Nervous Systems

Three Main Functions:

• 1. Sensory Input

• 2. Integration

• 3. Motor Output

Figure 48.1 Overview of a vertebrate nervous system

Two Main Parts of Nervous Systems

• Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord – integration

•  Peripheral nervous system (PNS)– network of nerves extending into different parts

of the body– carries sensory input to the CNS and motor

output away from the CNS

Two Cell Types in Nervous Systems

• Neurons– Cells that conduct the nerve impulses

• Supporting Cells - Neuroglia

Neuron

Figure 48.2x Neurons

Three Major Types of Nerve Cells

• Sensory neurons – communicate info about the external or internal

environment to the CNS

• Interneurons – integrate sensory input and motor output– makes synapses only with other neurons

• Motor neurons – convey impulses from the CNS to effector cells

Supporting Cells - Neuroglia

• provide neurons with nutrients, remove wastes

Two important types in vertebrates– Oligodendrocytes – myelin sheath in CNS– Schwann cells -myelin sheath in PNS

Myelin Sheath Formation

Conduction of the Nerve Impulse

• Membrane Potential– Voltage measured across a membrane due to

differences in electrical charge– Inside of cell is negative wrt outside

• Resting potential of neuron = -70 mV

Figure 48.6 Measuring membrane potentials

1. Carrier in membrane binds intracellular sodium.

2. ATP phosphorylates protein with bound sodium.

3. Phosphorylation causes conformational change in protein, reducing its affinity for Na+. The Na+ then diffuses out.4. This conformation has higher

affinity for K+. Extracellular K+ binds to exposed sites.

5. Binding of potassium causes dephosphorylation of protein.

Extracellular

Intracellular

ATPADP

Pi

P+

K+

Na+

6. Dephosphorylation of protein triggers change to original conformation, with low affinity for K+. K+ diffuses into the cell, and the cycle repeats.

Pi

Pi

Pi

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Excitable Cells

• Neurons & muscle cells

• Have gated ion channels that allow cell to change its membrane potential in response to stimuli

Gated Ion Channels

• Some stimuli open K+ channels– K+ leaves cell– Membrane potential more negative– hyperpolarization

• Some stimuli open Na+ channels– Na+ enters cell– Membrane potential less negative– depolarization

Gated Ion Channels

• Strength of stimuli determines how many ion channels open= graded response

Nerve Impulse Transmission

Action Potentials

• Occur once a threshold of depolarization is reached– -50 to –55 mV

• All or none response (not graded)– Magnitude of action potential is independent of

strength of depolarizing stimuli

• Hyperpolarization makes them less likely

Mem

bra

ne

po

ten

tial

(m

V)

2. Rising Phase

Stimulus causes above threshold voltage

+50

0

1 2 3

–70

Time (ms)1. Resting Phase

Equilibrium between diffusion of K+ outof cell and voltage pulling K+ into cell

Voltage-gatedpotassium channel

Potassiumchannel

Voltage-gatedsodium channel

Potassium channelgate closes

Sodium channelactivation gate closes.

Inactivation gate opens.

Sodium channelactivation gate opens

3. Top curve

Maximum voltage reached

Potassiumgate opens

4. Falling Phase

Potassiumgate open

Undershoot occurs as excess potassiumdiffuses out before potassium channel closes

Equilibriumrestored

Na+ channelinactivation gate

closes

K+

Na+

Na+ channelinactivation gate

closed

Refractory Period

• During undershoot the membrane is less likely to depolarize

• Keeps the action potential moving in one direction

Propagation of Action Potential

• Action potential are very localized events

• DO NOT travel down membrane

• Are generated anew in a sequence along the neuron

Cellmembrane

Cytoplasm

restingrepolarizeddepolarized

+ + + + + + + + + – – – – – – – – –

+ + + + + + + + + – – – – – – – – –

– – + + + + + + + + + – – – – – – –

+ + + + + + + – – – – – – – – – + +

+ + – – + + + + + – – + + – – – – –

+ + + + + – – + + – – – – – + + – –

+ + + + – – – + + – – – – + + + – –

+ + – – – + + + + – – + + + – – – –

+ + + + + + + – –– – – – – – – + +

– – + + + + + + + + + – – – – – – –

Na+

K+

Na+

K+

Na+

K+

Na+

K+

K+

K+

Saltatory Conduction

Transfer of Nerve Impulse to Next Cell

• Synapse– the gap between the synaptic terminals of an

axon and a target cell

Transfer of Nerve Impulse to Next Cell

• Electrical synapses– Gap junctions allow ion currents to continue

• Chemical synapses– More common– Electrical impulses must be changed to a

chemical signal that crosses the synapse

Synapses

Neurotransmitters

Effects of Cocaine

Receptor proteinDrug

moleculeSynapse

1. Reuptake of neuro- transmitter by transporter at a normal synapse.

2. Drug molecules block transporter and cause overstimulation of the postsynaptic membrane.

3. Neuron adjusts to overstimulation by decreasing the number of receptors.

4. Decreased number of receptors make the synapse less sensitive when the drug is removed.

Neurotransmitter

Transporter protein

Transporterprotein

Dopamine

CocaineReceptorprotein

Integration of multiple synaptic inputs

Summation of postsynaptic potentials

Human

CerebrumCerebellum

Spinal cord

Cervicalnerves

Thoracicnerves

Lumbarnerves

Femoralnerve

SciaticnerveTibialnerve

Sacralnerves

Nervenet

Nerve cordsAssociativeneurons

BrainGiant axon

Mollusk

Echinoderm

Central nervoussystem

Peripheralnerves

Brain

Ventralnerve cords

Radialnerve

Nerveribs

Cnidarian

Flatworm

Earthworm

Arthropod

Diversity of Nervous Systems

PN

SC

NS

Brain and Spinal Cord

Sympathetic nervoussystem

"fight or flight"

Parasympathetic nervoussystem

"rest and repose"

Somatic nervoussystem

(voluntary)

Sensory neuronsregistering external

stimuli

Autonomic nervoussystem

(involuntary)

Sensory Pathways Motor Pathways

central nervous system (CNS)peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Sensory neuronsregistering external

stimuli

Constrict

Secrete saliva

Dilate

Stop secretion

Dilate bronchioles

Speed up heartbeat

Increase secretion

Empty colon

Increase motility

Empty bladder

Slow down heartbeat

Constrict bronchioles

Sympatheticganglionchain

StomachSecrete adrenaline

Decrease secretion

Decrease motility

Retain colon contentsDelay emptying

Adrenal gland

Bladder

Small intestine

Large intestine

Spinal cord

ParasympatheticSympathetic

Vertebrate Central Nervous System

• Spinal Cord– Receives info from skin & muscles– Sends out motor commands for movement &

response

• Brain– More complex integration– Homeostasis, perception, movement, emotion,

learning

Vertebrate Central Nervous System

• White matter– Internal part of brain & external part of spinal

cord– Myelinated axons

• Gray matter– Cell bodies of neurons

Figure 48.16x Spinal cord

Vertebrate Central Nervous System

• Cerebrospinal Fluid– Fills central canal of spinal cord and ventricles

of brain– Shock absorption

Functions of Spinal Cord

• Carrying information to and from the brain

• Integration of simple responses– Reflexes

• Unconscious programmed response to stimuli

Quadricepsmuscle

(effector)

Spinal cord

Dorsal rootganglion

Graymatter

Whitematter

Monosynapticsynapse

Sensoryneuro

Nerve fiberStretch receptor(muscle spindle)

Skeletalmuscle

Stimulus

Response

Motor neuron

The knee-jerk reflex

Evolution of Vertebrate Brain

• Evolved from a set of three bulges at the anterior end of spinal cord– Forebrain (cerebrum)– Midbrain (optic lobe)– Hindbrain (cerebellum & medulla oblongata)

• Regions have been further subdivided structurally and functionally

Vertebrate BrainsOlfactory

bulbCerebrumThalamusOptic

tectumCerebellumSpinalcord

Medullaoblongata

PituitaryHypothalamus

Optic chiasm

Forebrain(Prosencephalon)

Midbrain(Mesencephalon)

Hindbrain(Rhombencephalon)

Vertebrate BrainsThe relative sizes of different brain regions have

changed as vertebrates evolved

-Forebrain became the dominant feature