Neutron scattering: Structure and Dynamics...• Extend to new solid/liquid Interfaces: iron oxides,...
Transcript of Neutron scattering: Structure and Dynamics...• Extend to new solid/liquid Interfaces: iron oxides,...
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Chemical Applications of Neutron Scattering:
Coherent Scattering and Adsorbed Layers
EXAMPLES
ISIS Neutron School 2019Stuart Clarke
BP Institute, Department of Chemistry,University of Cambridge, UK
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Talk Outline• Neutron scattering
– Coherent scattering - structure– Incoherent scattering - dynamics
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications:
We use LOTS of different techniques to answer complex problemsToo much to cover…. See how far we get..
Adsorbed layers: In-plane structure – 2D diffraction (D20)Out-of-plane structure – reflection (SURF, CRISP, INTER, POLREF, OFFSPEC)What’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics) IRIS
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANS (LOQ)What arrangement ? SE- SANS Liquid structure PDF (SANDALS, NIMROD)
Conclusions
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Conclusions
Neutrons Very powerful tool(s) for Structure (Dynamics)
- Contrast between H and D very useful: highlight- Can ‘see’ Hydrogen: Highlight- Excellent transmission (extreme/commerical
conditions)BUT.- Tricky to get hold of/limited access
(complement with other methods)
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Examples of Monolayers
Wetting
Colloidal Stabilisatio
Detergency
Lubrication
Academic and industrial issues:Colloidal stablisation, molecular patterning,wetting behaviour, detergency,Slip agents, liquid crystals.Corrosion, Solid monolayers
‘Buried’ monolayersinaccessible to study:Need to get through bulk phase-neutrons have great transmissionUnusual experimental approaches
Mixtures / Multicomponent:Cheaper …
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Talk Outline
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications: Adsorbed layers:
In-plane structure – 2D diffractionOut-of-plane structure – reflectionWhat’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics)
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANSWhat arrangement ? SE- SANSLiquid structure PDF (NIMROD)
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3D diffraction: crystallography
• ‘Work horse’ of chemical community• Crystal structures of minerals, materials, organic molecular
structure determination.• Neutrons very good at hydrogen (x-rays no so good)• Adjacent elements (look the same to x-rays)
TODAY: 3D 2D diffraction
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Less Equals
In-plane 2D Structure:X-ray and Neutron diffraction
CC C C
DCCCC
C CDCC
CC
CC
D C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C D
CCC
C CC
CC
D CC CC
C C CC
CC CC
C C CC
CC CC
C C CC
CC CC
C C CC
CCCC
CCC
C CC CC C
C
C CC CC C
C
CD CC CC C
DC
C CC CC C
C C CC CC C
C
C CC CC C
C
C CC CC C
C
Octane
Heptane
Neutrons: sensitive to hydrogenX-rays: greater precisionIndependent informationCombination is often essential
10 20 30 40 50 60 70Scattering Angle
Experimental
Calculated
Decane on graphite
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Octane on graphite
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Why Xrays AND neutrons are important.
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Chloromethane monolayer:X-rays
Morishige, et al., Mol Phys , 72 395-411 (1991). 'The Structure of Chloromethane Monolayers Adsorbed on Graphite'.
X-ray
Low coverage
Chlorine atoms
Where are CH3 groups?Guessed:Ferro electric ordering?Like bulk crystal plane…
Bulk Plane
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Chloromethane
Morishige, et al., Mol Phys , 72 395-411 (1991). 'The Structure of Chloromethane Monolayers Adsorbed on Graphite'.
NeutronX-ray
Monolayer
Low coverage
Need neutrons to see CH3 groups and full symmetry
Bulk Plane
With neutrons:Anti ferroelectric Alternating chains
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Mixing:How do you tell if two species like each
other?
1) They avoid each other phase separation:
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Mixing ideally
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Special relationship;stoichiometric complexMolecular compound
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Structure: Diffraction from Mixed MonolayersHow do molecules mix on a surface?
(a) Phase sep. (b) Mixing (c) Molecular compound
Pure AMolecular Compound Pure BPure B
Pure A
14 16 1
Hexanol/heptanolHeptanol/octanolHeptanol/nonanol
6
7
8
9
3
1
2
3
3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5D-spacing (Å)
Com
posit
ion
Angle
Inte
nsity
Pure C7OH
Pure C9OH
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‘Special, non-covalent bonding between molecules’Big topic of supramolecular self assembly
N N I I
F F
FF
Donation of lone pair from nitrogen to Iodine ataom
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Novel Chemical interactions:Halogen Bonded co-crystal
Monolayer
N….I-C
‘New hydrogen bonds’Very stable layers2DT>> 3DTDirectionalStrong‘Controls’ strengthand orientation
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2D –diffraction: summary
• Can see in-plane molecular structure. (non-invasive)
• X - ray and neutrons can be essential : Neutrons ‘see’ H
• Determine surface phase behaviour• Characterise inter molecular bonding
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Talk Outline
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications: Adsorbed layers:
In-plane structure – 2D diffractionOut-of-plane structure – reflectionWhat’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics)
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANSWhat arrangement ? SE- SANSLiquid structure PDF (NIMROD)
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𝑞𝑞 =4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜆𝜆
Neutron Reflection: how does it work?
• Reflection of neutrons from the solid/liquid interface at grazing angles– Collect reflected intensity as a function of ‘angle’ (q)..– Solid substrates and coated surfaces
• Extend to new solid/liquid Interfaces: iron oxides, stainless, alumina, Ti oxides, Ni, Cu …
(previously: silica, Al2O3)• New conditions:
applied shear
𝜋𝜋
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Neutron Reflection Theory
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
1.0E+00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Refle
ctiv
ity
q, Å-1
No Layer
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Neutron Reflection Theory
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
1.0E+00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Refle
ctiv
ity
q, Å-1
No Layer 20 Å Layer
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Neutron Reflection Theory
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
1.0E+00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Refle
ctiv
ity
q, Å-1
No Layer 20 Å Layer 100 Å Layer
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Neutron Reflection Theory
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
1.0E+00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Refle
ctiv
ity
q, Å-1
No Layer 20 Å Layer 100 Å Layer
Film composition
Film thickness
Layer thickness
Substrate
Liquid
‘Fit’ experimental data to model. How much material at the surface Layer ‘structure’ Non-invasive/in-situ
Position of critical edge key indicator of solution composition (Tutorial problem)
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Thin layer reflection: Add amplitudes
𝑅𝑅 𝑄𝑄 =𝑟𝑟01 + 𝑟𝑟12𝑒𝑒−2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
1 + 𝑟𝑟01𝑟𝑟12𝑒𝑒−2𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
2
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖 − 𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖 + 𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖
𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖 = 1 −𝜆𝜆2
2𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖
𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1 − 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 = ⁄2𝜋𝜋 𝜆𝜆 𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑖𝑖
𝜋𝜋1𝜋𝜋0
=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋0𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋1
𝜋𝜋1𝜋𝜋0
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋cTutorial problem: geometric series
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Neutron: ‘Magic’
• Contrast matching..• Making things disappear!• Unique structural solution. BIG advantage of neutrons
• Need to make sure complete exchange of solutions.. Not always easy..
• Ask me about ‘baby oil’?Position of critical edge key indicator of solution composition (Tutorial problem)
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Reflection Example #1• Calcite (CaCO3)Very important mineralScale in your kettleOil reservoirsOverbasing agent in engines
What adsorbs and how?In oil? In water?Polymers? Surfactants?
(Birefringent…! Double refraction)
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Neutron reflection: Example #1Surfactant, AOT, on Calcite (CaCO3) in oil
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
1.0E+00
0.006 0.06
Refle
ctiv
ity
q, Å-1
Calcite - d-heptane (bare)
Calcite - AOT - d-heptane
AOT bilayer
Adsorption of a monolayer on a surface:
(The bare surface, monolayer and bilayer calculations)
Why a monolayer adsorb in oil and not a bilayer?
What adsorbs in water…..?
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Reflection Example :Additives on calcite..
Monolayers, Bilayers, multilayers and adsorbed polymers
Surface corrosion
Molecular precision!
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(Kate Miller)Layered silicate: mineral books
Mica:Clays are key component of many oil reserviors
Very common in AFM/SFA studiesMany attempts to study with neutron reflection failed To hard to get a beam through Can’t deposit through vapour Thin sheets too flexible/break.. So..?
Reflection Example : Mineral Surfaces -mica
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‘Peeling’ Mica
silicon
‘Glue’
Mica
Support very thin layers on solid substrate and ‘peel’
Does it work?.......Can we see adsorption on mica in solution?…
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Surfactant adsorption on mica
Non-invasive:(a) DiDoDAB: Complete bilayer(same result as AFM)
(b) CTAB: NOT same as AFM
AFM
Mica
Surfactant bilayer
Neutrons
Neutrons non-invasive
Rather thick layers of glue and Mica – does this change the reflection?(‘Advanced’ tutorial problem)
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Example: Layers under Shear
Do layers get swept off under shear?
(steady and oscillatory shear)Modest shear rates < 500s-1
(pipe flow, or flow over rock-beds)
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Thin layersThick layers
Shear/Flow:AOT on Alumina/water
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Very thin layer - too thin for significant shear effects.(Same result under oscillatory shear).
Neutron reflection data:D17
SURFACTANT BILAYER (thin layer approx. 30A thick)Data: under steady shear increasing to approx 1000s-1:
Effects of Shear: neutron reflection:Thin layer
Shear has no effect on thin layer
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Adsorbed multi layerThick layer!!Under steady and oscillatory shear: BIG effects
Critical shear rate that delaminate the layers
Effects of Shear: neutron reflection:Thick layer
Higher shear rates planned
Shear has big effect on thick layers
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Talk Outline
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications: Adsorbed layers:
In-plane structure – 2D diffractionOut-of-plane structure – reflectionWhat’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics)
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANSWhat arrangement ? SE- SANSLiquid structure PDF (NIMROD)
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Quasi-elastic neutron scattering
• Diffusive motions
• How long to move out of your ‘box’
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Incoherent Neutron Scattering• Actually get a distribution of scattered neutron energies:
∆E
Intensity
Details of the angular dependence of the scattering can inform us about molecular motions
Very high energy resolution, 1 µeVIN10/IN16/IRIS
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Hydrogen and Deuterium are different
Hydrogen –very strong scatterer
Deuterium –weak scatterer
In a mixture can use neutrons to choose what we ‘see’
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Quasi-elastic Incoherent Neutron Scattering (IQNS) – ‘Dynamics’
• Neutrons can exchange energy with sample nuclei:
Translating nuclei
Slowed down
Speeded up
‘Inelastic’Liquids
• Isotopic substitution to distinguish components (H>>D)• Dynamics to differentiate adsorbed from non-adsorbed materials
‘Elastic’
Static Solids
Sample
Intensity of elastic scattering Amount of adsorbed material
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surface
Adsorbed Molecules are different
Adsorbed layers are ‘static’
Liquids are ‘dynamic’
Use mobility to distinguish adsorbed layers
Monolayer(solid)
Bulk(liquid)
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‘IQNS’What’s adsorbed?
Component of interest (protonated)Other component(s) (deuterated)
Only ‘see’ protonated bits
Bulk(liquid)
Monolayer(solid)
‘Elastic’ scattering
Only ‘see’ contribution from component of interest in the monolayer
surface
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Incoherent quasi-elastic neutron scattering (IQNS)
Solid Monolayer
Three Dimensional Crystallites
Bulk Melting Point
Monolayer Melting Point
Temperature
Am
ount
of S
olid
Substrate Fluid
Solid Monolayer
Three Dimensional Crystallites
Bulk Melting Point
Monolayer Melting Point
Temperature
Am
ount
of S
olid
Substrate Fluid
Solid Monolayer
Three Dimensional Crystallites
Bulk Melting Point
Monolayer Melting Point
Temperature
Am
ount
of S
olid
Substrate Fluid
What do we expect to see if there is a solid monolayer coexisting with the bulk liquid?
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IQNS Results: Octane on Graphite
Bulk melting point
Monolayer Level
Monolayer melting point
How much is in this monolayer?(Tutorial Problem)
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0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1Absolute Mole Fraction Decane
Surf
ace C
ompo
sitio
n (M
ole F
ract
ion
of D
ecan
e)
h-octane h-decane
What’s adsorbed: (IQNS) Results from mixtures
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1Molefraction of octane
Octane/nonane
Octane/decane
Normalised IQNS data for Octane-Decane (h-octane + d-decane)
0 215 220 225 230 235 240 245Temperature (K)
Pure h-octaneX = 0.909X = 0.715
vel
Monolayer composition as a function of solution composition
Plateau level falls as octane is displaced by decane
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Temperature (K)
280 300 320 340 360 380
Norm
alise
d int
ensit
y / a
rbitr
ary u
nits
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
Temperature vs Intensity
• Distinguish solid from liquid– elastic scattering
• Diffusion coefficient of liquid layers– Width of the quasi-elastic peak
• Rotation of molecules– q-dependence of the elastic scattering
Dynamics of Adsorbed Layers
Rotator PhaseDebye Waller-Solid Phase
QR
Mark Johnson
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Talk Outline
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications: Adsorbed layers:
In-plane structure – 2D diffractionOut-of-plane structure – reflectionWhat’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics)
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANSWhat arrangement ? SE- SANSLiquid structure PDF (NIMROD)
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What are Colloids?
• Tiny objects (10 nm – 10 µm)• Dispersed in a continuous phase
Plates
Examples (lots…) Fog – water droplets in airBlood – particles in ‘water’Milk – liquid fat drops in water (emulsion)Foam – air bubbles in a liquid or solid
Important flow propertiesNeed to ‘look’ through metal cellsOpaque samples
Neutron Transmission
Spheres
Want to knowWhat shape are the separate colloidsWhat orientationWhat arrangement
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Form and Structure Factors
0
005
0.01
015
0.02
025
2
0
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
2
0
005
0.01
015
0.02
025
2
S(q)
I(q)
P(q)
q
Dilute Spheres Crystal Liquid
Characterise particlesDiffraction peaks
‘Liquid’ ring
I(q)
S(q)
I(q)
P(q)
S(q)
I(Q)=P(Q)S(Q)
P(q) P(q)
I(q)
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SANS: single colloid scattering (Dilute)What’s on the surface
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Mixtures: Contrast matching: ‘magic’
• Scattering from silica in water: Mixtures of H2O and D2O
Change scattering of water(refractive index = ‘colour’): silica –disappears
‘See’ each component of a mixture separatelySimplify complex systems
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P(Q) form factor for core-shell more comple
Structure: core/water/surfactant/oil
Small Angle Scattering: - P(Q) Dilute core-shell particles Thin water layer on calcite colloids in oil
‘Contrast variation’H2O and D2O mixtureschange ‘colour’ of different bits
26.3 Ǻ
CaCO3
H2O
D/H-cyclohexane
Surfactant sheath
2.7 Ǻ
8.8 Ǻ
Thanks to Richard Heenen and co
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Contrast variation:
• Enhance sensitivity to each bit by selective deuteration
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IF TIMESANS: Single particle orientation
• SANS of plate-like particles
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Flow Direction
Anisotropic Particles
When is the extent of orientational order?Under flow?With particle size?Aspect ratio?Concentration?
Use crystalline nature of particles to obtain full three-dimensional orientational distribution function
Completely random particle distribution => ‘powder’ ring
Perfectly aligned => single ‘spot’
Preferred orientation => ‘arc’ of intensity
SANS: single particles- orientation
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I
I 0 θ ω
α
I
I 0 θ
α
Measuring orientational order of plates
Only crystals in the correct orientation will diffractIntensity gives number of crystals at each orientation in a sample
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
-40 0 40 80 120
Inte
nsity
(au)
Omega(degrees)-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80Angle to Gradient Direction
Kaolinite Clay
Steady Flow
Orientational order of the plates in flow
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0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Omega (degrees)
Inte
nsity
(Arb
itrar
y U
nits Experimental
theoretical
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90Alpha (degrees)
Dry WDDry ARWet WDWet ARPowder
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90Alpha (degrees)
Dry WDDry ARWet WDWet ARPowder
Dense Clay pastes under static and cross-flow conditions
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Two colour cars
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END of EXTRA BIT
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SANS: Interference Between Objects
• Consider scattering as distribution of spheres– Isolated object, e.g. spheres (P(Q))– S(Q) is called the interference or ‘structure factor’: interference from different
colloids.– Measured intensity is:
I(Q)=P(Q) x S(Q)• Other systems:
– Crystal - unit cells repeat on a regular lattice
Eg Colloidal dispersion
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Colloidal crystals of spheres
Diffract light … Gives ‘diffraction patterns’ Use diffraction to give structure
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Colloidal Spheres under flow
CrystalPerfectly ordered sequence
of perfect hexagonally ordered layers
‘Layers’Perfect hexagonally ordered layers Sliding over each other with many
different positions
‘Strings’Particles in lines
A CBFlow
Gradient
Increasing Shear Rate
‘Crystal’ ‘Strings’
Charged stabilised latex spheres 8%
‘Sliding layers’
Behaviour like ‘atoms’ only much larger scales and slower
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Single LayerStacked Layers
‘Real’ Space
‘Scattering’ Space
Structure in the stacking sequence reflected in intensity variations along ‘Bragg rods’ 3D FCC
S(Q): Scattering Patterns from Layered Systems
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IF – TIMEEXTRA BIT SE- SANS
TRICKY!!!!
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SANS SE-SANS VERY BIG objects
Big objects are seen at small scattering angles (‘Reciprocal space’)To see scattering by SANS at small angles need VERY tightly collimated beam: BUT THEN NO FLUX!!
Spin echo SANS Keep wide open beam andEncode the scattering angle in the neutron spin!!
(VERY CLEVER IDEA THIS!!)
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Spin Echo -SANSEncode scattering angle in the neutron polarisation
SamplePrecesses in magnetic field
‘Un-winds’ in magnetic field
Gives an ‘echo’
Polarised neutron beam
Andersson 2008
Anisotropic magnetic fields
Collect intensity as a function of ‘z’ (combination of field angle, wavelength etc)(Precession usually in horizontal plane)
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SE SANS technique:Basic approach
• Beam polarised in and out • Polarisation rotates one way and then back • Depends upon time in the magnetic fields• If neutrons don’t change direction big echo• If neutrons change direction (funny shaped field)
Weaker ‘echo’ or depolarised.• Spin echo to encodes the angle ( q’)
Actually Measure:Real space, density-density correlation function, G(z)
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Example: Silica particles in polymer matrix
Colloidal Crystal • J. Baumberg Samples:Hexagonal layers of 200nm silica in polymer matrix, 0.47 volume fraction.Layers oriented and regularly stacked
Volume fraction 0.47 silica spheresOrdered by ‘bending’ processStacked in layers.
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(iii) First correlation peak is less ordered than expected.(iv) Higher order correlations of a true crystal are lost.Clearly indicates significant positional disorder in the ‘crystal’.
• ‘Ordered’ array of spheres: SE-SANS
(i) Core radius (big!): 90nm (good agreement) (ii) Vol fract as z ∞, 0.22 in reasonable agreement.
Small z-sphere formLong z- sphere packing fractionIntermediate z- inter particle correlation
Larmor NEW INSTRUMENT
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End SE-SANS extra bit
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Talk Outline
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications: Adsorbed layers:
In-plane structure – 2D diffractionOut-of-plane structure – reflectionWhat’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics)
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANSWhat arrangement ? SE- SANSLiquid structure PDF (NIMROD)
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Can we ‘understand’ liquid structure?
• No long range order: NO diffraction??Oh dear!!
But still a lot of structure..
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Radial distribution functionLiquid species
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Radial distribution function
r
How many species in this shell at distance r from the central one: g(r)
Liquid species
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Pair distribution function: g(r)(normalised)
• ‘Hard’ core…• Nearest neighbour shells..• …
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Pair distribution function: g(r), FT of scattering data
-0.60
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
I(Q) /
inte
nsity
uni
ts
Q /Å-1
Measured data (NIMROD)
g(r))
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Can we ‘understand’ liquid structure?See all Atom-Atom distances
• Separate different atom contributions by isotopic exchange (H and D):
a) First difference (big circles exchanged):
b) Second difference:
ONLY solute-solute distances!!
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PDF example: Acetonitrile• See correct molecular structure at short
distances
• Solvent shells at Longer distances
-0.6
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
f(r) /
arbi
trar
y un
its
r /Å
-0.04-0.03-0.02-0.010.000.010.020.030.040.050.060.07
3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0f(r) /
arbi
trar
y un
its
r /Å
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Supercapacitors:Ions in acetonitrile
• TPA Br in acetonitrile:• See ‘ion pairs’
Br-
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Talk Outline
• Neutron sources– Coherent scattering - structure– Incoherent scattering - dynamics
• Examples of surfaces / neutron applications: Adsorbed layers:
In-plane structure – 2D diffractionOut-of-plane structure – reflectionWhat’s adsorbed? (IQNS - dynamics)
Colloidal dispersions (dominated by surfaces)What’s on the surface? SANSWhat arrangement ? SE- SANSLiquid structure PDF (NIMROD)
• Conclusions
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Thanks..• Adam Brewer Halogen bonding:• Kate Miller/Lucy Griffin/Seung Lee: Calcite and Mica• Beth Howe/ Becky Welbourne (Phoebe Allen): PDF• Tom Arnold (DIAMOND): Alkane diffraction
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ILL/ISIS / KEK/ LLB/ Berlin..etc.– neutron TimeDIAMOND/SLS – SAXS timeAll the (Long suffering) beamline scientists
Thank YOU !
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