attributes are
pictorial (representation, Size enlarged,
reduced or real), Colour (black and white,
limited colours, full colours), Movement
(still, semi-motion, full motion), Language
(print or oral sounds) and Sound-picture
relationship (silent or with sound).Each
instructional task also requires media with
specified characteristics or attributes. It is,
therefore, considered that media selection
is an important part of instructional design
and delivery. But it is very difficult on the
part of a teacher to judge which medium
out of the available media is the best for a
given instructional task. A teacher,
therefore, takes into considerate various
factors which affect media selection for the
transaction of learns experiences.
Media Integration
We see that the use of a single
medium fulfil the requirement of any
instructional activity. Various media have
to be used in combination. Although one
of the media could be the 'Master
Medium', other media should be used so
that the quality of presentation becomes
Media Selection and Integration
maximally effective. Media also can be
combined with appropriate methods so that
instructional activity becomes Effective.
Let us take an example of a class on
geography wherein the teacher Caches
about ''Environmental Pollution". The
class period is 40 minutes. He divides the
class of 40 minutes as in Table.2 below.
Teacher's
Activities
Media to be used Time
Introduction
to the Topic
Uses chalkboard
and shows
transparency.
Uses lecture -
cum- discussion
method.
10
minutes
Teaching the
main
Content
Uses lecture -
cum- discussion
method writing on
chalkboard or
showing 4 -5
transparencies.
13
minutes
Citing
Examples
Showing a 10
minutes video
sequence on
"Environmental
Pollution" or
showing a set of
10 slides on
"Environmental
Pollution", or
showing 10
pictures on the
topic.
10
minutes
Summary Explaining
verbally or by
showing a
transparency or by
writing on a chart.
5
minutes
Table No. 2 Teacher Cache’s period division:
An Ideal example
Multiple Media and Multimedia: When we integrate more than on, medium
into our teaching, we call it media-mix or
use of multiple media o multimedia. But,
due to the advancement of technology, one
may not take the help of a number of
media to be integrated with teaching.
A single medium consist of features of
more than one medium. Such media are
called multimedia For example, the
advanced computers are called Multimedia
computer. These computers comprise text,
data, sound, animation, visual, picture,
graphics and interaction. Therefore, the
use of a single multimedia computer in the
instructional process fulfills the
requirements of many media. The
components of a multimedia are as follows:
1. Text
2. Picture
3. Graphics
4. Animation
5. Visual
6. Audio
Availability and Accessibility: Whenever a teacher decides to use
any media for instructional purposes,
he/she should consider their availability
both inside and outside the institution. In
schools, there are learning resource centers.
These resource centers are equipped with
various teaching and electronic media. The
teacher can make sure that the intended
media are available there If not available,
he/she should explore the possibility of
their availability outside the institution.
Sometimes, certain media may not be
available to a teacher. I" such situations,
the teacher can look for substitutions. For
example, the book substitutes the age-old
teacher, a TV programme substitutes a
film. Therefore the teacher should not be
desperate if a particular medium is not
available. But think of alternatives to
achieve the desired objectives.
Very often the availability of media even
does not ensure selection of media.
Available media should be accessible to
the users. Accessibility means that the
teacher is able to access the media for
Shilpi Verma & Shobhana Gupta
teaching purpose and the learner for
learning purpose. Now-a-days, many
schools are provided with televisions and
computer sets.
Though they are available in schools," they
cannot be accessed either by teachers or
the learners due to some reason. For
example, the head of the institutions may
not allow others to use their gadgets.
Cost determination Cost is an important consideration
in media selection. The instructional
objective for an instructional task may be
achieved with the help of alternative media.
But, the choice of media depends on how
much the user can afford to get such media.
For example, a teacher can buy/rent a film
on how Indian Parliament functions
provided he/she has the budget to do that.
Otherwise, he/she has to depend on the
print medium. Costs related to media are
capital costs, production costs, recurrent
costs and variable costs.
1. Capital Costs: Capital costs are initial expenditure the
institution incurs for the establishment of
either a studio or a computing network or
obtaining necessary hardware equipment.
2. Production Costs: These costs are related to the production of
instructional material. Production costs
vary from one instructional material to
another.
3. Recurrent Costs: These costs are required to maintain and
manage media For example;
teleconferencing requires a high cost of
maintenance as the production staff is
required to operate the equipment.
4. Variable Costs: These costs are linked with the increase or
decrease in the use of media. For example,
if the audio cassettes are used by many
people their costs come down. Audio
cassettes and radio have low fixed and low
variable costs whereas broadcast television
has high fixed cost and low variable costs.
Conclusion -
The instructional-aids assist
educators to transmit the knowledge in an
impressive way giving diversity to
classroom teaching and making learning
more effective. Following are the
conclusions drawn on the basis of review
literature about media/teaching materials
that offer teachers powerful means to make
their teaching effective to achieve specific
classroom objectives:
• It helps students in greater acquisition of
knowledge and ensures longer retention of
the gained knowledge. This is mainly
because it provides interactive learning
environment due to which learning
experiences becomes more meaningful and
satisfying.
• It easily motivates the learners because it
enhances a multisensory interest and
thereby learning becomes more immediate
and productive.
• It gives classroom instructions a more
scientific base and enables teachers to
transfer the knowledge in an organized
way and more systematically.
• They are appropriate teaching tools
which helps teachers to draw and fix the
attention of students towards teaching.
Attention and concentration betters
students learning and improves classroom
discipline.
• It enhances comprehension skills and the
clarity of communication can be greatly
enhanced by using them.
• It helps in stirring the imaginational,
thinking process and the reasoning power
of the students.
• It helps the teachers to save their time
and energy. Since these effective materials
can clarify the concepts easily, lots of time
and energy can be saved by it.
• It also serves as ideal tools to review the
learning outcome and to evaluate the
completeness of certain learning.
• They open out greater scope for
interactive learning and offers
opportunities of individual learning.
Recommendations
All in all it can be concluded that
when selecting and preparing instructional
media it is important to ensure that the
media leads to a better understanding of
Media Selection and Integration
concepts and relates to students’
experiences and is at their level of
comprehension. Selected media should
also be accurate and give up to date
information. In summation, instructional
media should shed more light to
curriculum content and increase
understanding of content. The whole point
of instructional media is to improve the
quality of teaching and learning and
therefore there is need to select and
prepare media that meet this goal.
Keeping in view the importance and
impact of media on communication,
teaching and learning in class, it is
suggested that Government should allocate
special budget provision to provide
media/instruction material and gadgets to
the schools both at elementary and
secondary level. The teachers or schools
may be provided opportunity of in-service
training for media use in classrooms.
Teachers Education institution should put
more emphasis on the practical training for
prospective school teachers in addition to
theory courses i.e. teaching methods,
instructional technology etc.
Media/Instructional technology resource
center may establish in teacher training
institutions.
References –
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Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational
Psychology: A Cognitive View,
New York: Rinehart and Winston.
2. Chandra, A., Shah, A & Joshi, U.
(1998). Fundamentals of Teaching
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Sterling Publishers, Private
Limited.
3. Dewdney, A. & Ride, P. (2006).
The New Media Handbook.
London & New York: Routledge.
4. Flew, T. (2009). New Media an
Introduction. Oxford University
Press.
5. Heinich, R. et al. (1996).
Instructional Media and
Technologies for Learning. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, inc.
6. Hoban, G.F. (2002). Teacher
Learning for Educational Change.
Buckingham: Open University
Press.
7. Kemp, J. E. & Daylon, D. K.
(1998). Planning and Producing
Instructional Media New York:
Harper & Row Publishers.
8. Killen, Roy (2003). Effective
Teaching Strategies: Lessons from
Research & Practice. Melbourne:
Australia. Thomson, Social Science
Press South.
9. Leedham, J., Gibson, T &
McArtney T. (1973). Educational
Technology: A first Look. Bath
UK: Pitman Publishing,
10. Locatis, C. N. & Atkinson, F. D.
(1990). Media and Technology for
Education & Training. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing
company.
11. MEHRA, V. (1992). Instructional
System Design an Innovation in
Educational Technology. Delhi: S.
S. Publishers
12. Mohan, T. et al. (2001).
Communicating Theory & Practice
Australia: Thomson,
13. Thomas, M. (2008). Effective
Teaching: a Measure of
Excellence. New Delhi: S.Chand &
Company.
14. Wisker. C & Brown, S. (1996).
Enabling Student Learning: System
and Strategies. London: Kogan
Page.
15. Ahsan Akhtar Naz and Rafaqat Ali
Akbar, Use of Media for Effective
Instruction its Importance: Some
Consideration , Journal of
Elementary Education Vol. 18(1-2)
35-40
16. International Journal of Humanities
and Social Science Vol. 5, No. 2;
February 2015 245 A Window
which lets in Light: The
Importance of Selecting and
Preparing Instructional Media in
Tertiary Education Itayi Mariko
29-38 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
*Corresponding author’s E mail address: [email protected]
Table No.1 General examples of Media using
Reasons for media use General examples
To form a clear idea of something Real object, model
To stress the essential and leave the non-
essential in the background
Model, scheme
To give visual access to something which may
be inaccessible
Model, picture, photo, poster,
film
To clarify abstract information which may be
difficult to communicate verbally
Diagrams, columns of figures
To condense large quantities of information Diagrams, handouts
To promote mental activities of students Handouts, textbooks, films, pictures
To give feedback to the teacher about student
progress/achievement
Tests, study guides with
assignments, handouts with
questions
To encourage emotional response Documentaries, Films, photos, poems
To support the work of the teacher Sound recordings, any medium
To give tests Any medium
46-52 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
Corresponding Author Email Address: [email protected]
Economic Empowerment of Women Through Embroidery And
Needle Work: A Study Of Rajasthan Mission On Livelihoods
(Rmol) From Udaipur (Rajasthan) Anuprita Purohit
1, Simple Jain
2 and Asha Godawat
3
2. College of Home Science, MPUAT, Udaipur,1 ASPEE College of Home Science, SDAU, SK Nagar,
Gujarat.3 College of Home science, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajisthan
Abstract The present study was undertaken to find out the usefulness of Embroidery and Needle work training
programme and adoption of it as an enterprise by the women. The sample of the study consist twenty rural
women who had taken training of Embroidery and Needle work under Rajasthan Mission on Livelihoods
(RMoL) programme. The data was collected through personal interview technique using self-developed
interview schedule. Frequency and Percentage were calculated for analysing the data. The findings show that
thistrainingwas perceived very useful and increased participants knowledge, skill and efficiency about
Embroidery and Needle work. Only five respondents out of 20 had adopted it as an income generating activity.
They were doing the activity as per order and demand of the customers. They earned an average income of Rs.
28200/- per year. They have utilized earned money for fulfilling requirement of their family, purchase of house
hold material and equipment, education of children and clearing of debts and credit. The reasons for non-
adoption of enterprise might beembroidery work leads to various health problems like weak eye sight, backache,
headache etc, not getting right price of the prepared items, lack of time etc. The Embroidery and Needle work
enterprise was a beneficial enterprise.
Key Words: Training, Enterprise, Usefulness, knowledge, skill, efficiency.
Cite this article: Purohit1,A Jain S and Godawat A. 2017. Economic Empowerment Of Women Through Embroidery And
Needle Work: A Study Of Rajasthan Mission On Livelihoods (Rmol) From Udaipur (Rajasthan), The NAMO, International
Journal Agricultural Research and Development, 1 (1) 46-52.
Published: September 2017
Introduction
Skill building and a supportive
policy environment are essential for
women in rural areas to become successful
entrepreneurs and contribute to a dynamic
rural economy. Harnessing the
entrepreneurial talents of women was an
effective strategy to fight unemployment
and poverty in rural areas. Rajasthan
initiated a mission i.e. Rajasthan Mission
on Livelihoods (RMoL) on September 4,
2004 to promote livelihood and provide
gainful and sustainable employment to the
poor and vulnerable people of the state. It
focuses on need based short term skill
training where people learn from hands on
practices. Directorate of Extension
Education, MPUAT, Udaipur is one of the
implementing organization of RMoL
activities in the Udaipur district.
Directorate of Extension Education
organized trainings on Embroidery and
Needle work for women participants under
RMoL.
One of the objectives of Rajasthan
Mission on Livelihoods is to create a large
number of livelihood opportunities to
solve the problem of unemployment. A
number of training programmes on
different entrepreneurial activities have
been organized under RMoL to improve
economic status of the people. Success of
any programme depends on the effective
participation of the people in the
programme and further adoption of
activities in future. Thus the present study
was undertaken to study usefulness of
embroidery and needle worktraining
organized under Rajasthan Mission on
Livelihoods (RMoL) as perceived by
beneficiaries and their expectations and
adoption of embroidery and needle workas
an enterprise by the women. Study also
focuses on utilization of income generated
from the particular enterprise by women
entrepreneurs and constraints faced by
them in running this enterprise.
Purohit et al.
Methodology
Directorate of Extension
Education, MPUAT, Udaipur is one of the
organization implementing Rajasthan
Mission on Livelihoods activities in the
Udaipur district. Directorate of Extension
Education organised training programmes
on Cutting and Tailoring, Fruit and
Vegetable Preservation, Embroidery and
Needle work and Food Processing for
women participants under RMoL scheme.
Embroidery and Needle work training was
selected for the present study. The total
numbers of women beneficiaries of these
trainings were 20. Interview technique was
used for data collection. Frequency and
percentages were used for analysis of data.
Results and Discussion
Reasons for attending Embroidery and
Needle work training programme:
In spite of having busy schedule women
participated in training programme of 36
days duration. Therefore an effort was
made to know the reasons that motivate
them to attend training programme.
Reasons for participating in ‘Embroidery
and Needle work’ training by the
respondents are as follows:
Visualization of Table 1 indicates
that nearly three fourth of the respondents
attended training to improve their skills in
Embroidery and Needle work. A good
number of the respondents (70%)
mentioned that training can be a better way
to utilize leisure time. It was also found
that 65 per cent women had attended
training due to their own interest.
Establishment of their own enterprise and
increasing their family income were the
other reasons expressed by half of the
respondents (50%). Further, learning of
new things and motivation by the friends
and neighbours were the reasons expressed
by 45 and 35 percent respondents,
respectively.
Findings are supported by Sharma
(2007) that respondents of sericulture,
mushroom cultivation, tailoring, weaving
and embroidery, knitting, food processing
& preservation and manufacturing of
bamboo articles had obtained training to
acquire proficiency, about product
knowledge, and its preparation as reported
by 15 to 63.4 percent of the respondents.
Opinion of respondents towards different
aspects of Embroidery and Needle work
training programme
Referring Table 2 indicates opinion
of the women participants regarding
different aspects of the Embroidery and
Needle work training programme. During
investigation it was observed that training
duration and marketing facilities were only
the areas in which dissatisfaction was
expressed by 30- 35 per cent participants.
With respect to technical guidance
provided during training programme three
fourth of the respondents were satisfied,
whereas one fourth of the respondents
were somewhat satisfied and stated that
most of the time trainer focused only on
selected participants and information about
the machine embroidery was totally nil.
In case of financial assistance
provided to the participants eighty five per
cent of the women were satisfied and 15
percent respondents were satisfied to some
extent only. During discussion with the
women it was found that they had not
enough amount of money for initial
investment of enterprise viz. procuring raw
materials, advertisement, publicity and
marketing etc. It was encouraging to note
that cent per cent of the respondents were
satisfied with training time, materials,
place, methods, content and practical
orientation.
The findings of the study are in
consonance with the results of Bharti
(2007) who stated that in case of financial
assistance majority of the respondents
were highly satisfied with assistance given
by KVK scientist in getting loan from
bank. Overall opinion of respondents
regarding ‘Embroidery and Needle work’
Data presented in Table 3 indicates
that majority of the respondents (75%) felt
Economic Empowerment Of Women Through Embroidery And Needle Work: A Study Of Rajasthan Mission On
Livelihoods (Rmol) From Udaipur (Rajasthan)
that training programme on ‘Embroidery
and Needle work’ was good, 15 per cent
participants perceived that it was very
good and there were only 10 per cent
respondents who rated the training as
average. Benefits perceived by
respondents through Embroidery and
Needle work training
It is evident from Table 4 that
training was beneficial in terms of
increasing the knowledge of the
participants about embroidery work. The
training also helped them to learn different
stitches and work of embroidery like chain
stitch, herring bone stitch, stem stitch, kaj
stitch, bakhiya, motikasab work, nakatiki
work, aaritari work, shadow work, jardoji
work, crochet work, block printing,
bandhej on table mates, sofa backs, table
cover, seat cover, saree as reported by 85
and 75 per cent respondents respectively.
Similarly half of the respondents acquired
efficiency in Embroidery and Needle work
after attending the training. One fourth of
the respondents reported that training
helped them in clarification of doubts and
establishment of an enterprise. Findings
are supported byRao (2003) who reported
that for the economic empowerment of
women training helped them to improve
their knowledge in traditional sectors like
agriculture, animal husbandry, dairying,
handloom, handicrafts, sericulture etc.
Adoption of embroidery work
Table 5 revealed that training in
‘Embroidery and Needle work, helped
women to acquire proficiency in preparing
different utility items viz. table mates, sofa
backs, table cover,saree, seat coverand
hanker chief. Women also acquired
proficiency in different stitches and needle
work. Women were trained to prepare
moti- kasab work, block printing, naka-tiki
work, bandhani, chain stitch, herring bone
stitch, aari- tari work, stem stitch, shadow
work and kaj stitch. Women also acquired
efficiency in preparing jardoji work,
bakhiya, and crochet work.
With regard to time of initiation of an
enterprise out of total 5 women (25%)
initiated this enterprise. In case of place of
running the enterprise it was found that
cent percent of the respondents were
running the enterprise from their homes.
During an informal discussion it was
found that ‘Embroidery and Needle work’
did not require much capital, infrastructure
and other inputs and can be easily carried
out from home. Further it was found that
three women (60%) spent 4 to 5 hours per
day for 25 daysper month whereas, one
respondent (20%) was engaged in this
work for the whole month for 4 to 5 hours
per day. Similarly same number of the
respondent (20%) was involved for 20 to
22 days for 3 to 4 hours. In case of mode
of running the enterprise all women were
running their enterprise on individual
basis. According to table 6 The findings
are in consonance of findings of Seema et
al. (1998) who reported that average
production of five embroidery units was
498 pieces per month and the net returns
from this was Rs. 8,360.40.
Women prepared different
embroidery articles for their family
members. They prepared table cover,
mobile cover, hanker chief, pillow cover
andbed sheets for their family members.
women also preparedsarees for their own
use. Likewise for selling, cent-percent
women who had adopted Embroidery and
Needle work enterprise were preparing
salwar suit for their customers. Bed sheets
and sarees were also prepared for their
customers. Income generation from
Embroidery and Needle work enterprise:
Regarding Embroidery and Needle
work enterprise, the Table 6 reveals that
women were doing the embroidery on
suits, sarees, bed sheets approximately on
82 articles/ year. They were preparing it
on customers demand or on order basis.
The average annual investment was Rs.
16620 /- with an average income of Rs.
28200/- They were earning net profit of
Rs.11,580/- each year. The selling price of
embroidered suits, sarees and bed sheets
Purohit et al.
were ranging from 300-500 per piece. The
prices were fixed as per the intricacy of
embroidery done.
Critical examination of Table 7
portrays that 40 per cent women earned
profit ranging between Rs. 8000/- to
9000/- annually, While 20 per cent women
earned 12,000 to 13,000/- annual profit
from their enterprise. Out of total 5 women
adopters one woman was earning profit
ranged between Rs. 13,000- 14,000 and
one woman earned profit ranged between
Rs. 14,000-15,000.
Utilization of income by women
entrepreneurs
The utilization pattern of income
by the respondents (Table 8) indicates that
majority of the respondents (88.46 %)
have utilized money to fulfill requirement
of their family viz. food, clothing, shelter
etc. Similarly 57.69 per cent women
utilized it for purchase of house hold
material and equipment. Children
education is also one of the area in which
women were spending their income as
reported by 46.15 per cent respondents.
More than one third of the respondents
(38.46%) have utilized money for
promotion of established enterprises.
Savings of earned income was done by
30.76 per cent women for future needs.
Some of the respondents (15.38%) were
using their earned income for clearing of
debts and credit. The results are in
conformity with the study of Verma
(2006) who reported that majority of the
respondents (94%) utilized the money to
fulfill family requirements. Nearly half of
the women utilized the money for
establishing their enterprise, 19 per cent
utilized it for education of their children
and 7 per cent women opened bank
accounts and saved the additional income
for future requirement.
Findings are also supported by the findings
of Upadhyay (2007) that majority of the
respondents (92%) utilized income to
fulfill the family requirement and most of
them (73%) saved it for future. More than
half of the respondents (53-55%) spent the
income for purchase of agricultural inputs
and raw materials. Constraints faced by
Embroidery and Needle work
entrepreneurs
Women entrepreneurs of
Embroidery and Needle work were doing
entrepreneurial activity as per order and
demand of the customers. Majority of the
respondents (80%) faced problem in
getting right price of the items they had
prepared and high commission to
wholesaler. Hence, they were not getting
good returns of their products. It was
revealed by more than 60 per cent of the
respondents that the enterprise required too
much concentration. During informal
discussion it was found that long duration
involvement in embroidery work may lead
to various health problems like weak eye
sight, backache, headache etc. Lack of
time due to house hold task was other
difficulty as reported by 40 per cent
respondents. Respondents mentioned that
due to study and house hold work they
were unable to spare time for embroidery
work.
Findings are in line with findings of
Randhwana and kaur (2006) who stated
that most of the problems faced by women
entrepreneurs were personal and technical
in nature. Most frequently experienced
personal problems included over
burdening with responsibilities, lack of
time for recreational activities and
excessive stress and tension and dual
responsibilities.
Conclusion
On the basis of the findings it can be
concluded that the training was beneficial
in terms of increasing the knowledge on
embroidery and needle work. The women
were satisfied with the whole training
programme except two aspects i.e.training
duration and marketing facilities where
they expressed dissatisfaction.Thus it
could be inferred that training organized
by DEE under RMoL scheme helped
women in empowering them economically
Economic Empowerment Of Women Through Embroidery And Needle Work: A Study Of Rajasthan Mission On
Livelihoods (Rmol) From Udaipur (Rajasthan)
References
1. Bharti, A. 2007.Role of
KrishiVigyan Kendra in Promotion
of Entrepreneurial Activities
among rural Women.An
unpublished M.Sc. thesis, College
of Home Science, MPUAT,
Udaipur.
2. Randhwana.V., and Kour, K. 2006.
Problems of rural women
entrepreneurs running micro
enterprise.Indian Journal of
Agriculture Research and
Extension1:1: 10-12
3. Rao, V.M. 2003.Women Dairy
Cooperatives in
Rajasthan.Kurukshetra66:19-20.
4. Seema, Grover, I. and Panghal,
B.S. 1998. Empowerment and
entrepreneurial development of
women through financial
institutions.In groverr, I and
grover, D. (eds.) 2002
empowerment of women.Agrotech
publishing house.
5. Sharma, C. 2007. Knowledge and
benefits gained by women
beneficiaries of SGSY. An
unpublished M.Sc. thesis, College
of Home Science, MPUAT,
Udaipur.
6. Upadhayay B. 2007. Income
generation from selected
entrepreneurial activities among
tribal women.An un published
M.Sc. thesis, M.P.U.A.T, Udaipur.
Rajasthan.
7. Verma, H. 2006 Adoption of agro
based enterprise by tribal women.
An unpublished M.Sc. thesis,
College of Home Science,
MPUAT, Udaipur.
Purohit et al.
Table 1: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of reasons for attending Embroidery and
Needle work training programme n = 20*
S.No. Reason f %
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
To acquire skills
To utilize free time
For their own interest
To establish an enterprise
To increase family income
To learn new things
As per the advice of friends and neighbours
15
14
13
10
10
9
7
75
70
65
50
50
45
35
*Multiple responses
Table 2: Opinion of respondents towards different aspects of Embroidery and Needle work
training programme n=20*
S.No. Training aspects Satisfied
f (%)
Somewhat
satisfied f (%)
Not satisfied
f (%)
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TrainingTraining time
Training duration
Training Materials
Training Place
Training Methods
Training Content
Practical orientation
20(100)
14(70)
20(100)
20(100)
20(100)
20(100)
20(100)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6(30)
-
-
-
-
-
8 Technical Guidance 15(75) 5 (25) -
9 Financial assistance 17 (85) 3 (15) -
10 Marketing Facilities 13 (65) - 7 (35)
*Multiple responses
Table 3: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of their overall opinion regarding
training on Embroidery and Needle work n=20
S.No. Opinion regarding training f %
1
2
3
Very Good
Good
Average
3
15
2
15
75
10
Table 4: Benefits perceived by respondents through Embroidery and Needle work training
programme n=20*
S.No. Perceived benefits f %
1
2
3
4
5
Increased knowledge
Learned to prepare new things
Acquired efficiency
Helped in establishment of self-enterprise
clarification of doubts related to enterprise
17
15
10
5
5
85
75
50
25
25
*Multiple responses
Economic Empowerment Of Women Through Embroidery And Needle Work: A Study Of Rajasthan Mission On
Livelihoods (Rmol) From Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Table 5: Adoption of embroidery and needle work as income generation by the women
n= 20
Training Adoption
f (%)
Non adoption
f (%)
Discontinuance
f(%)
Embroidery and needle work 5 (25) 15(75) -
Table 6: Income generation from Embroidery and Needle work enterprise n=5
Average no of
items prepared in a
year
Average
expenditure (Rs/
yr)
Average annual
income (Rs./yr)
Net profit (Rs./yr)
82 16620 28200 11580
Table 7: Range of annual profit earned from Embroidery and Needle work enterprise
n= 5
S.No. Profit range (Rs.) f %
1.
2.
3.
4.
8000-9000
12,000-13,000
13,000-14,000
14,000-15,000
2
1
1
1
40
20
20
20
Table 8 : Utilization of income by women entrepreneurs n=26*
S. No. Area of use f %
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To fulfill family requirement
Purchasing of household material and equipment
For children education
For promotion of established enterprise
Savings
For clearing debt/ credit
23
15
12
10
8
4
88.46
57.69
46.15
38.46
30.76
15.38
*Multiple responses
Table 9: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of constraints faced by Embroidery and
Needle work entrepreneurs n = 5*
S.No. Problems Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
High commission to the wholesaler
Not getting right price of things
Problems related to weakness and fatigue
Heavy house hold responsibilities
Lack of time
4
4
3
2
2
80
80
60
40
40
*Multiple responses
53-59 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
Corresponding Author email Address: [email protected]
Socio Personal Characteristics and Attitude of Farmers Towards Bt
Cotton Production Technology Sumit Yadav
1, Godara A.K.
2 and V.P.S. Yadav
3
1, 2 and 3 C.C.S.H.A.U, Hisar, Haryana
Abstract
Cotton being a cash crop, plays a key role in the National economy in terms of direct and indirect
employment and income generation in the agricultural and industrial sectors. The production of cotton increased
31.20 million bales during 2010-11in Haryana state because of an exponential increase in Bt cotton area
approximately 92 per cent of the total cotton area in country. Cotton is attacked by several insect pests reducing the
crop yield to a greater extent. The insect pests that attack cotton crop may be classified into sap sucking insects
(aphids, Jassids and white fly) or chewing insects (bollworms, leaf eating caterpillars etc.) of the total pesticides
used in Indian Agriculture, about 45 per cent is sprayed on cotton crop alone. To reduce pesticide usage in the crop,
several strategies like use of Genetic Resistance to insect pests, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Insecticide
Resistance Management (IRM) etc. are advocated. In recent times, Bt cotton technology is found to be one of the
best strategies to manage bollworms, the most important pest of cotton. The present study was conducted during
2014-2015 in Haryana. Two districts Hisar and Sirsa were purposely selected for the study because they have largest
area of production under Bt cotton. In this study, socio personal characteristics and attitude of Bt cotton growers
were assessed from 160 respondents selected from 20 villages. The study revealed that majority of farmers belonged
to medium socio- economic profile and moderate attitude level about Bt cotton production technology.
Key words: Socio personal characteristics, attitude of Bt cotton growers, Bt cotton production technology.
Cite this article Yadav S,Godara A.K.and Yadav V.P.S., 2017. Potential Socio Personal Characteristics and Attitude of Farmers
Towards Bt Cotton Production Technology, The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, 1(1) 53-
59.
Published: September 2017
Introduction:
Cotton is a major fiber crop and used for
textile purpose by about 75 percent of
world’s population .. Textiles and related
exports of which cotton alone comprised
nearly 65 per cent and accounts for nearly
33 per cent of the total foreign exchange
earnings of our country which at present is
around 12 billion dollars. In India, Bt cotton
since its release in 2002 by Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee replaced
more and more conventional cotton area.
There Cotton plays a key role in the
National economy in terms of direct and
indirect employment and income generation
in the agricultural and industrial sectors.
Textiles and related exports of which cotton
alone comprised nearly 65 per cent and
accounts for nearly 33 per cent of the total
foreign exchange earnings of our country
which at present is around 12 billion dollars
with a potential for a significant increase in
the coming year. Cotton is cultivated in
three distinct agro-ecological regions (north,
central and south) of the country
(Anonymous, 2014).
In Haryana cotton is grown during Kharif
season. Cotton accounts for an area of 610
thousand ha in Haryana with total
production of 24,000 thousand bales and
yield of lint is 664.50 kg / ha (Anonymous
2014). Cotton is attacked by several insect
pests reducing the crop yield to a greater
extent. The insect pests that attack cotton
crop may be classified into sap sucking
insects (aphids, Jassids and white fly) or
Yadav et.al.
chewing insects (bollworms, leaf eating
caterpillars etc.) of the total pesticides used
in Indian Agriculture, about 45 per cent is
sprayed on cotton crop alone. To reduce
pesticide usage in cotton, several strategies
like use of Genetic Resistance to insect
pests, Integrated Pest Management (IPM),
Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM)
etc. are advocated. In recent times, Bt cotton
technology is found to be one of the best
strategies to manage bollworms, the most
important pest of cotton. The desperate
situation faced by many cotton farmers
(suicides among cotton farmers have
become a commonplace occurrence) has led
to a search for solutions. Research in
biotechnology has led to the development of
genetically modified crops like Bt cotton,
with a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis
transferred to selected host cotton hybrids. A
few Bt hybrids have been released in India
as well. The seed companies claim that the
Bt hybrids have inbuilt resistance to the
bollworms. The transgenic hybrids were
developed by Maharashtra Hybrid Seed
Company Limited in collaboration with
Monsanto. Presently, 1340 Bt cotton hybrids
have been released and recommended for
cultivation in India (Bharud, 2014), which
has created a confusing situation for the
farmers for choosing the appropriate hybrid.
Methodology: The socio personal
characters of Bt cotton growers were
selected based on review of literature and
discussion with scientists and were
measured using the earlier developed scales.
The required data collected by personal
interview method with the help of pre-tested
interview schedule was quantified and
analyzed using simple statistical methods
such as mean, and percentage. Two districts
Hisar and Sirsa were purposely selected for
the study because they have largest area of
production under Bt cotton. Two blocks
from each district were selected randomly.
A random sample of 20 Bt cotton growers as
respondents from eight randomly selected
villages from these two districts were
chosen. Thus, total number of 160 farmers
constituted the sample for the purpose of the
study.
Results
Socio personal characteristics of the Bt
cotton growers
According to their age, measured as
chronological in years, the selected farmers
were classified into three groups as young
(less than 38 years), middle (38 to 55 years)
and old (more than 55 years) and the details
are presented in table. The result presented
in table revealed the majority of the
respondents belonged to middle age groups
were (51.25%) followed by old (28.13 %)
and young age group (20.62%). These
findings indicate that middle aged farmers
were among those practiced Bt cotton
production.
The data revealed that a more than
half of the respondents (52.50%) had
possessed intermediate to graduate level of
education. It was found that 21.88 per cent
of the respondents were educated less than
intermediate. However, 25.62 per cent of
farmers were found to be post graduate and
above.
Land is a major form of property and
influence not only economic but social
position of an individual in any rural
community. The data contained in table
shows that 45.62 per cent of respondents
were having medium size (6-10 acres) of
land holding followed by large size (more
than 10 acres) of land holding to the extent
of 31.87 per cent. Only 22.50 per cent were
having small size of land holding (less than
5 acres.)
The table 1 shows that less than half
of the respondents (46.87%) having socio-
economic status of medium category, about
one-fourth (26.87%) of the Bt cotton
Socio Personal Characteristics and Attitude of Farmers Towards Bt Cotton Production Technology
growers were having low socio-economic
status and 26.25 per cent of them having
high socio-economic status. A total of 73.12
per cent of the farmers were having socio-
economic status from medium to high
category.
It is clear from the Table - 1 that a
slight majority (45 %) of the respondents
having medium level of irrigation facilities.
As much as 28.75 per cent Bt cotton growers
were having low irrigation facilities,
followed by 26.25 per cent of them were
having adequate irrigation facilities.
It is evident from table that half of
the respondents (50 %) were having medium
level of mass media exposure followed by
27.50 per cent of the respondents fall under
the high category of mass media exposure
and 21.67 per cent of the respondents who
belonged to the category of low mass media
exposure, respectively.
Table - 1 shows that as much as
39.37 per cent Bt cotton growers had
extension contact of medium level, followed
by 31.87 per cent having extension contact
of high category and 28.75 per cent having
low level of extension contact, respectively.
The data in Table - 1 showed that
maximum percentage of the respondents
(43.75%) fall under medium risk bearing
capacity category whereas 34.37 per cent of
the respondents were placed in low category
of risk bearing capacity. The data further
indicated that only 21.87 per cent
respondents showed high risk bearing
capacity.
The data in Table - 1 revealed that
almost equal percentage of the respondents
belonged to medium 40.63 per cent and high
40 per cent category of economic
motivation, followed by low economic
motivation i.e. (19.37%). The data revealed
that majority of the respondents (80.63%)
were having high to medium level of
economic motivation to increase their farm
income from the Bt cotton cultivation.
It was found that majority of the
respondents (54.37%) had medium level of
scientific orientation, whereas 30.00 per cent
of the respondents were placed in low
scientific orientation category. The
remaining 15.63 per cent of the respondents
belonged to high scientific orientation.
The data contained in Table - 1
shows that 45.62 per cent of respondents
were adopting the cotton-wheat cropping
pattern followed by 43.13 per cent cotton -
mustard cropping pattern. Cotton - barseem
cropping pattern was adopted by 8.12 per
cent and 3.13 per cent cotton growers
adopted the cotton-chickpea cropping
pattern.
Discussion: The study highlighted that there
were majority of the respondents belong to
middle to old age group, educated up to
intermediate to graduate level, about nearly
half of the respondents have six to ten acres
of land holding followed by one third of the
respondents having more than ten acres of
land The similar situation of small holdings
distribution was also noticed in the findings
of Srinivasreddy (1995), Karpagam (2000)
and Shashidhara (2003). Level of media
exposure of Bt cotton farmer studied in
terms of extension contact and mass media
exposure showed that most of the
respondents had medium to high level of
extension contact and mass media exposure
These results were in accordance with the
findings of Shashidhara (2003). Half of the
respondents were having medium level of
mass media exposure and twenty seven
percent respondents were having high level
of mass media exposure. These findings are
in line with findings of Vedamurthy (2002)
and Ramanna et al. (2000) who reported
middle-aged respondent with medium to
high socio-economic status and mass media
exposure engaged in horticulture farming.
Majority of the respondents had medium to
low level of risk orientation as well as and
Yadav et.al.
scientific orientation. It was revealed that
majority of the respondents had medium to
high level of economic motivation. These
findings are in line with findings of Kumar
(2004) and Kumar (2011) who reported
middle-aged respondent with medium to
high level of risk orientation and economic
motivation. The study revealed that a huge
majority of respondents had medium to high
overall attitude towards Bt cotton production
technology.
Attitude of farmers towards Bt cotton
production.
A. Aspect wise attitude of the farmers
towards Bt cotton production technology
The Bt-cotton production technology
was divided into four aspects viz.,
environmental, economic, social and
technology, respectively. According to Table
-2 attitude of the practices such as
environment 30.62 per cent of the respondent
were having unfavourable attitude followed by
15 per cent of them were having in the
category of favourable attitude and 54.38 per
cent of the respondents fall under netural
attitude. In case of economic, the majority
(56.88%) of the respondents fall in the
category of neutral attitude followed by
favourable (10.62%) and unfavourable
(32.50%) of the respondents in economic
case.
B. Overall attitude levels of farmers about
Bt cotton production technology.
The data from Table - 3 revealed that about
56.87 per cent respondents were having
moderately favourable of overall attitude
followed by 26.25 per cent respondents having
highly favourable of overall attitude and 23.12
per cent of the respondents having least
favourable overall attitude.
Discussion: Farmers have favourable and netural attitude
towards environment, economic, social and
technological aspect regarding Bt cotton
production technology. The results of these
findings also in line with the findings given
by Gandhi and Namboodiri (2006) and
Ceddia (2008).
Conclusion:
The study concluded that there are
majority of the respondents belonged to
middle to old age group, educated up to
intermediate to graduate level, about nearly
half of the respondents have six to ten acres
of land holding followed by one third of the
respondents having more than ten acres of
land .Level of media exposure of Bt cotton
farmers studied in terms of extension contact
and mass media exposure showed that most
of the respondents had medium to high level
of extension contact and mass media
exposure . Half of the respondents were
having medium level of mass media
exposure and twenty seven percent
respondents were having high level of mass
media exposure. Majority of the respondents
had medium to low level of risk orientation
as well as and scientific orientation. The
study also concluded that majority of
farmers belonged to medium socio-
economic profile and moderate attitude
level about Bt cotton production technology.
References:
1. Anonymous, (2014). Annual Report.
All India Co-ordinated Cotton
Improvement Project. CICR, Nagpur
2.
2. Bharud, R.W. (2014). Cotton
developments in India. All India Co-
ordinated Cotton Improvement
Project, Mahatma Phule Agricultural
University, Rahuri, Maharashtra,
India.
3. Ceddia, M.G., Gomez, B.M.and
Rodríguez, C.E. (2008). An ex-ante
evaluation of the economic impact of
Bt cotton adoption by Spanish
farmers facing the EU cotton sector
Socio Personal Characteristics and Attitude of Farmers Towards Bt Cotton Production Technology
reform. Ag. Bio. Forum. 11 (2) : 82 -
92.
4. Gandhi, V.P. and Namboodiri, N.V.
(2006). The Adoption and
Economics of Bt Cotton in India :
Preliminary Results from a Study.
International Association of
Agricultural Economist (IAAE), Gold
Coast, Australia, August 12-18,
2006.
5. Karpagam, C. (2000). A study on
knowledge and adoption behaviour
of turmeric growers in Erode district
of Tamil Nadu state. Unpublished
M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric.
Sci., Dharwad .
6. Kumar, A. (2004). Problem &
prospects of horticultural growers in
diversified Agri. Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, CCS HAU, Hisar.
7. Kumar, R. (2011). Problems and
prospects of kinnow production
under drip irrigation. Unpublished
M.Sc. Thesis, CCSHAU, Hisar.
8. Ramanna, K.N., Chandrakandan, K.
and Karthikeyan, C. (2000).
Motivation factors and constraints of
hybrid sunflower seed growers.
Journal of Extension Education.
11(3): 2840-2844.
9. Shashidhara, K.K., (2003). A study
on socio-economic profile of drip
irrigation farmers in Shimoga and
Davanagere district of Karnataka.
Unpublished M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis,
Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad .
10. Srinivasreddy, M.V., (1995). A study
on knowledge and adoption of
recommended mango cultivation
practices among farmers of Kolar
district. Unpublished M.Sc.(Agri.)
Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore .
11. Vedamurthy. (2002). A study of
arecanut management practices in
Shimoga district in Karnataka.
Unpublished M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwad.
Yadav et.al.
Figure1: Aspect wise attitude of the farmers towards Bt cotton production technology
Table: 1 Socio personal characteristics of the Bt cotton growers ( N= 160 ).
Sr. No. Variables Categories Frequency Percentage
1. Age
Young (less than 38) 33 20.62
Middle (38-55) 82 51.25
Old (above 55) 45 28.13
2. Education
Low (less than 4) 35 21.88
Medium (4-5) 84 52.50
High (above5) 41 25.62
3.
Land holding
Small (less than 6 Acres) 36 22.51
Medium(6-10 Acres) 73 45.62
Large(above10 Acres) 51 31.87
4. Socio-economic status
Low (less than 15) 43 26.87
Medium (15-30) 75 46.87
High (more than 30) 42 26.26
5. Irrigation facilities
Low (less than 2) 46 28.75
Medium (2-3) 72 45.00
High (more than 3) 42 26.25
6. Mass media exposure
Low (less than 4) 36 22.50
Medium (4-6) 80 50.00
High (above 6) 44 27.50
7. Extension contact
Low (less than 7) 46 28.76
Medium (7-10) 63 39.37
High (above10) 51 31.87
8. Risk orientation
Low (less than 23) 55 34.37
Medium (23-26) 70 43.76
High (above26) 35 21.87
9. Economic motivation Low (less than 23) 31 19.37
24
87
49
17
91
52
12
81
67
29
89
42
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Less than 4
4 to 8 More than 8
Less than 6
6 to 12 More than 12
Less than 9
9 to 18 More than 18
Less than 9
9 to 18 More than 18
Environment Economic Social Technological
Fre
qu
en
cy
Variables
Socio Personal Characteristics and Attitude of Farmers Towards Bt Cotton Production Technology
Medium (23-25) 65 40.63
High (above25) 64 40.00
10. Scientific orientation
Low(less than 17) 48 30.00
Medium (17-26) 87 54.37
High (above 26) 25 15.63
11. Cropping pattern
Cotton-Wheat 73 45.62
Cotton-Mustard 69 43.13
Cotton-Berseem 13 8.12
Cotton-Chickpea 5 3.13
Table: 2. Aspect wise attitude of the farmers towards Bt cotton production technology
Sr.
No.
Attitude Score Range Frequency Percentage
1. Environment
Favourable (Less than 4)
Neutral (4-8)
Unfavourable (More than 8)
24
87
49
15.00
54.38
30.62
2. Economic
Favourable (Less than 6)
Neutral (6-12)
Unfavourable (More than 12)
17
91
52
10.62
56.88
32.50
3. Social
Favourable (Less than 9)
Neutral (9-18)
Unfavourable (More than 18)
12
81
67
7.50
50.62
41.88
4. Technological
Favourable (Less than 9)
Neutral (9-18)
Unfavourable (More than 18)
29
89
42
18.12
55.62
26.25
Table: 3 Overall attitude levels of farmers about Bt cotton production technology N=160
Sr. No. Category Score range Frequency Percentage
1. Least favourable Less than 28 37 23.12
2. Moderately favourable 28-56 91 56.87
3. Highly favourable More than 56 42 26.25
60-67 The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
*Corresponding Author’s email Address: [email protected]
Institutional Arrangements for Food and Nutrition Security in
India: Retrospects and Prospects Tulsi Bhardwaj
1, J.P.Sharma
2, Hema Baliwada*
3 and Premlata Singh
4
1, 2, 3 &4 ICAR- IARI, New Delhi, India IARI, New Delhi, India
Abstract The need for achieving food security is felt significantly in the recent years due to enormous pressure
from the ever-increasing population in India. Owing to the change in preferences in crop production techniques
over a period of time, several new challenges draw attention to food security. Chronic food insecurity still
persists as reflected in the low energy intake and high incidences of malnutrition. The overall improvement in
nutritional status being very slow and chronic for approximately half of the population, particularly among the
vulnerable groups of children. India is one of the few countries which have experimented with a broad spectrum
of programmes for improving food security. However, despite a significant reduction in the incidence of poverty,
chronic food insecurity persists in a large proportion of India’s population. The government needs to supplement
the provision of food security with a mix of short- and long-term policies. This will require improvements in
infrastructure and time-limited targeted policies to improve rural farm and non-farm productivity. Special care
should be taken in laying down the guidelines for the policies and programmes so that the money and labour
expended result in durable and visible assets benefiting the whole community and ensuring food security for all.
Research should be targeted to emphasize on bio fortification to ensure nutritional security in the diet. Prioritize
the demand-driven and nutrient-based research programmes. Concerted efforts should be made to ensure
involvement of social sciences in research prioritization, and technology development, targeting and
dissemination. This paper deals with food and nutritional security status, interventions of government and the
other institutions and the roles to be played by policy makers, researchers and extension agents in overcoming
food and nutritional challenges in India.
Keywords: Food security, nutrition security, malnutrition, bio fortification, chronic food insecurity and policies.
Cite this article: Bhardwaj T, Sharma J.P. Baliwada H. and Singh P. 2017. Institutional Arrangements for Food and Nutrition Security in India: Retrospects and Prospects, The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, 1 (1) 60-67.
Introduction
With a population approaching almost
1.2 billion, India is likely to be the most
populous country on this planet by 2030 with
1.6 billion people. It currently accounts for
more than 17 per cent of the global population
(census 2011). Ensuring food and nutrition
security is thus a challenge for India. Article
47 of the Constitution of India states that, “the
State shall regard raising the level of nutrition
and standard of living of its people and
improvement in public health among its
primary duties”. India's Five-Year Plans
enunciated the policies, laid down multi-
pronged strategies, outlined multi-sectored
programmes to improve food security and
nutritional status of the population, laid the
goals to be achieved in a specified time frame,
and provided the needed funds to implement
the interventions.
Food security is a situation that exists
when all people, at all times, have physical,
social and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life (FAO 2001). Food security was
formerly considered essentially in terms of
production. It was assumed that adequate food
production would ensure adequate availability
of food in the market as well as in the
household. The concept rests on three pillars:
food availability, food access, and food
absorption. Availability refers to the physical
availability of food stocks in desired
quantities. This depends on the domestic
production, changes in stocks, and imports
along with the distribution of food across
territories. Access stands for physical and
economic reach of population. This ability to
acquire the requisite quantum of food depends
upon income levels, purchasing power and
Bhardwaj T, Sharma J.P. Baliwada H. and Singh P.
effective distribution network. It was this
pillar of food security which shifted the focus
to poverty reduction. Absorption is defined as
the ability to biologically utilize the food
consumed. This is related to several factors
such as nutritional knowledge, safe drinking
water, and availability of stable and sanitary
physical and environmental conditions. All
this allows effective biological absorption of
food in a human body (Swaminathan 2009).
Food security status At the global level, the South Asian
region is home to more chronically food
insecure people than any other region in the
world. The number of hungry persons in South
Asia (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and
Sri Lanka) rose from 290.4 million in 1992 to
298.5 million in 2003 (FAO, 2004). The
National Family Health Survey 2005 – 06,
highlights some very disturbing truths about
the prevailing situation in the country: 56 per
cent of the women are anaemic; 30 per cent of
new born babies are of low birth weight
(LBW); and 47 per cent of the children are
underweight. India ranks 63rd
in Global
Hunger Index (GHI) 2013 as per International
Food Policy Research Institute. India has the
highest prevalence of underweight in children
under five which is more than 40 per cent
(IFPRI 2013). Though, the position of India is
marginally improving, it is still categorized
under ‘alarming levels’ list of nations across
the globe. As per IFPRI data, undernourished
population for 2010-12 was 17.5 per cent (21
Crore); Underweight children below 5years
were 40.2 per cent and mortality rate of
children under 5 years was 6.1 per cent which
was dismal by any standards.
Nutrition security status
Nutrition Security implies ‘Physical,
economic and social access to balanced diet,
clean drinking water, safe environment, and
health care’. India has among the highest
incidence of under-nutrition in the world.
Almost 50 per cent of children under 5 were
under weight and stunted. Over 30 per cent of
adults were also undernourished (UNICEF,
2010). Besides deficiency of calories and
protein, deficiency of micronutrients (vitamins
and minerals) was rampant (NNNB 2006).
Micro Nutrient deficiency is referred to as the
hidden hunger since often times it is not an
obvious killer or crippler, but extracts heavy
human and economic cost. India is home to 25
percent of the world’s hungry population. An
estimated 43 per cent of children under the age
of five years are malnourished (WFP 2012).
Improvement in food consumption is a
necessary but not a sufficient condition for
overcoming the problem of malnutrition in
India. Apart from inadequate food
consumption, the other important causes of
malnutrition are high incidence of
gastrointestinal and respiratory infections and
behavioural factors such as faulty child
feeding and weaning practices, all of which
contribute to the low absorption of nutrients
from the food consumed. The overall
improvement in nutritional status has also
been very slow. There is chronic under-
nourishment in about half of the population,
particularly among the vulnerable groups of
children, women and elderly from the lower
half of the expenditure class.
There are even differences of
nutritional status in inter states of India. The
state-level mismatch between food intake and
nutritional status could be attributed to the
differences in education, health, availability of
safe drinking water, environmental sanitation
and personal hygiene which intervene between
the food intake and nutritional status. Micro
nutrient deficiency is equally common among
the population, more so in the vulnerable
groups such as women and children. These
two groups are more prone to certain
deficiencies than the adult male population.
Iodine deficiency is common among the
populations living in the sub- Himalayan
region and other hill regions of the country.
Vitamin-A deficiency, which leads to
preventable blindness in the children, is more
common among the children from the rural
Institutional Arrangements for Food and Nutrition Security in India: Retrospects and Prospects
households.
An iron deficiency was widely prevalent
among the pregnant women. About half of the
pregnant women suffer from iron deficiency
and consequent anemia; 35 per cent suffer
from mild anemia, 15 per cent from moderate
and 2 per cent from severe anemia (NFHS
2005).
Low dietary intake is the major factor
responsible for under nutrition. Vegetables
intake which is essential to provide the needed
micronutrients continued to be low. Pulses
critical to meet protein needs in populations
subsisting on vegetarian diets, are expensive
and consumption had come down. Pulse
production in the last two decades, has
remained stubbornly low. The urgent need for
a technological breakthrough to increase the
yield potential of pulses is widely
acknowledged. Potable water supply and
sanitation are critical for prevention of
infections. Health care for early detection and
effective management of infections can reduce
under nutrition due to infections.
Initiatives to improve food and nutritional
status of India
India is one o the few countries which
have experimented with a broad spectrum of
programmes for improving food security. It
has already made substantial progress in terms
of overcoming transient food insecurity by
giving priority to self-sufficiency in food
grains and through procurement and public
distribution of foodgrains, employment
programmes, etc.
Earlier programmes:
1. Mid Day Meal Programme: In 1925,
a Mid Day Meal Programme was
introduced for disadvantaged children
in Madras Municipal Corporation to
improve the nutritional status of
school-age children nation wide. In the
post-independence period, today the
scheme is being implemented in most
states. It would also have impact on
school attendance and enrolment.
2. Food Corporation of India (1965): It
involves in effective price support for
the farmers, distribution of food grains
throughout the country for Public
Distribution System and maintaining
buffer stocks of food grains to ensure
national food security.
3. Special Nutrition Programme (1970-
71): It provides supplementary feeding
to the extent of about 300 calories and
10 gm. of proteins to pre-school
children and about 500 calories and 20
gm. of protein to expectant and nursing
mothers for 300 days a year. At present
SNP is operated, as a part of the
Minimum Needs Programme.
4. Balwadi Nutrition Programme (1970-71): It is for the benefit of
children, consists of 300 calories and
10 gm. of protein per child per day for
270 days a year.
5. Integrated Child Development
Services (1975): Today, ICDS
Scheme represents one of the world’s
largest and most unique programmes
for early childhood development. The
package of services is supplementary
nutrition, immunization, health check-
up, referral services, pre-school non-
formal education and nutrition &
health education. Government of India
partners with the international agencies
like United Nations International
Children’ Emergency Fund (UNICEF),
Cooperative for Assistance and Relief
Everywhere (CARE), World Food
Programme (WFP) to supplement
interventions under the ICDS.
The Ministry of Women and
Child Development and Ministry of
Health had adopted the New WHO
(World Health Organisation) Child
Growth Standard in India on 15th
of
August, 2008 for monitoring the
growth of children through ICDS.
There has been significant progress in
the implementation of ICDS Scheme
during X five year Plan and during XI
Bhardwaj T, Sharma J.P. Baliwada H. and Singh P.
Plan in terms of increase in number of
operational projects, Anganwadi
Centres and coverage of beneficiaries.
6. Wheat based Supplementary
Nutrition Programme (1986): It
consists of supply of free wheat and
supportive costs for other ingredients,
cooking, transport etc.
7. National Programme for Nutritional
Support to Primary Education
(1995): Launched with a view to
enhancing enrollment, retention ,
attendance and simultaneously
improving nutritional levels among
children.
Current programmes:
1. National food security mission
(2007): Aim is to increase the
production of rice by 10 million tons,
wheat by 8 million tons and pulses by
2 million tons to the end of eleventh
plan. The Mission is being continued
during 12th Five Year Plan (2012-17)
with new targets of additional
production of food grains of 25 million
tons of food grains comprising of 10
million tons rice, 8 million tons of
wheat, 4 million tons of pulses and 3
million tons of coarse cereals by the
end of 12th Five Year Plan. Various
interventions proposed in NFSM is
demonstration of improved package of
practices at farmers' fields to create
awareness about the improved
practices and action plans proposed for
additional area coverage of crops.
2. National food security bill (2013): It
is an initiative for ensuring food and
nutritional security to the people. It
gives right to the people to receive
adequate quantity of food grains at
affordable prices. The Bill has special
focus on nutritional support to poorest
of the poor, women and children. In
case of non-supply of foodgrains now
people will get Food Security
Allowance. The bill provides for
grievance redressal mechanism and
penalty for non compliance by public
servant or authority.
3. Food fortification programmes
Iodised salt for reaching out
iodine to the poorest of the
poor
Iron fortified Iodised salt
Iron fortified wheat flour (Atta)
and rice
Fortification of Cereal Products
with Folic Acid to combat
vitamin B12
DBT network project on bio
fortification of rice, wheat and maize is
currently being implemented by ICAR
Institutions and state agriculture universities
and National Institute of Nutrition.
4. Transgenic technologies
Golden Rice rich in pro-vitamin A;
high- iron rice (high ferritin gene from
mangrove); are examples of transgenic
technologies.
Pulses Development Programmes in India:
Changing Patterns
As pulses play a major role in
nutritional security, several policy initiatives,
projects and programmes with respect to
pulses were undertaken in India viz.
All India Coordinated Pulses
Improvement Project (AICPIP)
National Pulses Development
Programme (NPDP)
Technology Mission on Pulses
(TMOP)
Centrally Sponsored Integrated
Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm
and Maize (ISOPOM), etc.
These policies and programmes hardly
led to improvement in pulse production of
India. In order to raise pulses production, the
existing pulses related programmes were
replaced by (National food Security Mission
2007) NFSM-pulses.
Institutional Arrangements for Food and Nutrition Security in India: Retrospects and Prospects
Role of institutions in breeding for
nutrition:
There are many institutes in India
breeding for nutrition in the diet. The major
ones are Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Indian Institute of Pulses Research,
Directorate of Mushroom research etc. The
interventions of pioneer institute i.e Indian
Agricultural Research Institute in nutritional
security is explained here
Indian Agricultural Research Institute:
IARI developed many improved crop varieties
and techniques for securing nutritional
security in the diet. Examples are:
i) Varieties:
Rice: Golden rice is a genetically
modified crop developed for its
nutritional value i.e. provitamin A;
Golden Swarna has high beta carotene
content.
Wheat: HI 8627 (Malavkirti) variety is
rich in vitamin A; HI 8663 (Poshan)
variety is more nutritious and suitable
for dalia, suji and pasta making; HD
2967 has high protein (12.7%); HD
3043 has higher zinc, copper,
manganese and high protein content
(12.76%).
Maize: Single cross maize hybrids,
Quality Protein Maize help in reducing
protein malnutrition
Vegetables: a) Chick pea, Pusa 5023 has high protein
content
b) Vitamin A enriched carrots, pumpkins,
spinach
c) Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd,
tomato, mustard
d) Calcium and iron enriched spinach
e) Protein enriched beans and garden peas
f) Carrot, Pusa Vasuda rich in total
carotenoids, lycopene, TSS and
minerals; other carrot variety Pusa
Rudhira is a rich source of total
carotenoids
g) Radish, Pusa Jamuni is anthocyanin
rich radish variety; Other radish variety
Pusa Gulabi contains high carotenoids
and anthocyanins
h) Beta carotene rich orange cauliflower
i) High lycopene tomato breeding
selections: Sel 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Mustard: Pusa Mustard 30 (LES-43)
is a low erucic acid mustard variety;
Pusa Karishma is the first single zero
(<2% erucic acid) variety of Indian
mustard
ii) Value addition of cereals and
pulses
Pearl pop snack: The product is rich
in protein, crude fibre, antioxidants,
iron and zinc. It also helps significant
reduction in phytic acid content.
Pusa Nutri Cookies: Protein enriched
product (7.89% protein). It is fortified
with soy flour to increase protein
content. Good source of iron and
calcium.
Roasted soya nuts: It is protein rich
product and rich in antioxidants
Protein rich crackers: It is healthier
alternative to commercial biscuits as it
is made with chickpea and QPM
(Quality Protein Maize). Super foods
like aonla and beetroot have been
incorporated to provide antioxidants
and flavonoids besides fibre.
iii) Other Value added products:
Ripe mango powder to combat
vitamin A deficiency; Pusa fruit
drinks contains natural oxidants,
vitamins and minerals; Antioxidant
rich functional food from aonla.
Roles to be played
There is an urgent need of the different
role players to address all these issues for
securing nutrition secure food in the diet.
Mainly policy makers, researchers and
extension agents play a crucial role in food
and nutritional secure India.
Bhardwaj T, Sharma J.P. Baliwada H. and Singh P.
1. Policy support
India adopted the National Food
Security Act 2013 that stockpiles food for
release into the market to mitigate prices
spikes. The National Food Security Act covers
75 per cent of India’s rural population and 50
per cent of its urban population, highlighting
the scope of the challenge and the ambition of
the program.
The government needs to supplement
the provision of food security with a mix of
short- and long-term policies. In the short
term, there needs to be a recognition that food
insecurity stems from lack of opportunity.
There is a need to ensure employment
opportunities for at least one able-bodied
member of a household. For children, the
midday meal scheme should be implemented
in lagging states as soon as possible. In the
long term, food security will result from the
wider tackling of poverty. This will require
improvements in infrastructure and time-
limited targeted policies to improve rural farm
and non-farm productivity.
There is a need for procuring pulses
under public distribution system to reduce
market risk for farmers and ensure supply for
their increased consumption. A protein rich
crop like soybean has to be looked in a
comparative context. The scope for pulses or
other sources of protein has to be looked in a
situation where special interests can be taken.
There is an urgent need for creating a strong
mechanism to focus on nutrition security
through improved pulse value chains, and
efficient processing sector.
The policies should be in such a way
that the Corporate Social Responsibility fund
should be used for nutrition programmes of
the country.
There is an urgent need to strengthen
the existing Public Distribution Network
(PDS), Food for Work Programmes,
improving agricultural productivity and
enhancing rural non-farm employment.
Nutrition programmes, particularly for the
children, should be expanded on a significant
scale. There is a strong requirement to ensure
the fullest implementation of minimum wage
laws for farm labour. Special care should be
taken in laying down the guidelines for the
policies and programmes so that the money
and labour expended result in durable and
visible assets benefiting the whole community
and ensuring food security for all.
2. Research support Earlier, the focus was on breeding for
production, now there should be a change in
the paradigm of breeding for nutrition.
Research should be targeted to emphasize on
bio fortification to ensure nutritional security
in the diet. Prioritize the demand-driven and
nutrient-based research Programmes. The
research should target on medicinal plants and
also the neglected plants for nutritional
security. Concerted efforts should be made to
ensure involvement of social sciences in
research prioritization, and technology
development, targeting and dissemination.
For ensuring food security, the
research should focus on; to develop
promising technologies and management
options to raise productivity; to meet growing
food demand in a situation of deteriorating
production environment at the lowest cost; to
develop appropriate technologies; create
required infrastructure and to evolve
institutional arrangements for production;
post-harvest and marketing of high-value and
perishable commodities and their value-added
products (Vision 2030 of ICAR). There is a
need to develop organizational policy and
guidelines aimed at enhancing inventions and
accelerating innovations in agriculture to
harness opportunities by integrating modern
and conventional research approaches.
3. Extension support
Extension in our country basically focusing on
production aspects of agriculture, its role is
very dismal as far as food and nutrition
security is concerned. To address these issues,
the new role of extension should be to focus
Institutional Arrangements for Food and Nutrition Security in India: Retrospects and Prospects
on nutrition security in the people. The
changing role of extension should be:
Nutrition literacy and leadership at all
levels is needed to understand and act.
So creating awareness about the
consequences of under nourishment is
the first and foremost thing.
Developing modules on nutritional
aspects like what to eat, how much to
eat, what should to eat to avoid health
problems etc should be covered
Sensitization of people through Self
Help Groups (SHGs)
Innovative strategies need to be
developed and tested not only to
improve knowledge and attitudes but
practices as well.
Promoting Dietary Diversification
through para-extension workers
Establishment of nutrition clubs
Conducting training programmes and
demonstrations on nutritional security
Behavioural modification modules
should be developed
Establishment of model kitchen
gardens to address nutrition security
Empowering women in agriculture:
Resources targeted to women and
women’s groups significantly
improve agricultural productivity,
women’s control of resources or
assets, and health and nutrition
outcomes. Women’s groups,
including SHGs can become
instrumental in meaningful
convergence of health, nutrition,
education and other broad-based
schemes addressing the deep-rooted
causes of under-nutrition. Even the
cooking practices of women can be
changed through advisory services.
Public-private-NGO partnership may
have a role in improving the outreach.
Impact studies in extension research
should be given high priority to
examine the effectiveness of
nutritional security programmes of
India
Research is needed to find out socio-
cultural, behavioural factors and
administrative bottle neck to improve
the efficiency.
Course curriculum on nutritional
security should be introduced in
schools
Evolve a lean-and-efficient
administration by employing
information and communication
technology
Promote innovations and improve
human resource capacity by involving
all stakeholders in the food-supply
chain.
Strengthen institutional capacity for
attaining sustainable food, nutrition,
and livelihood security, and also for
global competitiveness.
Act as a catalyst in reclaiming
degraded resources for agriculture,
and conserve and enhance national
wealth of natural resources and
biodiversity.
Improve knowledge management
system in agriculture and allied
sectors.
The extension programmes should
focus on nutritional security
programmes and those experiences
need to be replicated to other areas.
Conclusion
Agriculture is fundamental to India’s
inclusive and sustainable structural economic
transformation. It must therefore play a more
significant role in promoting nutrition
security. The government can maximize the
potential of existing architectures across
sectors to make them more pro-nutrition
oriented and to promote meaningful coherence
and convergence across sectors. Pumping
cereals alone to quench hunger will not ensure
nutrition and health. The goal should be to
ensure a balanced diet adequate in macro- and
micronutrients.
Bhardwaj T, Sharma J.P. Baliwada H. and Singh P.
The micro-nutrient deficiency can be
cost effectively rectified by supplementary
nutritional programmes to the children and the
expectant and lactating mothers. There is a
need to intensify and accelerate efforts to
realize the potential of bio fortified crops.
Locally produced and procured coarse grains
made available through the Targeted Public
Distribution System (TPDS) at a subsidized
rate may substantially bring down the subsidy
cost without any reduction in calories
provided. This will also improve targeting as
only the neediest are likely to buy these coarse
grains. Millets are rich in minerals and
micronutrients and hence increased
consumption will improve the intake of these
vital nutrients by the poor. Now it is a great
opportunity for everyone to enlarge the food
basket and look at grains which are nutritious.
On the other hand, the area under
pulses cultivation is coming down. There is a
need for effective procurement policies for
pulses along with effective long and medium
term trade policies to promote supply and
consumption. As the pulse production is low,
there is a an urgent need with the required
investment in research and development and
effective extension services to ensure the poor
and vulnerable have access to pulses. Protein
rich foods like soybean should be encouraged
and the value addition should be given higher
priority.
Here the task of extension has to be robust.
Media support for creating awareness and
compliance is important. Accelerating under-
nutrition reduction requires realigning
agriculture and rural development policy to
empower women in agriculture and here the
extension plays a big role in mobilization.
Reference
1. FAO World food summit 1996 Final
report Part 1. [accessed on March 13,
2012]:www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3548
e/w3548e00.htm . [Ref list]
2. Food and Agriculture Organisation
(2004): State of Food Insecurity in the
World, Rome, www.fao.org/docrep/
3. National Family Health Survey, 2005 –
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4. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau
(NNMB), Diet and nutrition status of
populations and prevalence of
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areas;. Technical Report No 24.
National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR,
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5. Food and Agriculture Organization
2009 “How to Feed the 20. World in
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http://www.foodsecurityportal.org/indi
a/resources
The NAMO, International Journal Agricultural Research and Development, Dec. 2017
CONTENT
Title Authors
Page
(1) Potential of bioslurry generated from various
raw materials to supplement phyto-nutrients
to tomato crop
Renu Singh, R.K. Yadav,
Monika Srivastava and Ritu
Tomar
1-7
(2) Integrated insect pests Management in
Organic Farming
Gaje Singh
8-16
(3) Terminal heat stress in wheat: adaptation
strategies to address the impact on crop
productivity
Sumitra Devi Bamboriya, R.S.
Bana, Shanti Devi Bamboriya,
Santosh Ranva and Madhu
Patial
17-28
(4) Media Selection and Integration Shilpi Verma & Shobhana
Gupta
29-45
(5) Economic Empowerment of Women
Through Embroidery And Needle Work: A
Study Of Rajasthan Mission On Livelihoods
(RMOL) From Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Anuprita Purohit, Simple Jain
& Asha Godawat
46-52
(6) Socio Personal Characteristics and Attitude
of Farmers Towards Bt Cotton Production
Technology
Sumit Yadav, Godara A.K. &
V.P.S. Yadav
53-59
(7) Institutional Arrangements for Food and
Nutrition Security in India: Retrospects and
Prospects
Tulsi Bhardwaj, J.P. Sharma,
Hema Baliwada & Premlata
Singh
60-67
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