Neuroscience of Prayer: Current Research

Neuroscience of Prayer: Current ResearchJames A. Van Slyke+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt et. al. 2008)Research from the University of Aarhous, DenmarkParticipantsProtestant Danish Christians20 participants (mean age 25.4)6 males14 femalesExperimental ConditionsTwo Different forms of prayer analyzedFormal prayer (Ritualistic, scripted) = Lords PrayerInformal prayer (Low structure, improvised)

+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt et. al. 2008)Control ConditionsWell known rhyme (Control formal)Asking for gifts from Santa Claus (Control informal)Baseline (Counting back from 100)ProcedureEach participant went through both the experimental and control conditionsTasks were prompted by headphones and lasted 30 seconds (repeated 6 times)Tasks were performed silently using internal speech +Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt et. al. 2008)During the Tasks brain activity was assess using fMRIMRI Magentic resonance imagingProvides structural layout of the brainSimilar to an X-rayfMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)Estimates areas of the brain active during a taskBOLD responseMeasures the amount of blood oxygenation levels in the brainHigher oxygenation = higher levels of brain activity

+Reward Systems of the Brain: Striatum, Caudate Nucleus and Putamen

+Reward Systems both anticipate and estimate future rewardsMay be involved in both early and later stages of addictionMay play a role in habitual behavior in terms of rewardCaudate NucleusInstrumental conditioningReward systems increase the likelihood of repeating certain behaviors learned through experienceDamage to this area may induce symptoms of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)OCD has been linked with increased activity in the caudate

Reward Systems of the Brain: Striatum, Caudate Nucleus and Putamen+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt 2008)Hypothesis: Prayers will activate the reward systems of the brain (Caudate nucleus)ResultsBoth prayer conditions showed increased activity in the caudate and decreased activity during controlsFormal prayer showed a slightly higher activationParticipants self-reported as strong believersSelf-reported as involved in a weekly practice of prayer (Lords prayer mean = 4.75; Personal prayer mean =19.75 +Social Cognition and Prayer (Schjoedt et. al. 2009)Follow up analysisUsed same set of experimental and control conditionsExpanded fMRI analysis to include areas of the brain used in social cognitionHypothesis: Personal (non-formal) prayer activates areas of the brain used in social cognitionPraying to God is an intersubjective experience similar to general aspects of interpersonal interaction between persons+Understanding Social CognitionSocial and Affective NeuroscienceAreas of the brain seem to be specialized for dealing with social relationshipsEmotional evaluation; Estimating levels of trustAreas of the brain from this studyPrecuneasHigher order cognitive functionsOften involved in self-referential behavior (information important for the selfSchjodt et. al. interpretationPrayer involves information important for the self (i.e. desires or problems

+Understanding Social CognitionMPFC (Medial Prefrontal Cortex)

+The Famous Case of Phineas GageBefore accidentIntelligent capable workerexcellent managerresponsible family manupstanding citizenAfter Accident Maintained his general intelligenceUnreliable and capriciousSocially InappropriateLost his family and fortune+

+Case of ElliottBeforegood husband and fatherhigh level job at business firmhad attained an enviable social statusPost surgery, tumor removed in orbital frontal areairresponsibleunable to manage his timeflawed decision makingDivorced; entered unwise marriage lost his job

+Case of Elliot Laboratory test results maintained superior IQ (WAIS)flawless memorysuperior language abilitynormal on lab tests of financial and ethical decision makingnormal lab ability to generate solutions to social problems Could predict social consequences +

Galvanic Skin Response (Measures Moisture in skin)Iowa Gambling Task+Sensors detect the level of moisture in the skinMeasurement of the activation of sweat glandsSweat glands controled by the autonomic nervous system15Gambling game Test of decisions and consequencesnormal individuals develop anticipatory evaluative autonomic response (mini emotional response) Elliot was never able to develop a discriminatory anticipation while choosing from the bad decks +Follow up study to ElliottNORMALSIn normal participants (no MPFC lesions), anticipatory skin conductive responses (SCRs) occurred at around 20 deck choices when selecting from the bad decks, despite participants not forming a conscious hunch until around 50 selections.

Generally by card 80, normal participants could articulate what was occurring with respect to good decks and bad decks

30 % did not have a conceptual understanding of the task but still made advantageous decisions.

VMPFC LESION PARTICIPANTSThe few participants who made it to the conceptualization phase still were making disadvantageous decisions

No anticipatory SCRs were experienced by any of the participants with VMPFC damage+

+Other regions of interestTemporopolar regionAssociated with autobiographical memoryProcessing of social narrativesPersonal prayer requires memory of how God has answered prayers in the past (Schjoedt interpretation)Temporo-parietal junctionAnalyzing behaviorProcessing social causation and goal attributionPraying to God may be a type of negotiation; hoping to change Gods intentions toward a situation (Schjoedt interpretation)

+FindingsFor each one of the areas of the brain selected for analysis there was a higher level of activation in relation to personal prayer than the other conditionsTheory of MindMany of the areas investigated have also been linked with TOMTOM is the ability to understand the thoughts and intentions of others (Mind-Reading)Important part of social lifeDeficit in persons with Autism+Power of Charisma (2010)Participants (n=37)Males = 15Females = 22Christians = 18 (mean age 23)PentecostalFrequent prayers (intercessory for 12 years; 33 times per month)Secular = 18 (mean age 26.4)No belief in GodNo belief in the effect of prayer

+Power of Charisma (2010)ProcedureParticipants listened to 18 different prayers performed by malesPrayers were listed in three categoriesNon-Christian (6)Christian (6)Christian known for being able to heal through prayer (6)In reality all prayers were recorded by a single group of Christians and than randomly assigned to each groupEach prayer lasted 30 s+Power of Charisma (2010)ResultsChristians rated speakers charisma and presence of God for all three conditionsHighest for healing powers lowest for non-ChristiansGod was reported as present in all conditionsNon-Christians showed a similar but lower pattern for charisma, but no real difference for experiencing Gods presence+Power of Charisma (2010)ResultsSecular participants no real difference in brain activation for the three groupsChristian groupsCascade effect from non-Christian (N-C) to healing powers (HP) groupHigher levels of activation for N-C and lower levels for Christian and HP groupDifferent areas of the brain Prefrontal cortex; temporoparietal junction; inferior temporal cortex; temporopolar/ orbitofrontal; cerebellum+Power of Charisma (2010)DiscussionWatching pictures of loved ones can deactivate executive system (Bartels and Zeki 2000; 2004)Could be neural subsystem involved in trust?Takes more cognitive power to override prayer given by NC groupSchjoedt interpretationIntercessory prayer similar to hypnosisHanding over of executive function to the leaderPower of prayer based on the perceived charismatic authority of healer or leader (Max Weber 1922)

+Critiques (Spezio 2011)The problem of reverse inferencePrayer activity linked with a brain areaOther studies link the area with some functionThus, the same function is present in current studyWithout specific test in experiment for assumed function, it is difficult to make causal interpretationsMost areas of the brain participate in numerous overlapping functions; difficult to limit areas of the brain to one functionfMRI studies should be taken seriously, but still tentatively

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