GAO-13-303, Export-Import Bank: Recent Growth Underscores Need
Need & barriers of import
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Import, Need for Import, Barriers to International Trade
IMPORT, NEED FOR IMPORT, BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONAL
TRADE
1) IMPORT
The term import is derived from the conceptual meaning as to bring in the goods and services
into the port of a country. The buyer of such goods and services is referred to an "importer"
who is based in the country of import whereas the overseas based seller is referred to as an
"exporter". Import goods or services are provided to domestic consumers by foreign
producers. An import in the receiving country is an export to the sending country. Imports
consist of transactions in goods and services (sales, barter, gifts or grants) from non-residents
residents to residents.
DEFINITION
The exact definition of imports in national accounts includes and excludes specific
"borderline" cases. A general delimitation of imports in national accounts is given below:
An import of a good occurs when there is a change of ownership from a non-resident to a
resident. This does not necessarily imply that the good in question physically crosses the
frontier. However, in specific cases national accounts impute changes of ownership even
though in legal terms no change of ownership takes place (e.g. cross border financial leasing,
cross border deliveries between affiliates of the same enterprise, goods crossing the border
for significant processing to order or repair). Also smuggled goods must be included in the
import measurement.
Imports of services consist of all services rendered by non-residents to residents. In national
accounts any direct purchases by residents outside the economic territory of a country are
recorded as imports of services; therefore all expenditure by tourists in the economic territory
of another country are considered as part of the imports of services. Also international flows
of illegal services must be included.
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Import, Need for Import, Barriers to International Trade
Example of Import:-Imports to China
2) TYPES OF IMPORT
There are two basic types of import:
Industrial and consumer goods
Intermediate goods and services
Companies import goods and services to supply to the domestic market at a cheaper price and
better quality than competing goods manufactured in the domestic market. Companies import
products that are not available in the local market.
There are three broad types of importers:
Looking for any product around the world to import and sell.
Looking for foreign sourcing to get their products at the cheapest price.
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Using foreign sourcing as part of their global supply chain.
Direct-import refers to a type of business importation involving a major retailer (e.g. Wal-
Mart) and an overseas manufacturer. A retailer typically purchases products designed by
local companies that can be manufactured overseas. In a direct-import program, the retailer
bypasses the local supplier (colloquial middle-man) and buys the final product directly from
the manufacturer, possibly saving in added costs. This type of business is fairly recent and
follows the trends of the global economy.
3) LIST OF TOP 20 COUNTRIES BY IMPORTS
1. United States $ 2,314,000,000,000 2011 est.
2. China $ 1,664,000,000,000 2011 est.
3. Germany $ 1,339,000,000,000 2011 est.
4. Japan $ 794,700,000,000 2011 est.
5. France $ 684,600,000,000 2011 est.
6. United Kingdom $ 654,900,000,000 2011 est.
7. Italy $ 541,200,000,000 2011 est.
8. South Korea $ 525,200,000,000 2011 est.
9. Netherlands $ 514,100,000,000 2011 est.
10. Hong Kong $ 493,200,000,000 2011 est.
11. Canada $ 459,600,000,000 2011 est.
12. India $ 359,300,000,000 2010 est.
13. Spain $ 315,300,000,000 2010 est.
14. Singapore $ 310,400,000,000 2010 est.
15. Mexico $ 306,000,000,000 2010 est.
16. Belgium $ 285,100,000,000 2010 est.
17. Taiwan $ 251,400,000,000 2010 est.
18. Russia $ 248,700,000,000 2010 est.
19. Switzerland $ 226,300,000,000 2010 est.
20. Australia $ 195,200,000,000 2010 est.
21. Brazil $ 181,700,000,000 2010 est.
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4) TYPES OF IMPORT DUTIES
Import duties are generally of the following types:-
i. Basic Duty: - it may be at the standard rate or, in the case of import from some other
countries, at the preferential rate.
ii. Additional customs duty: - equal to central excise duty leviable on like goods
produced or manufactured in India. Additional duty is commonly referred to as
Countervailing duty or C.V.D. It is payable only if the imported article is such as, if
produced in India, its process of production would amount to 'manufacture' as per the
definition in Central Excise Act, 1944. Exemption from excise duty has the effect of
exempting additional duty of customs.
Additional duty is calculated on a value base of aggregate of value of the goods
including landing charges and basic customs duty. Other duties like anti-dumping
duty, safeguard duty etc. are not taken into account. In case of goods covered by
provisions of the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1976, the value base would
be the retail sale price declared on the package of the goods less the rebate as notified
under the Central Excise Act, 1944 for such goods.
iii. True Countervailing duty or additional duty of customs: -is levied to offset the
disadvantage to like Indian goods due to high excise duty on their inputs. It is levied
to provide a level playing field to indigenous goods which have to bear various
internal taxes. Value base for this additional duty would be as in the case of C.V.D,
under Customs Tariff Act, 1975 minus the retail sale price provision. This additional
duty will not be included in the assessable value for levy of education cess on
imported goods. Manufacturers will be able to take credit of this additional duty for
payment of excise duty on their finished products.
iv. Anti-dumping Duty/ Safeguard Duty: - for import of specified goods with a view to
protecting domestic industry from unfair injury. It would not apply to goods imported
by a 100% EOU (Export Oriented Units) and units in FTZ (Free Trade Zones) and
SEZ (Special Economic Zones). On export of goods, anti-dumping duty is relatable
only by way of a special brand rate of drawback. Safeguard duties do not require the
finding of unfair trade practice such as dumping or subsidy on the part of exporting
countries but they must not discriminate between imports from different countries.
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Safeguard action is resorted to only if it has been established that a sudden increase in
imports has caused or threatens to cause serious injury to the domestic industry.
v. Education cess: - at the prescribed rate is levied as a percentage of aggregate duties
of customs. If goods are fully exempted from duty or are chargeable to nil duty or are
cleared without payment of duty under prescribed procedure such as clearance under
bond, no cess would be levied.
5) INDIA IMPORTS
India imports were worth 37753 Million USD in December of 2011. India is poor in oil
resources and is currently heavily dependent on coal and foreign oil imports for its energy
needs. Other imported products are: machinery, gems, fertilizers and chemicals. Main import
partners are European Union, Saudi Arabia and United States.
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6) COMPOSITION
Imports can be internally divided according to economic destination and to product classes:
1. Imports contributes to domestic consumption (increasing consumers well-being through
consumption goods), to domestic investments (increasing production capabilities through
new - or used! Equipment) , to domestic current production (e.g. raw materials and spare
parts). There is an important stream of imports that first will be processed, and then exported
abroad. To a smaller extent, import can satisfy public expenditure (e.g. military equipment).
In short, imports contribute to all GDP components, but they are usually left by central
statistical offices apart as a stand-alone aggregate.
2. Import can also be divided by product classes at different levels of aggregation (e.g.
"agricultural product" instead of "rice"). Import of services comprehends for instance
transport and shipping of goods, tourism, banking services, and patent royalties.
7) DETERMINANTS OF IMPORT
Imports are usually seen as determined by:
1. Level and dynamics of domestic income;
2. Level and dynamics of each GDP components (investment, consumption, public
expenditure, exports) as differentiated drivers of imports;
3. Price competitiveness of domestic production, normally influenced by exchange
ratelevel and fluctuations as well as by inflation differentials between the country and
foreign nations.
4. Non-price competitiveness of domestic production, for example as far as product
quality, technological innovativeness, design, promotion are concerned;
5. National attitude toward foreign goods.
6. Shifts in domestic patterns of demand and supply, including the organization of
supply chains and the ownership of distribution channels;
7. Historical links with certain origin countries.
8. Structural trends toward economic integration with other countries.
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IN PARTICULAR, IMPORTS SHOULD GROW WHEN
1. Families' disposable income increases (especially if imported goods are "luxury"
goods, i.e. their demand grows more than proportionally when income rises);
2. GDP at large increases, where an elasticity of 1 is often supposed, so that an increase
of 5% in GDP corresponds to an increase of 5% in import (5%/5% = 1);
3. Consumption, investment, exports and public expenditure rise, where different
elasticity of imports to GDP components may reasonably appear;
4. A revaluation takes place and national currency rises against foreign ones;
5. Inflation abroad is lower than domestically, so that foreign products become cheaper
and cheaper;
6. With the widening technological and quality gap of domestic production in
comparison to foreign one, also in the perception and in the requests of domestic
buyers;
7. A nationalistic tone in the demand is replaced by a "foreign is better" general opinion,
spread both throughout consumers and decision-makers of distribution channels
(supermarkets).
8. A domestic left shift of supply or a right shift in demand, provided that the realistic
description of the market can be offered by a standard neoclassical model;
9. Integration with other countries grows; a stronger national specialization takes place
and the world get more and more interdependent.
8) NEED OF IMPORT
The motivation for a country to import goods and services from other countries is perhaps
less obvious than its motivation for selling exports (making a profit on goods not consumed
by the domestic market). As with exports, the purposes served by imports vary from country
to country.
Yet no country today can be totally self-sufficient without suffering a high cost. All countries
need to—or choose to—import at least some goods and services for the following reasons:
1) Goods or services that are either a. essential to economic well-being or b. highly attractive
to consumers but are not available in the domestic market.
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2) Goods or services that satisfy domestic needs or wants can be produced more
inexpensively or efficiently by other countries, and therefore sold at lower prices.
Generally speaking, countries import goods primarily to satisfy a demand for the good that is
not produced within it. For example, an industrialized country may import agricultural
products, while an industrializing country may import high-value consumer electronics.
Countries may also import goods in order to provide consumers with greater variety, and
increase competition in the local market.
From an economic standpoint, increased competition is usually favorable as it tends to
improve the quality of goods and services, while lowering its market price.
There are number of supporting reasons why import business and services is growing at such
a fast rate, three of them are given below:-
i. Availability: An individual or business man or an importer needs to import because
there are certain things that he can’t grow or manufacture in his home country. For
example Bananas in Alaska, Mahogany Lumber in Maine and Ball Park franks in
France.
ii. Cachet: A lot of things, like caviar and champagne, pack more cachet, more of an
"image," if they're imported rather than home-grown. Think Scandinavian furniture,
German beer, French perfume, Egyptian cotton. It all seems classier when it comes
from distant place.
iii. Price: Price factor is also an important reason for import of products. Some products
are cheaper when imported from foreign country. For example Korean toys,
Taiwanese electronics and Mexican clothing, to rattle off a few, can often be
manufactured or assembled in foreign factories for far less money than if they were
made on the domestic country.
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9) BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONAL TRADE
The main objectives of imposing trade barriers are to protect domestic industries from foreign
competition, to guard against dumping, to promote indigenous research and development, to
conserve the foreign exchange resources of the country, to make the balance of payments
position more favorable, and to discriminate against certain countries.
Trade barriers may be broadly classified into tariff and non-tariff barriers
TARIFF BARRIERS
Tariff derived from a French word meaning rate, price, or list of charges, is a customs duty or
a tax on products that move across borders. Tariffs can be classified in several ways. The
classification scheme used here is based on direction, purpose length, rate, and distribution
point. These classifications are not necessarily mutually exclusive
1 Direction: Import and Export Tariffs
Tariffs are often imposed on the basis of the direction of product movement, which is, on
imports or exportwith the latter being the less common one. When export tariffs are levied,
they usually apply to an exporting country’s scarce resources or raw materials. Companies
exporting from Russia must pay an average export tariff of 20 percent on a number of goods
sold in cash transactions and an average export tariff of about 30 percent for goods sold in
noncash transactions.
2 Purpose: Protective and Revenue Tariffs
Tariffs can be classified as protective tariffs and revenue tariffs. The distinctionis based on
purpose. The purpose of a protective tariff is to protect home industry, agriculture, and labor
against foreign competitors by trying to keep foreign goods out of the country.
The purpose of revenue tariff, in contrast, is to generate tax revenues for the government.
Compared to a protective tariff, a revenue tariff is relatively low.
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3 Length: Tariff surcharge Versus Countervailing Duty
Protective tariff can be further classified according to length of time. A tariff surcharge is a
temporary action, whereas a countervailing duty is a permanent surcharge. Countervailing
duties are imposed on certain imports when products are subsidized by foreign governments.
These duties are thus assessed offset a special advantage or discount allowed by an exporter’s
government. Usually, a government provides an export subsidy by rebating certain taxes if
goods are exported.
4 Rates: Specific, Ad Valorem and Combined
A specific duty is a flat sum per physical unit of the commodity imported or exported, thus a
specific import duty is a fixed amount of duty levied upon each unit of the commodity
imported. Ad-valorem duties are levied as a fixed percentage of the value of commodity
imported/exported. Thus, while the specific duty is based on the quantum of commodity
imported/exported, the ad-valorem duty is based on the value of the commodity
imported/exported.Combined rates or compound duty are a combination of specific and ad
valorem duties on a single product. They are duties based on both the specific rate and the ad
valorem rate that are applied to imported products.
5 Distribution Point: Distribution and Consumption Taxes
Some taxes are collected at particular point of distribution or when purchases and
consumption occur. These indirect taxes, frequently adjusted at the border, are of four kinds:
single stage, value added, cascade and excise.
Single-stage sales tax is a tax collected only at one point in the manufacturing and
distribution chain. The tax is perhaps most common in the United States, where retailers and
wholesalers make purchases without paying any taxes simply by showing a sale tax permit.
The single-stage sales tax permit. The single-stage sales tax is not collected until products are
purchased by final consumers.
A value-added tax (VAT) is a multistage, noncumulative tax on consumption. It is a
national sales levied at each stage of the production and distribution system, though only on
the value added at that stage. In other words, each time a product changes hands, even
between middlemen, a tax must be paid. But the tax collected at certain stages is based on the
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added value and not the total value of the product at that point. Sellers in the chain collect the
VAT from a buyer, deduct the amount of VAT they have already paid on their purchase of
the product, and remit the balance to the government.
The VAT is supposed to be non- discriminatory because it applies to both products sold on
the domestic market and imported goods. The importance of VAT is due to the fact that
GATT allows a producing country to rebate the VAT when products are exported. Since the
tax implies to imports at the border but because it is fully rebated on exports, the VAT may
improve a country’s trade balance.
Cascade taxes are collected at a point in the manufacturing and distribution chain and are
levied on the total value of a product, including taxes borne by the product at earlier stages.
Of the tax systems examined, this appears to be the most severe of them all.
An excise tax is one-time charge levied on the sales of specified products. Alcoholic
beverages and cigarettes are good example.
10) IMPACT OF TARIFF
Tariffs effect on economy in different ways. An import duty generally has the following
effect:
i. Protective Effect
An import duty is likely to increase the price of imported goods. This increase in the
price of imports is likely to reduce imports and increase the demand for domestic
goods. Import duties may also enable domestic industries to absorb higher production
costs. Thus, as a result of the production accorded by tariffs, domestic industries are
able to expand their output.
ii. Consumption Effect
The increase in prices resulting from the levy of import duty usually reduces the
consumption capacity of the people.
iii. Redistribution Effect
If the import duty causes and increases in the price of domestically produced goods, it
amounts to redistribution of income between the consumers and producers in favor of
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the producers. Further, a part of the consumer income is transferred to the exchequer
by means of the tariff.
iv. Revenue Effect
As mentioned above, a tariff means increased revenue for the government (unless, of
course, the rate of tariff is so prohibitive that it completely stops the import of the
commodity subject to the tariff).
v. Income and Employment Effect
The tariff may cause a switchover from spending on foreign goods to spending on
domestic goods. This higher spending within the country may cause an expansion in
domestic income and employment.
vi. Competitive Effect
The competitive effect on the tariff is, in fact, an anti-competitive effect in the sense
that the protection of domestic industries against foreign competition may enable the
domestic industries to obtain monopoly power with all its associated evils.
vii. Term of Trade Effect
In a bid to maintain the previous level of imports to the tariff-imposing country, if the
exporter reduces his prices, the tariff-imposing country is able to get imports at a
lower price. This wills, ceteris paribus; improve the terms of trade of the country
imposing the tariff.
viii. Balance of Payments Effect
Tariffs, by reducing the volume of imports, may help the country to improve its
balance of payments position.
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11) NON-TARIFF BARRIERS
Tariffs, though generally undesirable, are at least straightforward and obvious. Non-tariff
barriers, in comparison, are more elusive or nontransparent. Tariffs have declined in
importance, while nontariff barriers can be just as devastating, if not more, as the impact of
tariffs.
There are several hundred types of non-tariff barriers. These barriers can be grouped in five
major categories contain a number of different non-tariff barriers.
1 GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATION IN TRADE
The degree of government involvement in trade varies from passive to active. The types of
participation include administrative guidance, state trading, and subsidies.
i. Administrative Guidance
Many governments routinely provide trade consultation to private companies. Japan
has been doing this on a regular basis to help implement its industrial policies. This
systematic cooperation between the government and business is labeled “japan, Inc.”
To get private firms to conform to the Japanese government’s guidance, the
government uses a carrot-and-stick approach by exerting the influence through
regulations, recommendations, encouragement, discouragement, or prohibition.
ii. Government Procurement and State Trading
State trading is the ultimate in government participation, because the government
itself is now the customer or buyer who determine what, when, how, and how much to
buy. In this practice the state engages in commercial operations, either directly or
indirectly, through the agencies under its control. Such business activities are either in
place of or in addition to private firms. Although government involvement in business
is most common with the communist countries, whose governments are responsible
for the central planning of the whole economy, the practice is definitely not restricted
to those nations.
iii. Subsidies
According to GATT, “subsidy is a “financial contribution” provided directly or
indirectly by a government and which confers a benefit.” Subsidies can take many
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forms including cash, interest rate, value-added tax, corporate income tax, sales tax,
freight, insurance, and infrastructure. Subsidized loans for priority sectors,
preferential rediscount rates, and budgetary subsidies are among the various subsidy
policies of several Asian countries.
There are several other kinds of subsidies that are not so obvious. Brazil’s rebate of
the various taxes, coupled with other form of assistance, can be viewed as subsidies.
Sheltered Profit is another kind of subsidy. A country may allow a corporation to
shelter its profit from abroad. The United States in 1971 allowed companies to form
domestic international sales corporation (DISCs) even though they cost the U.S.
treasury more than $1 billion a year in revenue.
2 CUSTOMS AND ENTRY PROCEDURE
Customs and Entry Procedures can be employed as nontariff barriers. These restrictions
involve classification, valuation, documentation, license, inspection, and health and safety
regulations.
i. Classification
Product Classification is important because the way in which a product is classified
determines its duty status. A company can sometimes take action to affect the
classification of the product. In the United States, if an imported product is
determined to have the acceptable minimum percentage of materials produced in a
designated country, it can be classified by a customs officer as having duty-free
status. Classification thus determines if certain product categories are qualified for a
special treatment, but it also determines whether some products should be banned
altogether.
ii. Valuation
Regardless of how products are classified, each product must still be valued. The
value affects the amount of tariffs levied. a customs appraiser is the one who
determines the value. The process can be highly subjective, and the valuation of a
product can be interpreted in different ways depending on what value is used (e.g.,
foreign, export, import, or manufacturing costs) and how this value is constructed.
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iii. Documentation
Documentation requirements vary from country to country. Usually, the following
shipping documents are either required or requested: commercial invoice, proforma
invoice, certificate of origin, bill of lading, packing list, insurance certificate, import
license, and shipper’s export declarations. Without proper documentation, goods may
not be cleared through customs. At the very least, such complicated and lengthy
documents serve to slow down product clearance.
iv. License or Permit
The most common instruments of direct regulation of imports (and sometimes export)
are licenses or Permit. Almost all industrialized countries apply these non-tariff
methods. The license system requires that a state (through specially authorized office)
issues permits for foreign trade transactions of import commodities included in the
lists of licensed merchandises. Product licensing can take many forms and procedures.
The main types of licenses are general license that permits unrestricted importation of
goods included in the lists for a certain period of time; and one-time license for a
certain product importer (exporter) to import (or export). One-time license indicates a
quantity of goods, its cost, its country of origin (or destination), and in some cases
also customs point through which import (or export) of goods should be carried out.
The use of licensing systems as an instrument for foreign trade regulation is based on
a number of international level standards agreements. In particular, these agreements
include some provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the
Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, concluded under the GATT (GATT).
v. Inspection
Inspection is an integral part of product clearance. Goods must be examined to
determine quality and quantity. This step is highly related to other customs and entry
procedures. First, inspection classifies and values products for tariff purposes. Second,
inspection reveals whether imported items are consistent with those specified in the
accompanying documents and whether such documents require any licenses. Third,
inspection determines whether products meet health and safety regulations in order to
make certain that food products are fit for human consumption or that the products
can be operated safely. Fourth, inspection prevents the importation of prohibited
articles. Inspection can be used intentionally to discourage imports.
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vi. Health and Safety Regulations
Many products are subject to health and safety regulations, which are necessary to
protect the public health and environment. Health and Safety Regulations are not
restricted to agricultural products. The regulations apply to TV receivers, microwave
ovens, X-ray devices, cosmetics, chemical substances and wearing apparel.
3 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
For goods to enter a country, product requirements set by that country must be met.
Packaging may apply to product standards and product specifications as well as to packaging,
labeling and marking.
i. Product Standards
Each country determines its own product standards to protect the health and safety of
its consumers. Such standards must also be erected as barriers to prevent or to slow
down importation of foreign goods. For e.g. because of U.S. grade, size, quality, and
maturity requirements, many Mexican agricultural commodities are barred from
entering the United States.
ii. Packaging, Labeling and Marking
Packaging, Labeling and Marking are considered together because they are highly
interrelated. Many products must be packaged in a certain way for safety and other
reasons. For e.g. Canada requires imported canned foods to be packed in specified can
sizes, and instructions contained within packages or on them must be in English and
French. Products must also be properly marked and labeled, and marking and labeling
may apply either to products themselves or to their packages.
iii. Product Testing
Many products must be tested to determine their safety and suitability before they can
be marked. This is the area in which United States has some troubles in Japan.
Although products may have won approval everywhere else for safety and
effectiveness, such products as medical equipment pharmaceuticals must go through
elaborate standards testing that can take a few years.
iv. Product Specifications
Product Specifications, though appearing to be an innocent process, can wreak havoc
on imports. Specifications can be written in such a way as to favor local bidders and
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to keep out foreign suppliers. For example, specifications can be extremely detailed,
or they can be written to closely resemble domestic products. They can be used
against foreign suppliers who cannot satisfy their specification without expensive or
lengthy modification.
4 QUOTAS
Quotas are a quality control on imported goods. Generally, they are specific provisions
limiting the amount of foreign products imported in order to protect local firms and to
conserve foreign currency. Quotas can be used for export control as well. From a policy
standpoint, a quota is not as desirable as a tariff since a quota generates no revenues for a
country. The consequence of this trade barrier is normally reflected in the consumers’ loss
because of higher prices and limited selection of goods as well as in the companies that
employ the imported materials in the production process, increasing their costs. There are
three kinds of quotas: absolute, tariff and voluntary.
i. Absolute Quotas
An absolute quota is the most restrictive of all. It limits in absolute terms the amount
imported during a quota period. Once filled, further entries are prohibited. Some
quotas are global, but others are allocated to specific foreign countries. The most
extreme of the absolute quota is an embargo, or a zero quota, as in case of the U.S.
trade embargoes against North Korea.
ii. Tariff Quotas
A Tariff quota permits the entry of a limited quantity of the quota product at a reduced
rate of duty. Quantities in excess of the quota can be imported but are subject to a
higher duty rate. Through the use of tariff quotas, a combination of tariffs and quotas
is applied with the primary purpose of importing what is a needed and discouraging
excessive quantity through higher tariffs.
iii. Voluntary Quotas
A voluntary quota differs from the other two kinds of quotas which are unilaterally
imposed. A voluntary quota is a formal agreement between nations or between a
nation and an industry. This agreement usually specifies the limit or supply by
product, country, and volume. Two kinds of voluntary quotas can be legally
distinguished: VER(voluntary export restraint) and OMA(orderly marketing
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agreement).Whereas a OMA involves a negotiation between two governments to
specify export management rules, the monitoring of trade volumes, and consultation
rights, a VER is a direct agreement between an importing nation’s government and a
foreign exporting industry.
5 FINANCIAL CONTROLS
Financial regulations can also function to restrict international trade. These restrictive
monetary policies are designed to control capital flow so that currencies can be defended or
imports controlled. There are several forms that financial restrictions can take.
i. Exchange Control
An exchange control is a technique that limits the amount of the currency that can be
taken abroad. The reason exchange controls are usually applied is that the local
currency is overvalued, thus causing imports to be paid for in smaller amounts of
currency. Purchasers then try to use the relatively cheap foreign exchange to obtain
items either unavailable or more expensive in the local currency.
Exchange controls also limit the length of time and amount of money an exporter can
hold for the goods sold. French exporters, for example, must exchange the foreign
currencies for francs within one month. By regulating all types of the capital outflows
in foreign countries, the government either makes it difficult to get imported products
or makes such items available only at higher prices.
ii. Multiple Exchange Rates
Multiple exchange rates are another form of exchange regulation or barrier. The
objective of multiple exchange rates is twofold: to encourage exports and imports of
certain goods and to discourage exports and imports of others. This means that there
is no single rate for all products or industries. But with the application of multiple
exchange rates, some products and industries will benefit and some will not. Spain
once used low exchange rates for goods designed for export and high rates for those it
desired to retain at home. Multiple exchange rates may also apply to imports. The
high rates may be used for imports of particular goods with the government’s
approval, whereas low rates may be used for other imports.
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iii. Prior Import Deposits and Credit Restrictions
Financial barriers can also include specific limitations or import restraints, such as
prior import deposits and credit restrictions. Both of these barriers operate by
imposing certain financial restrictions on importers. A government can require prior
import deposits that make imports difficult by tying up an importer’s capital. In effect
the importer is paying interest for money borrowed without being able to use the
money or get interest earning on money from the government.
Credit restrictions apply only to importers, that is, exporters may be able to get loans
from the government, usually at very favorable rates, but importers will not be able to
receive any credit or financing from the government. Importers must look for loans in
private sectors- very likely at significantly high rates, if such loans are available at all.
iv. Profit Remittance Restrictions
Another form of exchange barrier is profit remittance restrictions. ASEAN countries
share a common philosophy in allowing unrestricted repatriation of profit earned by
foreign countries. Singapore, in particular, allows the unrestricted movement of
capital. But many countries regulate the remittance of profits earned in local
operations and sent to a parent organization located abroad. Brazil uses progressive
rates in taxing all profits remitted to a parent company abroad, with such rates going
up to 60 percent. Other countries practice a form of profit remittance restriction by
simply having long delays in permission for profit expatriation. To overcome these
practices, MNCs have looked to legal loopholes. Many employ the various tactics
such as countertrading, currency swaps, and other parallel schemes. For example, a
multinational firm wanting to repatriate a currency may swap it with another firm that
needs that currency. Or these firms may lend to each other in the currency desired by
each party.
Another tactics is to negotiate for a higher value of an investment than the
investment’s actual worth. By charging its foreign subsidiary higher prices and fees,
an MNC is able to increase the equity base from which dividend repatriations are
calculated. In addition, compared to profit repatriations, the higher prices and fees are
treated as costs or expenses and are thus more freely paid to the parent firm.
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12) REFERENCES
[1.] www.economywatch.com
[2.] www.businessinsider.com
[3.] www.wikipedia.org
[4.] www.wto.org
[5.] International Business by Donald A. Ball and Michael S. Minor.
[6.] Building an Import by Kenneth D. Weiss
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