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Fundamentals of Environment Unit 012 Unit 012 Ecosystems Services and Ecological foot prints Structure 012.1. Introduction Objective 012.2. Over view of ecosystem services Conceptual bases Provisioning services Regulatory services Cultural services Supporting Services Self Assessment Questions 012.3. Ecological foot prints Urban foot prints Agricultural foot prints Transportation foot prints Water Prints Self Assessment Questions 012.4. Summary 012.5. Terminal Questions 012.6. Answers Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 1

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Unit 012 Ecosystems Servicesand 

Ecological foot prints

Structure

012.1. Introduction

Objective

012.2. Over view of ecosystem services

Conceptual bases

Provisioning services

Regulatory services

Cultural services

Supporting Services

Self Assessment Questions

012.3. Ecological foot prints

Urban foot prints

Agricultural foot prints

Transportation foot prints

Water Prints

Self Assessment Questions

012.4. Summary

012.5. Terminal Questions

012.6. Answers

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012.1 Introduction

The previous chapters discussed about the various components of the earth

and their composition and functions. The world’s ecosystem and their 

components provide myriad benefits to people. With the emergence of 

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the concept of ecosystem services

gained importance.large notice. Ecosystem services normally consist of 

features of “public goods”, such that they are easily available to everybody.Therefore, private motivation to control ecosystem services never brings out

their entire value to the public and they are prone to many issues from

marketable product uses.

The concept of ecosystem services has received significant attention since

the appearance of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystem

services generally have the characteristics of “public goods”, in that they are

freely accessible to everyone. As a result, private incentives to maintain

ecosystem services do not reflect their full value to society and they oftenface pressure from more marketable resource uses.

ForAround the past two decades, one third of the global mangrove marshes

are transformed to use by human beings, including many changed into

precious shrimp ranches. A shrimp ranch yielded a commercial profit per 

hectare of $9,632 in Thailand in 2007. Over the past two decades around a

third of the world’s mangrove swamps have been converted for human use,

with many turned into valuable shrimp farms. In 2007 an economic study of 

such shrimp farms in Thailand showed that the commercial profits per 

hectare were $9,632. However, proper accounting of this figure showed that

for each hectare, the government subsidies amount to $to $8,412

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and8,412 and it also involved additional costs of $1,000 for pollution and$12,392 for losses to ecosystem services. (www.economist.com). This led

to the  resulted in loss ofharm the supply of food and medicine which

humans gained from forests, loss of habitats for fish, and low buffering

against storms. As a particular shrimp ranch remains productive only for 

three to four years, further money had to be spent on re-establishing them.

later. If it is donecase of for mangroves, put ian extra amount of $9,318 per 

hectare would be needed.. Eventually the private sectors stand to gain by

such operations while people suffer from the burden imposed on them. The

overall message is that what advantages only looks so because the profits

stay with the private sector whereas problems are reflected on the people in

large size, which appears on no particular balance sheet. (The Economist,

Oct 2011). Thus nature provides us with countless services which can be

tapped for the benefit of mankind. Business provides both goods and

services, similarly nature provides us with countless services.

These comprised damage to the supply of foods and medicines that people

had taken from the forest, the loss of habitats for fish, and less buffering

against storms. And because a given shrimp farm only stays productive for 

three or four years, there was the additional cost of restoring them

afterwards: if you do so with mangroves themselves, add another $9,318

per hectare. The overall lesson is that what beneficial only does looks sobecause the profits are retained by the private sector, while the problems

are spread out across society at large, appearing on no specific balance

sheet (The Economist, Oct 2011). Just as businesses manufacture both

goods and services, so too does nature providing us with innumerable

services.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

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discuss importance of natural capital and its role in economic,ecological and social function

• explain different kinds of ecosystem services

• conceptualize ecological foot prints of resource utilization 

• describe how human activities contribute to ecological foot prints in

food production, transportation, agriculture etc.,

012.2 Over view of ecosystem services

Towards the end of 1990s, some ecologists and economists teamed up on

an attempt to estimategive value for nature’s services. In a total, tThey

calculated that the value of nature’s services were to be around $33 trillion

per year (Table 1). The value was almost two times that of the total gross

development product of all nations at that time. ($18 trillion in 1997). The

estimation created a buzz through the world and a liberal amount of 

controversy. The term ecosystem services was started to be widely used in

the ensuing dialogueperiod., and officially recognized the term in a

publication iIn 1997, the Ecological Society of America officially clarified that

‘ecosystem services’, "refers to a wide range of conditions and processes

through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them,help sustain and fulfillfulfil human life."1 

In the late 1990s, a group of ecologists and economists collaborated on an

effort to assign value to nature's services. In sum, they estimated that

nature's services were worth some $33 trillion per year (Table 1). Since the

number was almost twice that of the total gross national products of all

countries at the time ($18 trillion in 1997). The finding generated a global

buzz and a generous dose of controversy. The term ecosystem services

came into widespread use in the ensuing dialogue and, formalizing the term

1 http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com 

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in a 1997 publication, the Ecological Society of America explained that'ecosystem services', "refers to a wide range of conditions and processes

through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them,

help sustain and fulfill human life." (http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com)

Every land use decision consists of implied supposition about land value,

yet no dollar based figure is assigned. The issue is that the value of services

offered by earth’s ecosystem cannot connect to present economic

equations, partially as many benefits are placed outside the marketplace.

Such services are regarded as public properties which add countless

benefits to human welfare without ever being drawn into the money

economy. For example, the production of essential nutrients such as

nitrogen and phosphorous, which is not reflected in any country’s GNP,

equals US$ 17 trillion of the US$33 trillion in annual ecosystem. (Table 1)

Every land use decision involves implicit assumptions about value, even

when no dollar figure is assigned. The problem is that the value of services

provided by the Earth's ecological infrastructure does not fit into current

economic equations, partly because most of the benefits fall outside the

marketplace. Such services are public goods that contribute immeasurably

to human welfare without ever being drawn into the money economy. For instance, the cycling of essential nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus,

which is not reflected in any nation's GNP, accounts for US$17 trillion of the

US$33 trillion in annual ecosystem (Table 1).

A series of goods and services offered by ecosystems stresses that the

biological diversity existing in them is necessary for our economic

development and other facets of benefits. In a wide sense, ecosystem

services indicate a series of conditions and processes out ofby which

natural ecosystems and their  components organisms present there supports

human life. These services control the growth of ecosystem goods, the

natural products that are , harvested or used by humans.  sSuch products

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include as wild fruit and nuts, timber, gumame, medicines, natural fiber es,forage and so on. lMost significantly, especially for those in least developed

grown economies  , ecosystem services initiates help life by controlling

necessary processes, such as purification of water and air, pollination of 

crops, nutrient cycling, production and renewal of soil, and decomposition of 

wastes, moreover by temperate environmental conditions through stabilizing

climate, decreasing the risk of poor climatic conditions, preventing soil

erosion and lessening floods and droughts.

A stream of goods and services by ecosystems and the biological diversity

contained within them is essential to our economic prosperity and other 

aspects of our welfare. In a broad sense, ecosystem services refer to therange of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and

the species that they contain, help sustain and fulfill human life. These

services regulate the production of ecosystem goods, the natural products

harvested or used by humans such as wild fruit and nuts, forage, timber,

game, natural fibres, medicines and so on. More importantly, particularly for 

those in less developed economies, ecosystem services support life by

regulating essential processes, such as purification of air and water,

pollination of crops, nutrient cycling, decomposition of wastes, and

generation and renewal of soils, as well as by moderating environmental

conditions by stabilising climate, reducing the risk of extreme weather events, mitigating droughts and floods, and protecting soils from erosion.

Conceptual Bases

Ecosystem services are categorized into six groups widely depending upon

both their ecological and economic functions. They are:

Ecosystem services have been grouped into six categories broadly based

on both their ecological and economic function. These are:

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Provisioning services – The products obtained derived fromecosystems, including genetic resources, food and fiberfibre, and

fresh water.

• Regulating services – The benefits obtained from the regulation

control of ecosystem processes, including the regulation of climate,

water, and some human diseases.

• Cultural services – The nonmaterial benefits people obtain derive

from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive

development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience,

including, knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values.

• Supporting services – Ecosystem services that are necessary

essential for the production of all other ecosystem services.

Ecosystem services Value (Trillion $US)

Soil formation 17.1

Recreation 3.0

Nutrient cycling 2.3

Water regulation and supply 2.3

Climate regulation (temperature and

precipitation)

1.8

Habitat 1.4

Flood and storm protection 1.1

Food and raw materials 0.8

Genetic resources 0.8

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Atmospheric gas balance 0.7

Pollination 0.4

All other services 1.6

Total value of ecosystem services 33.3

Table 012.1 Total value of ecosystem services

(Source: Nature, 387(6230):255)

Provisioning services

These are the products obtained from ecosystems, including:

• Food and fiberfibre: This includes comprises of the vast wide range

of food products derived obtained from plants, animals, and

microbes, as well as and also materials such as wood, jute, hemp,

silk, and many other products derived obtained from ecosystems.

• Fuel: Wood, dung, and other biological materials serve act as

sources of energy.

• Genetic resources: This includes comprises of  the genes and

genetic information used essential for animal and plant breeding andbiotechnology.

• Biochemicals, natural medicines, and pharmaceuticals: Many

medicines, biocides, food additives such as alginates, and biological

materials are derived obtained from ecosystems.

• Ornamental resources: Animal products, such as skins and shells,

and flowers are used as ornaments, although even though the value

of these resources is often frequently culturally determined. This is

an example of   linkages bonding between the different

groupscategories of ecosystem services.

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Fresh water:  Fresh water is another example of  linkages bondingbetween different groupscategories— in this case, between

provisioning and regulating services.

Regulating Services

Regulating services provide offer variousmany direct and indirect benefits

advantages to humanshuman beings, includingwith  clean fresh air and

water, pollination, climate weather  regulation and disease control (Table

12.2). The maintenance protection of the earth’s biosphere isn  depends

based on a delicate subtle balance between these regulating services.

Sustainable Persistent ecosystem service delivery relate to lease is

baseddepends on the health, integrity and resilience of the ecosystem. The

services got obtained from ecosystems should be open to economic

analysis such that they should support the productive and consumptive

aspects of human beings. This helps in economic valuation. Regulating

services consist of both final and intermediate services. The services are

discussed in detail below.

For economic valuation, the services flowing from ecosystems must be

amenable to economic analysis in that they should serve the consumptive

or productive purposes of humans. Regulating services of ecosystems can

be both final and intermediate services. Following are the details of theservices.

 Air quality Regulation: Trees trap absorb airborne particulate matter and

help to improve develop air quality and human health. Air quality regulation

is particularly important in the urban context, with rising populations and

industrial growth. A study conducted in Tuscon, Arizona estimated that

planting 500,000 mesquite trees would remove 6,500 tonnes of particulate

matter annually once the trees reach maturity. Tuscon spends

approximately US$ 1.5 million on an alternative dust-control program. Thus,

the air quality regulation value of each tree in Tuscon is US$ 4.16.

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Biodiversity Regulation: The US Forest Service estimates that replacingthe pest control services of birds in forests with chemical pesticides would

cost more than US$ 17 per hectare. The cost to US agriculture of replacing

natural pest control services by ecosystems with chemical pesticides would

be approximately US$ 54 billion annually. Banana plantation in Costa Rica

which pays an adjacent forested conservation area US$ 1.00 per hectare

annually to provide natural pest control services. Because such costs have

not actually been incurred, these estimates represent only the cost of 

replacing these regulating services and not the actual value of these

services.

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Table 012.2 Regulating services

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Pollination:  Many economically important species require pollination toproduce marketable crops. Yet, hard figures on the economic value of 

pollination are still lacking. Very few studies have specifically conducted

analyses that match the scales at which land-use decisions are made.

Estimates Calculations of the annual monetary financial value of pollination

vary widelyvastly, from US$120 billion annually for  all every pollination

service.s.

Erosion control: Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands and mangroves

help to stabilize soils, reducing erosion. The vegetative cover  shelters

prevents soil from the force of rain by intercepting rainfall while roots help to

maintain the soil structure. Plants growing along shorelines and submergedvegetation near coastal areas regions contribute support greatly extensively

in controlling regulating erosion and facilitating sedimentation. The costs

associated with erosion include loss of soil productivity for agriculture,

damage to roads and other infrastructure, filling in of ditches and reservoirs,

reduced water quality and impacts on fish populations. The value estimates

of this service primarily reflect the costs associated with sedimentation.

Water quality Regulation: Ecosystems such as forests and wetlands help

to purify water by stabilizing soils and filtering pollutants from water. The

quantity and quality of water flowing through the watersheds are important

inputs to agriculture, hydro-power plants, and municipal water supplies. The

cost of constructing and operating a water treatment plant to purify the

polluted water is a common measure of the value of water purification

service. Estimates of water quality values range from US$ 0.26 per acre-

foot for electricity generation to as high as US$50 per acre-foot for irrigation

and municipal use in US.

Waste treatment and processing: Ecosystems play an importanta

significant role in the treatment of wastes introduced discharged into the

natural environment, but there are some inherent limits restrictions to this

waste processing capability. For example, aquatic systems “cleanse” on

averagealmost 80 percent of their global incident nitrogen loading, but this

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intrinsic self-purification capability is being reduced lessened by the loss of wetlands across the globe. As the characteristics of both wastes and

ecosystems receiving these wastes vary, environments vary in their 

capability to absorb and treat wastes.

Water-flow regulation: Watersheds capture arrest and accumulatestore

water, thereby contributing supportingto the quantity amount of water 

available and the seasonal flow of water. The so-called “albedo” effect

refers to indicates the process by which vegetation increases raises

evaporation of water from the earth’s surface to causedevelop  increased

more cloud formation and rainfall. Through this effect, ecosystems

dominated by vegetation, such as forest ecosystems, play a significant rolein determining rainfall patterns at a regional scale. Vegetation also acts as a

‘sponge’, soaking up and storing water when abundant and releasing it

slowly during the dry periods. This system of water regulation reduces the

impacts of flood and drought on downstream communities.

Disease regulation: Ecosystems play an important role in the emergence

or resurgences of infectious diseases. Modifications of ecosystems related

to infrastructure developments such as dam building or expansion of 

agricultural irrigation, have sometimes increased the local incidence of 

vector diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and arbovirus infections.

Natural Hazard regulation: This regulating service relates to the ability of 

different ecosystems to mediate “natural” hazards and disruptive natural

events. For example, ecosystems regulate the effects of extreme events

such as floods, storms and fires by affecting both the probability and

severity of events. Soils store large amounts of water and help in preventing

or reducing floods and fires. Coral reefs buffer shields waves and protect

preserve adjacent coastlines from storm damage. Wetlands attenuate floods

by absorbing runoff peaks and storm surges. This regulating service

contributes to the safety of human life and protection of man-made

infrastructure.

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Carbon storage and sequestration:

Forest ecosystems play a crucial role in global carbon cycling acting as sink

and source. Forests form an active carbon pool that accounts for 60 per 

cent of carbon storage in the earth’s land surface. Forests eliminate CO2

from the atmosphere and accumulate the carbon in wooden tissues while

growing actively. The rate of absorption of carbon and so the extent of 

carbon sink, is highest in the beginning stages of regeneration and the rate

decreases as forests grow. Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and

store the carbon in woody tissue when actively growing. The rate of carbon

absorption and hence the magnitude of the carbon sink, is greatest in the

earliest stages of regeneration and the rate declines as forests mature.

Therefore, dynamics of carbon in forest vegetation and soils are significant

in terms of global climate change policy frame work. The tropical forests,

both moist and dry types, account for approximately 60% of global forests.

While covering only 22% of potential vegetation by area, tropical forests

have been estimated to account for 75% of the world’s terrestrial net

primary productivity.

Cultural Services

These are considered as the non-material profits human beings acquirefrom the ecosystem through cognitive development, recreation, reflection,

spiritual enrichment, aesthetic experiences, and alsosuch as the following:

These are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through

spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and

aesthetic experiences, including:

• Cultural diversity.  The diversity of ecosystems is one factor  that

creates impact oninfluencing the diversity of cultures. Spiritual and 

religious values. Many religions attach connect spiritual and religious

values to ecosystems or their components.

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Knowledge systems (traditional and formal). Ecosystemsinfluence theimpact the types of knowledge systems developed

generated by different cultures.

• Educational values.  Ecosystems and their components and

processes provide create the basis for both formal and informal

education in many societies.

• Inspiration. Ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art,

folklore, national symbols, architecture, and advertising.

•  Aesthetic values. Many people human beings find discover beauty

or aesthetic values in various aspects forms of ecosystems, asreflected in the support for parks, “scenic drives,” and the selection

of housing locations.

• Social relations.  Ecosystems influence impact the types of social

relations that which are established found in particular cultures.

Fishing societies, for example, differ vary in many formsrespects in

their social relations from nomadic herding or agricultural societies.

• Sense of place. Many people value the “sense of place” that which

is associated connected with recognized features of their 

environment, including aspects of the ecosystem.

• Cultural heritage values.  Many societies place put high value on

the maintenance preservation of either historically important

significant landscapes (“cultural landscapes”) or culturally significant

species.

• Recreation and ecotourism. People often choose decide where to

spend their leisure time based in part on the characteristics of the

natural or cultivated landscapes in a particular specific area.

Cultural services are tightly firmly bound connected to human values and

behaviour, as well asand also to human institutions and patterns of social,

economic, and political organization. Thus Therefore, perceptions of cultural

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services areopinions of cultural services are  possiblemore likely to differ vary among individuals andindividuals and communities concerned about

vastly compared to the opinion of than, say, perceptions of tthe importance

of food production.

Supporting Services

Supporting services are those that which are essentialnecessary for the

production generation of all other ecosystem services. They differ vary from

provisioningstipulating, controllingregulating, and cultural services in that

which their  influenceimpacts on human beingspeople are either indirect or 

occur happen over a very long time, whereas but changes in the other 

categories have relatively direct and short-term impacts influence on

peoplehuman beings. (Some services, like erosion control, can be

categorized grouped as both a supporting and controllinga regulating

service, depending based on the time scale and immediacy closeness of 

their  impact influence on people.) For example, human beings do not

directly use utilize soil formation services, although even though

modificationschanges in this mightwould indirectly create an effect on affect

people through the impact influence on the provisioning service of food

production. SimilarlyIn the same way, climate regulation  is

classifiedcategorized as a regulating service becausesince  modification in

the ecosystem changes can have an influenceimpact on local or global

climate based onover time scales relatedrelevant to human decision-making

(decades or centuries), butwhereas the generationproduction of oxygen gas

(through photosynthesis) is categorized classified as a supporting service

assince any influenceimpacts on the concentration amount of oxygen in the

atmosphere might would happen only only occur over an extremelyvery long

time. Some other examples of supporting services are primary production,

production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutrient

cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat.

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Self Assessment Questions1. Biochemicals and natural medicines obtained from various ecosystems

categorized as_________________ 

(a) Provisioning services (b) Supporting Services (c) Cultural services

(d) Regulating services

2. The production of oxygen through photosynthesis is categorized as a

supporting service. Say true or false.

012.3. Ecological foot prints

The Ecological Footprint (EF) refers to a measure of humanity’s demand onnature. It calculates the amount of land and water area that a human

population needs to generate the resource it uses and to absorb its carbon

dioxide emissions, using existing technology. It determines the level to

which human beings are using nature’s resources than they can regenerate.

The components (variables) of sustainable consumption are combined

using weighting factors depending on the Earth’s regenerative capacities for 

the measured resources. EF is normally provided combined with biocapacity

(BC) that determines the bio-productive supply (Figure 12.1). Reserve or 

deficit (or overshoot for the globe) is the mathematical difference between

EF and BC.

The renewable resource accounting results in a deficit if the EF is larger 

than the BC. Compensation of national ecological shortfall can be done

either through trade with nations that process ecological reserves or through

liquidation of national ecological assets. On the contrary, the compensation

of global ecological shortfall cannot be done through trade. Therefore, it is

equal to overshoot. From 1970s, humanity has been in ecological overshoot

with yearly demand on resources exceeding what Earth can reproduce each

year. Now the Earth takes one year and six months to reproduce what we

use in a year. Today, when humanity is crossing the terrestrial limits,

ecological assets are becoming more important. Every country has its

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individual ecological risk profile: Most of them are running ecologicaldeficits, with Footprints bigger than their own biological capacity. Some of 

them depend greatly on resources from somewhere else, which are under 

ever-increasing pressure. In several areas of the world, the implications of 

ecological deficits can be destructive, and can lead to:

• resource loss

• ecosystem collapse

• debt 

• poverty

• famine

• war The Ecological Footprint (EF) is a measure of humanity’s demand

on nature. It measures calculates how muchthe amount of land and

water area a human population requires needs to generateproduce the

resource it consumes uses and to absorb its carbon dioxide emissions,

using prevailing existing technology. It measures determines the extent

level to which humanity human beings areis using nature’s resources

faster than that they can regenerate. The components (variables) of 

sustainable consumption are aggregated combined using weighting

factors dependingbased on the Earth’s regenerative capacities for the

considered measured resources. EF is usually normally presented

provided combined together with biocapacity (BC), which that measures

determines the bio-productive supply (Figure 12.1). Reserve or deficit

(or overshoot for the globe) is the mathematical difference between EF

and BC.The mathematical difference between EF and BC is called either 

reserve or deficit (or overshoot for the globe).

The renewable resource accounting results in a deficit When if the EF is

larger than the BC the renewable resource accounting results in a deficit.

Compensation of A national ecological deficitshortfall can be compensated

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done either through trade with nations that process ecological reserves or through liquidation of national ecological assets. In contrastOn the contrary,

the compensation of global ecological deficitshortfall cannot be

compensated done through trade., and is tTherefore, it is equal to

overshoot. Since theFrom 1970s, humanity has been in ecological

overshoot with annualyearly demand on resources exceeding what Earth

can regeneratereproduce each year. It nNow takes the Earth takes one

year and six months to regenerate reproduce what we use in a year. In

todaythe present day’s world, where humanity is already exceeding

planetaryenvironmental limits, ecological assets are becoming more critical.

EachEvery country has its ownindividual ecological risk profile: Many of 

them are running ecological deficits, with Footprints largerbigger than their 

own biological capacity. OthersSome of them depend heavilygreatly on

resources from elsewheresomewhere else, which are under increasingever-

increasing pressure. In someseveral areas of the world, the implications of 

ecological deficits can be devastatingdestructive, and can leading to:

• rResource loss,

• E ecosystem collapse

• , dDebt,

• P poverty

• , fFamine

• and wWar.

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Figure 12.1 Per-person resource demand (Ecological Footprint) and

resource supply

(Source:http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/trends/

india/)

Figure 012.2 Ecological Footprint and Human Wellbeing: Africa Report

2006 (Source: http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)

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Urban Foot PrintsIt is estimated that by Eeach week more than one million people are added

to the world's cities. In a short span of time By the year 2000, more than a

half of the whole world’s population will be in urban areas. A North American

city that comprises 650,000 people may need 30,000 square kilometres of 

land. That is, a region roughly the size of Vancouver Island present in

Canada to cope with only the domestic requirements without including the

environmental needs of industry. In the same way, a similar size city in India

may need 2,800 square kilometres. Urban density and city expansion have

substantial effect on the environment. Artificially created areas which are

linked to urban activity create an unusual form of biodiversity and theydirectly affect the quality of water, soil, air, and land. Rural areas are also

under the pressure exerted by urbanisation. The urban ecosystem

differentiates itself from natural eco-systems because of the design of 

artificial environments that change, amongst others, the climate (bursts of 

heat, less powerful winds) and disturbs the water cycle through water runoff.

Air pollution directly affects plants. Following factors harm the development

of trees:

• Noise

Vibrations

• Lack of light

• Space underground

Canada is one of the wealthiest countries in the world. Its inhabitants have

the benefit of enjoying very high material standards by any measure. In

reality, ecological footprint analysis illustrates that the total land required to

sustain current consumption levels by the average Canadian is no less than

4.3 hectares. It includes 2.3 hectares for carbon dioxide absorption alone

(Figure 12.2). Therefore, the per capita ecological footprint of Canadians is

about three times their "fair Earthshare" of 1.5 hectares.

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For instance, Bboth Japan and the Netherlands are proud of their positivetrade and current account balances that are measured in monetary terms.

Their populations are one among the most prosperous on the globe. These

countries are densely populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital)

poor. Therefore, they are known as stellar economic successes and

developing countries held up these countries as models for emulation. At

the same time, after estimation we have found that Japan has a 2.5 hectare

per capita, and the Netherlands a 3.3 hectare per capita ecological footprint.

This estimation presents Japan and Netherlands national ecological

footprints about eight and 15 times bigger than their total domestic territories

respectively. The noticeable dissimilarity between the physical and

monetary accounts of such economic success stories increases

complicated developmental questions in a world whose main strategy for 

sustainability is economic growth. Worldwide sustainability cannot be

(ecological) deficit-financed. According to simple physics, all countries or 

regions cannot become net importers of biophysical capacity.

The ecological footprint analysis describes that because of tremendous

raise in per capita energy and material consumption that is made possible

due to technology and globally increasing dependencies on trade, the

ecological positioning of high-density human settlements no longer coincide

with their geographic positioning. For survival and growth, twentieth-centurycities and industrial sectors bank on a huge and increasingly global

hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes. Cities essentially

"appropriate" the ecological output and life support functions of remote

regions all over the earth through commercial trade and natural

biogeochemical cycles. Perhaps the most vital insight from this result is that

not a single city or urban region can attain sustainability on its own. In spite

of local land use and environmental policies, a prerequisite for sustainable

cities is the sustainable utilisation of the global hinterland.

The other reason for this dependency is usually the effect of urban

populations and cities on the ecosphere and rural environments. In this

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century along with increasing material standards and the spread of consumerism, the huge migration of humans to the cities has turned urban

industrial regions into nodes of strong consumption. The richer the city and

the more linked they are to the rest of the world, the greater the load it is

able to impose on the ecosphere by trade and other types of economic

leverage. Seen in this light and contrary to popular wisdom, the apparent

depopulation of various rural regions does not indicate that they are being

deserted in any eco-functional sense. But, most of the citizens may have

shifted somewhere else and the rural lands and ecosystem functions are

being utilised in a more intensive manner than ever in the service of recently

urbanised human populations.Each week Mmore than one million people

populations are added to the world's cities. each week, Band by the year 

2000, overmore than a half of the totalwhole world population will be urban.

In North American, aA typical North American city with a population of about

650,000 would require 30,000 square kilometres of land. —Thisan area is

roughly the size of Vancouver Island that is , Canada.— The land is required

to meet domestic needs alone without even includingcounting the

environmental demands of industry. In comparisonOn the other hand, in

India a similar size city in India would require 2,800 square kilometres. On

the environment, uUrban density and city expansion have

significantimportant consequences on the environment. Artificially created

areas which are linked to urban activity producecreates an atypicalunusual

form of biodiversity and they directly affect affects the quality of water, soil,

air, and land. Rural areas are also under the pressure exerted by

urbanisation. The urban ecosystem distinguishdifferentiatees itself from

natural eco-systems due tobecause of the creationdesign of artificial

environments that change, amongst others, the climate such as (bursts of 

heat, less powerful winds) and disturbs the water cycle that is (water runoff.)

Air pollution directly affects pplants. Following factors harm the

development of trees:

•; nNoise

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, vVibrations• , lLack of light

• and sSpace underground harm the development of trees.

Canada is one of the world's wealthiest countries in the world. Its

citizeninhabitants enjoyhave the benefit of enjoying very high material

standards by any measure. IndeedIn reality, ecological footprint analysis

showillustrates that the total land required to supportsustain presentcurrent

consumption levels by the average Canadian is at leastno less than 4.3

hectares. It, includesing 2.3 hectares for carbon dioxide

assimilationabsorption alone (Figure 2). ThusTherefore, the per capitaecological footprint of Canadians is almostabout three times their "fair 

Earthshare" of 1.5 hectares.?

For exampleinstance, Both Japan and the Netherlands both boastpossess

positive trade and current account balances that are measured in monetary

terms. , and tTheir populations are among two of thee most

prosperouswealthiest places on earth. These countries are densely

populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital) poor. Therefore, they are

known as stellar economic successes and developing countries held up

these countries as models for emulation. . Densely populated yet relatively

resource- (natural capital) poor, these countries are regarded as stellar 

economic successes and held up as models for emulation by the developing

world. At the same time, after estimation we have found estimate that Japan

has a 2.5 hectare per /capita, and the Netherlands a 3.3 hectare per /capita

ecological footprint. This estimation which givepresents Japan and

Netherlands these countries national ecological footprints about eight and

15 times largerbigger than their total domestic territories respectively. (Note

that Table 2 is based on areas of ecologically productive land only.) The

markednoticeable contrastdissimilarity between the physical and monetary

accounts of such economic success stories raiseincreases

difficultcomplicated developmental questions in a world whose principalmain

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strategy for sustainability is economic growth. GlobalWorldwidesustainability cannot be (ecological) deficit-financed;. According to ssimple

physics, dictates that not aall countries or regions cannot becomecan be net

importers of biophysical capacity.

Ecological footprint analysis illustrates explains the fact that as a result of 

the enormous increase in per capita energy and material consumption made

possible by (and required by) technology, and universally increasing

dependencies on trade, the ecological locations of high-density human

settlements no longer coincide with their geographic locations. For survival

and growth, twentieth-century cities and industrial sectors bank on a huge

and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes.Twentieth-century cities and industrial regions for survival and growth

depend on a vast and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically

productive landscapes. Cities necessarilyessentially "appropriate" the

ecological output and life support functions of distantremote regions all over 

the worldearth through commercial trade and natural biogeochemical

cycles. Perhaps the most importantvital insight from this result is that not a

single city or urban region can achieveattain sustainability on its own.

RegardlessIn spite of of local land use and environmental policies, a

prerequisite for sustainable cities is the sustainable exploitationutilisation of 

the global hinterland.

The other sidepart of this dependency coin is the impact urban populations

and cities have on rural environments and the ecosphere generally. In this

century Combined withalong with risingincreasing material standards and

the spread of consumerism, the mass huge migration of humans to the

cities in this century has turned urban industrial regions into nodes of 

intensestrong consumption. The wealthierricher the city and the more

connectedlinked to the rest of the world, the greater the load it is

ablecapable to impose on the ecosphere through by trade and other 

formtypes of economic leverage. Seen in this light and contrary to popular 

wisdom, the seemingapparent depopulation of manyvarious rural

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arearegions does not meanindicate that they are being abandoneddesertedin any ecofunctional sense. Whereas But, most of the peoplecitizens may

have moveshifted elsewheresomewhere else, rural lands and ecosystem

functions are being exploitutilised more intenselyextremely than ever in the

service of newlyrecently urbaniszed human populations.

Box 1: Ecological Footprint of London

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Agricultural foot printFood production has successfully diverted many natural landscapes to aid

human purposes when compared to any other ecologically important human

economic activity. Some of the technology-based developments are:

• Spread of irrigation

• Extensive use of fertilizers

• Pesticides

• High-yielding crop varieties

• Field mechanisation

• Expanding trade

These developments succeeded in maintaining global food production

ahead of population rises through the last century, with the most impressive

results in the post-WW-II period. In the meantime, today the population has

increased to about 6.3 billion, that is, by 152 percent. In 1950, it was 2.5

billion.

Agriculture is the biggest component that contributes to a typical population

eco-footprint (EF). This should not be any surprise. After transportation,

food production such as meat, poultry, fruits, vegetables and grains causes

the maximum level of environmental impact related to the average

household transportation and food, along with household operations such

as heating of space and water, running appliances and lighting that involve

between 64 percent and 86 percent of the total ecological impact of 

household consumption in the various impact categories. A chief component

of the food production impact is landscape shift. For instance, about 60

percent of the US land area is granted to crop production or livestock

grazing and 45 percent of the nation’s environment loss or alteration is

because of agriculture.

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Area of average cropland of the world used to produce the food items of today’s high-income consumers can be as high as 1.5 hectares that is 3.7

acres per capita, which would be four to eight times the cropland needed by

the world's poor population. The per capita demand for cropland in Canada

is about 1 hectare which is about twelve times that of a typical Bangladeshi

or Mozambican.

Countries such as Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom that are

wealthy have agricultural eco-footprints that are many times larger than their 

domestic farming land bases. In contrast with the poorer developing

countries, these prosperous countries have, so far, funded their extensive

food-based “ecological deficits” with the rest of the world. In fact, nationsthat are net food importers are more the rule than the exception. In the

world almost 183 nations are partly dependent on food imports. Five

countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France and

Argentina account for 80 percent of cereal exports and most of the safety

net in international food markets. These nations have remarkably high

cropland- to-population ratios and comparatively few soil constraints, and

utilise intensively mechanised, fossil-energy dependent production

techniques. It will be clear from this short discussion of cropland eco-

footprints relative to land supply that soil constraints signify a main obstacle

to increased food production in the future, mostly for those nations that needit the most. In some cases increasing the total area of cropland is feasible,

but may need expansion of agriculture into low-grade land and huge

damage to remaining wildlife natural habitat.

Transportation footprints

In general cars and trucks have a smaller carbon footprint than small

aircraft, but a greater carbon footprint than large aircraft (because the

amount of carbon dioxide per flight is spread over a greater number of 

passengers). Rail transportation has a smaller carbon footprint than cars or 

trucks, and ships have a smaller carbon footprint than rail.

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Personal Transport Footprint: A footprint analysis Southwest England statesthat computation of a personal transport ecological footprint considers

the energy that is essential for manufacturing, maintenance and fuel for 

various types of transport such as aeroplanes, trains and cars. In 2001,

the personal transport ecological footprint for a Southwest

resident was 2.6 million Gha (0.53 Gha per person), and accounted

for 10 percent of the total ecological footprint of the area.

The largest element was car travel. It accounted for 79 percent of the

personal transport ecological footprint and 85 percent of the distance

covered. Air transport had the second largest ecological footprint at 15

percent, even though it was only 5 percent of the distance covered. The air transport ecological footprint is high because of the energy input required for 

flying, mainly at take-off and landing

(http://www.steppingforward.org.uk/ef/perstrans.htm).

Utilisation of bio-diesel cuts down the discharge of carbon. 

Companies should begin using bio-diesel to secure the surroundings

in addition to the life time of the vehicle.

Opting for regular servicing keep you informed about the energy

consumption and provides the benefit of extra mileage.

Utilisation of Electric, Diesel Hybrid and LPG vehicles decreases

carbon discharges.

Business should plan route such that it reduces traveling time.Food

production has effectivelysuccessfully divertedrerouted moreadditional

natural landscape to human purposereasons than any other ecologically

significantimportant human economic activity. Some of the technology-

based developments are:

• Spread of irrigation

• Extensive use of fertilizers

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Pesticides• High-yielding crop varieties

• Field mechanisation

• Expanding trade

These developments succeeded in maintaining global food production

ahead of population rises through the last century, with the most impressive

results in the post-WW-II period. In the meantime, today the population has

increased to about 6.3 billion that is by 152%. In 1950, it was 2.5 billion.

Meanwhile, of course, the human population has increased by 152% from2.5 billion in 1950 to about 6.3 billion today.

Agriculture is the biggest component that contributes to a typical population

eco-footprint (EF). Agriculture contributes one of the largest components to

a typical population eco-footprint (EF). This should not be be noany

surprise. Next toAfter transportation, food production such as (meat, poultry,

fruits, vegetables and grains) causes the greatestmaximum level of 

environmental impact associaterelated with the average household

transportation and food, together along with household operations such as

(heating of space and water, running appliances and lighting)

compriseinvolve between 64% and 86% of the total ecological impact of household consumption in the several various impact categories. A

majorchief component of the food production impact is landscape

alterationshift. For exampleinstance, about 60% of the US land area is

dedicategranted to crop production or livestock grazing and 45% of the

nation’s habitatenvironment loss or alteration is due tobecause of 

agriculture.

Area of world-average cropland of the world used to produce the diets crops

of today’s high-income consumers can be as high as 1.5 hectares that is

(3.7 acres) per capita,. TypicallyUsually the poorest of the world’s poor 

people required that cropland four to eight times the cropland required by

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the poorest of the world’s poor. The per capita demand for cropland inCanada ’s per capita demand for cropland atis about 1 hectare which is

about twelve times that of a typical Bangladeshi or Mozambican.

WealthyProsperous countries such aslike Spain, the Netherlands and the

United Kingdom have agriculturalfarming eco-footprints up to several times

largerbigger than their domestic agricultural farming land bases. Unlike In

contrast with the poorer developing countries, these wealthyprosperous

nationcountries have, so far, financed funded their considerableextensive

food-based “ecological deficits” with the rest of the world. ActuallyIn fact,

countries nations that are net food importers are more the rule than the

exception. In the world Mostalmost of the world’s 183 nations arepartiallypartly dependent on food imports. FJust five countries such as —the

United States, Canada, Australia, France and Argentina— account for 80%

of cereal exports and most of the safety net in globalinternational food

markets. These countries nations have exceptionallyremarkably high

cropland- to-population ratios and relativelycomparatively few soil

constraints, and useutilise intensively mechaniszed, fossil-energy

dependent production methodtechniques. It should will be clear from even

this briefshort discussion of cropland eco-footprints relative to land supply

that land soil constraints representsignify a majormain barrierobstacle to

increased food production in the future, particularlymostly for thosecountries nations that need it the most. In some cases Iincreasing the total

area of cropland is possiblefeasible in some cases, but would may

requireneed expansion of agriculture into inferiorlow-grade land and

massivehuge damage to remaining wildlife natural habitat.

Transportation footprints

In general cars and trucks have a smaller carbon footprint than small

aircraft, but a greater carbon footprint than large aircraft (because the

amount of carbon dioxide per flight is spread over a greater number of 

passengers). Rail transportation has a smaller carbon footprint than cars or 

trucks, and ships have a smaller carbon footprint than rail.

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Personal Transport Footprint: A footprint analysis Southwest England Thecalculation of a personal transport ecological footprint takes into

consideration the energy required for manufacturing, maintenance and

fuel for different modes of transport, such as cars, aeroplanes and

trains. In 2001, Tthe personal transport ecological footprint for a

Southwest resident in 2001 was 2.6 million Gha (0.53 Gha per 

person), and accounted for 10% of the total ecological footprint of the

regionarea.

The largest component element was car travel. It, which accounted for 79%

of the personal transport ecological footprint and 85% of the distance

travelledcovered. Air travel transport had the second largest ecologicalfootprint at 15%, althougheven though it was only 5% of the distance

travelledcovered. The air travel transport ecological footprint is high due

tobecause of the energy input required for flying, particularlymainly at take-

off and landing (http://www.steppingforward.org.uk/ef/perstrans.htm).

Utilisation Using of bio-diesel cuts down on carbon

emissiondischarge. Companies mustshould startbegin using bio-

diesel to safesecure the surroundings in addition to the life time of 

the vehicle.

Opting for Rregular servicing. It will tell you about the energyconsumption and will benefitgain extra mileage.

Utiliszation of Electric, Diesel Hybrid and LPG vehicles will

reducedecrease carbon emissiondischarges.

Scheduling route to reduce traveling time. The businessCompanies

should schedule route in a fashion manner that it reduces the time of 

travelingminimize traveling time.

Self Assessment Questions

3. Ecological footprint evaluates humanity’s demand on nature:

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say Yes or No4. Rapid land use changes in a city may leads to sharp rise in

 ____________.

a) Ecological foot prints b) regulatory services c) cultural services

d) supportive services

5. Hybrid vehicles and LPG vehicles usage may reduce ____________.

a) Carbon emissions b) water pollution c) soil pollution

d) business opportunity

Water Footprint

The concept of water footprint has been developed to have an indicator of 

water use relative to its consumption by people. The volume of water 

needed for the production of the goods and services consumed by the

inhabitants of the country is known as the water footprint of a country. The

virtual water concept is closely related to the water footprint concept. The

volume of water required to produce a commodity or service is called virtual

water. International trade of commodities implies flows of virtual water over 

large distances. The water footprint of a country can be measured with the

help of domestic water resources, reduction of the virtual water flow thatgoes out of the country and addition of virtual water flow that come into the

country. The volume of water used from domestic water resources to

produce the goods and services consumed by the people of the country is

known as internal water footprint of a country. The volume of water used in

other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by

the people of the country is known as external water footprint of a country.

The study aims to compute the water footprint for each country of the world

for the period 1997-2001.

The use of domestic water resources includes water use in the sectors like:

• Agricultural 

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Industrial• Domestic

The calculation of the total volume of water use in the agricultural sector is

done on the basis of total quantity of crop produced and its corresponding

virtual water content. The calculation of the virtual water content (m3/ton) of  

prime crops is done on the basis of crop water requirement and produce.

The requirement of crop water for each crop is calculated with the help of 

the method developed by FAO. The calculation of the virtual water content

of crop products is done on the basis of product fractions that include tons

of crop product obtained per ton of primary crop and value fractions that

include the market value of one crop product divided by the total market

value of all crop items for consumptions that is obtained from one main

crop. The calculation of the virtual water content (m3/ton) of live animals is

done on the basis of the virtual water content of their feed and the volumes

of drinking and service water consumed throughout their existence. The

calculation of the virtual water content of livestock products is again done on

the basis of product fractions and value fractions. Virtual water flows

between countries are obtained from statistics on international product trade

and the virtual water content per product in the exporting nation.

The worldwide volume of water used for crop production is 6390 Gm3

/yr. It includes both effective rainfall and irrigation water. Generally, livestock

products have higher virtual water content than crop products. For instance,

the worldwide average virtual water content of maize, wheat and rice

(husked) is 900, 1300 and 3000 m3/ton respectively, but on the other hand, 

the virtual water content of chicken meat, pork and beef is 3900, 4900 and

15500 m3/ton respectively. But the virtual water content of products strongly

differs from place to place, depending upon:

• Climate

Technology adopted for farming

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Corresponding yieldsThe worldwide volume of virtual water flows associated with the

international trade in commodities is 1625 Gm3 per year. About 20 percent 

of these virtual water flows is related to the industrial product trade and

remaining 80 percent is related to the trade in agricultural products. The

worldwide water footprint is about 7450 Gm3/yr, which is 1240 m3/cap/yr. 

The dissimilarities between nations are large. For example, the USA has an

average water footprint of 2480 m3/cap/yr, whereas China has an average

footprint of 700 m3/cap/yr. Following are the four major factors that 

determine the water footprint of a nation:

• Volume of consumption (related to the gross national income)

• Consumption pattern (for example, high versus low meat consumption)

• Climate (growth conditions)

• Agricultural practice (water use efficiency)

The nations with a comparatively high rate of evapotranspiration and a high

gross national income per capita have huge water footprints, such as:

• Portugal (2260 m3/yr/cap)

• Italy (2330 m3/yr/cap)

• Greece (2390 m3/yr/cap)

The above discussed case often results in large consumption of meat and

industrial goods. Some nations with a high gross national income per capita

can have a comparatively low water footprint because of favourable climatic

conditions for crop production. For example the United Kingdom has 1245

m3/yr/cap, the Netherlands has 1220 m3/yr/cap,, Denmark has 1440 m3/yr/ca

and Australia has 1390 m3/yr/cap. Some nations can demonstrate a high

water footprint due to high meat ratios in the diet of the people as well as

high consumption of industrial products, such as the USA (2480 m3/yr/cap)

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and Canada (2050 m

3

/yr/cap). Global water reliance is significant. About 16percent of the global water use is not for producing domestically consumed

products but for  exporting products in the global market. Globalisation of 

trade increases the global water interdependencies.The water footprint

conceptidea has been developed in order toto have an indicator of water 

use in relation tocompared with consumption of people. The water footprint

of a country is defined as t The volume of water needed for the production

of the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country is

known as the water footprint of a country. The virtual water concept is

Cclosely linkedrelated to the water footprint concept is the virtual water 

concept. Virtual water is defined as tThe volume of water required to

produce a commodity or service is called virtual water. International trade of 

commodities implies flows of virtual water over large distances. The water 

footprint of a nationcountry can be assessmeasured by taking the usewith

the help of domestic water resources, subtractdeduct the virtual water flow

that leavedeparts the country and add the virtual water flow that entercome

intos the country. The internal water footprint of a nation is tThe volume of 

water used from domestic water resources to produce the goods and

services consumed by the inhabitantspeople of the country is known as

internal water footprint of a country. The external water footprint of a country

is tThe volume of water used in other countries to produce goods and

services imported and consumed by the inhabitantspeople of the country is

known as external water footprint  of a country. The study aims to

calculatecompute the water footprint for each nationcountry of the world for 

the period 1997-2001.

The use of domestic water resources compriseincludes water use in the

sectors like:

• the aAgricultural

• , iIndustrial

• and dDomestic sectors.

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The calculation of Tthe total volume of water use in the agricultural sector iscalculatedis done on the basis of based on the total volumequantity of crop

produced and its corresponding virtual water content. The calculation of 

Tthe virtual water content (m3/ton) of primaryprime crops is calculated done

on the basis ofbased on crop water requirements and yieldsproductions.

The requirement of crop water requirement ofor each crop is calculated with

the help of using the methodologymethod developed by FAO. The

calculation of Tthe virtual water content of crop products is calculated based

ondone on the basis of product fractions (that include ton of crop product

obtained per ton of primary crop) and value fractions that include (the

market value of one crop product divided by the aggregatetotald market

value of all crop productitems for consumptions deriveobtained from one

primarymain crop). The calculation of Tthe virtual water content (m3/ton) of 

live animals is calculated based ondone on the basis of the virtual water 

content of their feed and the volumes of drinking and service water 

consumed duringthroughout their lifetimeexistence. The calculation of the

virtual water content of livestock products is again done on the basis

ofbased on product fractions and value fractions. Virtual water flows

between nationcountries are deriveobtained from statistics on international

product trade and the virtual water content per product in the exporting

countrynation.

The globalworldwide volume of water used for crop production, including

both effective rainfall and irrigation water, is 6390 Gm3/yr. It includes both

effective rainfall and irrigation water. In generalGenerally, livestock

products crop products have lower higher virtual water content than crop

products livestock products. For exampleinstance, the globalworldwide

average virtual water content of maize, wheat and rice (husked) is 900,

1300 and 3000 m3/ton respectively, whereasbut on the other hand, the

virtual water content of chicken meat, pork and beef is 3900, 4900 and

15500 m3/ton respectively. HoweverBut, the virtual water content of 

products strongly varies differs from place to place, depending upon:

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tChe climate• , tTechnology adopted for farming

• and cCorresponding yields.

The globalworldwide volume of virtual water flows relatedassociated to the

international trade in commodities is 1625 Gm3 per /year. About 280% of 

these virtual water flows is related to the industrial product trade and

remaining 80% trade in agricultural products., while the remainder is related

to industrial product trade. The globalworldwide water footprint is about

7450 Gm3/yr, which is 1240 m3/cap/yr. The differencedissimilarities between

countries nations are large. For example,: the USA has an average water footprint of 2480 m3/cap/yr, whilewhereas China has an average footprint of 

700 m3/cap/yr. Following are Tthe four major factors that determineing the

water footprint of a countrynation are:

• V volume of consumption (related to the gross national income)

• ; cConsumption pattern (e.gexample. high versus low meat

consumption)

• ; cClimate (growth conditions); and

aAgricultural practice (water use efficiency).The countries nations with a relativelycomparatively high rate of 

evapotranspiration and a high gross national income per capita (which often

results in large consumption of meat and industrial goods) have largehuge

water footprints, such as:

• Portugal (2260 m3/yr/cap)

• , Italy (2330 m3/yr/cap)

• and Greece (2390 m3/yr/cap).

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The above discussed case often results in large consumption of meat andindustrial goods. Some countries nations with a high gross national income

per capita can have a relativelycomparatively low water footprint due

tobecause of favourable climatic conditions for crop production. For 

example, such as the United Kingdom has (1245 m3/yr/cap), the

Netherlands has (1220 m3/yr/cap,), Denmark has (1440 m3/yr/cap ) and

Australia has (1390 m3/yr/cap). Some countries nations can

exhibitdemonstrate a high water footprint because ofdue to high meat

proportionratios in the diet of the people and as well as high consumption of 

industrial products, such as the USA (2480 m3/yr/cap) and Canada (2050

m3/yr/cap). InternationalGlobal water dependencyreliance is

substantialsignificant. About An estimated 16% of the global water use is

not for producing domestically consumed products but products for export in

the global market. With increasing gGlobalisation of trade will increase the,

global water interdependencies are likely to increase.

012.4 Summary

Let us recapitulate some important points discussed in this unit:

• Ecosystem services refer to the benefits got by people from

ecosystems.

• These services are broadly categorised into six classes based on

their ecological and economic function.

• Ecosystem service approach incorporates the value that humans

obtain from healthy ecosystems into decision making.

• It clearly links nature to the well-being of humans and other  

structures conservation efforts in terms of the services, or benefits,

that an ecosystem gives under various scenarios.

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Once humanity identifies this link, and the value offered to them by agiven ecosystem, the impetus for conservation is realisedborn.

• Further, these services have the potential to affect the business

practices and policy for the populated regions of the world where

traditional conservation cannot work.

• Even though complete full conservation in most these regions may

not be unfeasible, key ecosystem services and function can be

sustainedEcosystem services are the benefitprofits people

obtainacquire from ecosystems.

• These services are broadly categorized into six classes based ontheir ecological and economic function.

• Ecosystem service approach incorporates the value that humans

deriveobtain from healthy ecosystems into decision making.

• It clearly links nature to human well-beingcomfort and

framestructures conservation efforts in terms of the services, or 

benefits, that an ecosystem providegives under different various

scenarios.

• Once humanity recognizeidentifies this link, and the value

provideoffered to them by a given ecosystem, the impetus for 

conservation is born.

• Further, these services have the capability to affect policy and

business practices for the populated areas of the world where

traditional conservation cannot work.

• Even ifEven though full conservation in these arearegions may be

impossible,unfeasible key ecosystem services and function can be

maintainsustained..

012.5 Terminal Questions

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1.Write a note on conceptual basics of ecosystem services.

2. Discuss in detail about role of regulating services on human health.

3. List out some of the provisional services.

4. Write short note on Ecological foot prints.

5. How water footprints would be helpful to attain sustainable

development.

012.5 Glossary

Ecological footprint (EF): It calculates how much bioproductive area

(whether land or water) the people would require to produce on asustainable basis the renewable resources it consumes, and to absorb the

waste it creates, using prevailing technology.

Biocapacity (BC):  It calculates the bioproductive supply that is accessible

within a particular area (e.g. of arable land, pasture, forest, productive sea).

Virtual water : It is defined as the volume of water required to manufacture

a product or service.

Ecological footprint (EF): It measurecalculates how much bioproductive

area (whether land or water) thea populationpeople would require to

produce on a sustainable basis the renewable resources it consumes, andto absorb the waste it generatecreates, using prevailing technology.

Biocapacity (BC):  It calculates measures the bioproductive supply that is

availableaccessible within a certain particular area (e.g. of arable land,

pasture, forest, productive sea).

Virtual water : It  is defined as the volume of water required to

producemanufacture a commodityproduct or service.

012.6 Answers

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SAQ1. (a) Provisioning services

2. Yes

3. Yes

4. (a) Ecological foot prints

5. (a) Carbon emissions

Terminal Questions

1. Refer section 012.2.1

2. Refer section 12.2.3

3. Refer section 12.2.2

4. Refer section 12.3

5. Refer section 12.3.4

References

1. WEHAB (2002), “A Framework for Action on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Management”, Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and

Biodiversity Working Group Report, contribution to the World Summit

on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26

August – 4 September 2002. United Nations, New York.

2. UNEP (2010) Guidance Manual for the Valuation of Regulating

Services, ISBN: 978-92-807-3131-6, Publishing Services Section,

UNON, Nairobi-Kenya,

3. Ecosystems and their services,

http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.300.aspx.pdf 

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4.Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity, Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities, 2006, (http://europa.eu)

5. A resource flow, and ecological footprint analysis of Greater London,

www. citylimitslondon.com

6. Rees W and M Wackernagei 1996, urban ecological footprints: why

cities cannot be sustainable and why they are a key to sustainability,

environ impact assess rev 1996;16:223-248

7. Rees W The Eco-Footprint of Agriculture:A Far-from-

Thermodynamic)-Equilibrium Interpretation In The Eco-Footprint of 

Agriculture: A Far-from-(Thermodynamic)-Equilibrium Interpretation8. Water footprints of nations, Volume 1: Main Report 2004, UNESCO-

IHE Delft P.O. Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands

9. http://www.economist.com/node/15321193

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