Natural Resources Part 1: Water Resources pages 438-449

1. Define the following terms: a. groundwater b. drainage basins C. watershed d. water table e. wetlands

2. Explain the difference between groundwater and surface water. Why is groundwater preferable? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using groundwater as a source of fresh water?

3. Explain the difference between instream use and withdrawal use in relation to water. Provide 2 examples of each type of use.

4. How much water does the average Canadian consume each day? List 4 reasons why the demand for water will probably increase in the future.

5. Construct a chart that shows the causes and effects of the three main types of water pollution (physical, biological and chemical).

6. State 2 reasons why wetlands are an important natural resource. List 3 consequences that will result if wetlands disappear.

7. Should the Canadian government be allowed to export Canada's fresh water supply to the United States for profit? Justify your answer with 3 good points.

Part 2: Oceans and Fisheries pages 245-258

1. Define the following terms in relation to Canada's east coast fishery: a. continental shelf b. inshore fishery c. offshore fishery

2. What is sustained yield management? How can it be applied to Canada's fishing industry?

3. Define aquaculture. State 2 positive outcomes and 2 negative outcomes that could result from the growth of this activity in Canada.

Part 3: Forest Resources pages 299-314

I.Explain the difference between commercial and non-commercial forests. How many Canadian jobs rely on forest products?

2. Define and draw diagrams to illustrate the following logging terms: a. clear cutting b. shelterwood logging c. selective cutting

State ONE benefit and ONE drawback for each type of logging operation.

3. Describe which 2 products are made from our harvested trees.

4. Why is Central Canada the leading pulp and paper producer? Why is BC the leading producer of Canada's lumber?

5. Explain how acid precipitation and forest fires threaten Canada's forest resources.

Part 4: Energy and Fossil Fuels pages 341-356

1. What are the 3 types of energy most used by Canadians? Who are the top energy users? (pie graph p.342)

2. Name the three different ways that electricity can be produced in Canada. Give a brief explanation as to how each is produced.

3. What province has the most nuclear power generating stations? The most hydro electric generating stations? What kinds of electricity are generated in Manitoba? ( map, p. 352).

4. What is a power grid? How is energy exported through a power grid?

Part 5: Canada's Mineral Wealth pages 315-330

1. Define "mineral". Explain the difference between metallic and industrial minerals, and give 2 examples of each.

2. What is potash? Which province is the largest producer of potash in the world?

3. Explain the difference between strip mining, open pit mining and underground mining. Draw diagrams to illustrate each type.

4. Ore (rocks containing valuable minerals) is processed in two steps: milling and smelting. Explain each step in point form.

5. How do mining operations dispose of waste materials? What environmental consequences do these tactics create?

Ea Presence of high sea bottom biodiversity and/or important species/habitats

11 Major threats as pollution hot spots, main harbours and big coastal cities

III Areas of general interest which host the main biological richness and are most threatened

Global WARNING POLLUTION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

it

1

The Mediterranean Sea, which is a popular tourist region, is one of the most polluted water passages worldwide. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF); although the Mediterranean covers less than 1 percent of the world's total ocean area, 25 percent of global oil transportation passes through it.

Almost a self-contained sea, with two narrow passages at either end, the Mediterranean stretches from Spain/Morocco in the west, to Turkey in the east. With its hot summers and very mild winters, this region has developed unique ecosystems: its vegetation and climate support 13 000 species exclusive to the region. Its significant wetlands support up to 5 million migratory birds each year and, while it contains only 1 percent of the world's saltwater, it is home to 6 percent of all marine species.

The Mediterranean is surrounded by 22 countries, most with industrial areas and large urban concentrations. There are also significant rivers — outflows from industrial heartlands — that empty into its waters.

Due to pollution and overfishing, the Mediterranean has become unsustainable. Pollutants include sewage, industrial metals, agricultural run-off, and oil from ships. The WWF calculates that its fish stocks are down by 20 percent and that Mediterranean wetlands — important breeding and nesting sites for a variety of creatures — are threatened.

According to the WWI; specific pollutant problems included the following:

• Beach resorts and communities are growing at an explosive pace. A total of 85 million people live in the coastal cities. By 2025, the resident coastal population could be

FIGURE 6-8 Which countries' contributions would be

vital to a discussion on protecting areas within the

Mediterranean that are threatened by pollution?

170 million, while the annual tourist population could number 200 million.

• A total of 650 million tonnes of sewage is discharged into the sea each year, 70 percent of which is untreated.

• Industrial metals such as mercury (60 000 tonnes) and lead (3800 tonnes) are poured into its waters each year.

• Agricultural run-off accounts for 36 000 tonnes of phosphates draining into the Mediterranean annually.

• One million tonnes of oil enter the sea from ships cleaning their tanks, and from tank spillage or leakage.

a) Suggest what sorts of financial penalties might be put in place to deal with polluters of the Mediterranean Sea.

b) Discuss the positive and negative aspects of using financial penalties to reduce pollution in this area.

Global Water Supply 151.

t, FIGUR, 148 Fishing off the Grand Banks

Case in point The Grand Banks The fishing grounds off the Grand Banks, just east of the island of Newfoundland, were among the most productive in the world, yielding up to 276 000 tonnes of northern cod. In the 1950s, these fertile fisheries changed forever with the arrival of giant trawlers from other countries. In 1968, catches totalled 725 000 tonnes. The Canadian government was warned by fishery experts about the amount of overfishing close to its shores so, in 1976, it extended Canadian sov-ereignty out to 370 kilometres. However, this did not stop foreign fleets from fishing inside this limit, claiming the area was international waters.

At a ,glance — The Grand Banks

a Total area: 93 200 km2 a Terrain: series of raised submarine plateaus a Nearest land: southeast coast of Newfoundland

Depth range: 36-185 m a Fishing hazards: fog, icebergs, transatlantic

shipping lanes I Oil drilling: began in the late 1970s with the

Hibernia oil field discovery

Although catches from this fishery declined to 126 000 tonnes by 1978, they did recover, leading experts to believe that these grounds could not be permanently harmed. Even so, Canadian fleets, with the help of new "draggers" (large nets dragged along the ocean floor, dis-turbing the sediment and driving the fish up into the net), continued to catch large amounts of fish and deplete the fish stocks.

In the 1980s, catches totalled around 226 000 tonnes per year. Experts again warned that these totals exceeded sustainable limits. Howevec catch-ing fish meant more work and revenue for the fish-ing industry, so these warnings were ignored.

In 1986, the Canadian government set quotas on how much fish could be caught. In 1992 how-ever, seeing a possible collapse in the fishing indus-

The line demarcating the extent of Canadian sovereignty

(as defined by Canada) is illustrated above. How might

fish migration add to the difficulties of managing fish

stocks?

try, they banned all cod fishing. Some 40 000 jobs were lost, ending 400 years of fishing in the East Coast region. Scientific research showed that there were only 1700 tonnes of cod by the end of 1994; the fishery had collapsed.

Who was at fault? Experts blamed a combi-nation of government subsidies and business interests for encouraging improvements in fishing technology. Foreign fishing fleets catching uncon-trolled amounts of fish, and lack of scientific monitoring also contributed heavily. Fisheries throughout the world are threatened with similar collapse, as they have not heeded experts' warn-ings or learned how to avert a disaster like the East Coast fishery collapse.

20. What factors contributed to the fishery collapse in the Grand Banks and what were the consequences?

21. How do you think workers in the fishing industry of Newfoundland and Labrador see the situation, as opposed to the Canadian government or people in other parts of Canada?

22. What lessons in sustainability does the East Coast fishery collapse teach?

22 On the Threshold

Fishing grounds

111 Wee Bankie

III Plaice Box

Norway Pout Box

Western Margin

El UK Coastal Zone

INSIDE the ISSUE

The North Sea — Area under threat Western European countries with a rich maritime tradition surround the North Sea. It contains a variety of aquatic species, such as plints, fish, whales, shellfish, seals, and otters, and attracts a large variety of seabirds.

For hundreds of years, Western European fishing fleets have been able to reap the benefits of the abundant fishing grounds in the shallow continental-shelf areas of the North Sea. Howeve4 since the early 1990s, the fishing industry has noted a sharp drop in the amount of fish being caught in this area. Scientists have said that the amount of fishing done here exceeded the threshold levels (natural replacement) of the species. The situation is similar to that of the Canadian Grand Banks.

Cod fishing in the North Sea is par-ticularly hard hit. Whereas the United Kingdom's fishing trawlers regularly caught 275 000 tonnes in the 1980s, they caught only 45 000 tonnes of cod in the year 2000. As well, haddock and whiting are too overfished to replenish them-selves.

Industrial fishing

One threat in the North Sea is the increased amount — over half of the North Sea's total fishing tonnage — of industrial fishing, where huge numbers of fish are processed into oil and fish meal. This has encouraged a style of fishing (sim-ilar to that using sea-floor draggers) that is non-selective about the species caught. Critics blame this non-selectivity for the collapse of the once-healthy mackerel and herring fish stocks. Because supertrawlers catch both large and small fish indiscrimi-nately, industrial fishing deprives other fish, marine mammals, and birds of the small fish that make up their food supply.

HOURS 1-17 Fishing grounds In the North Sea

The Wee Bankle: This area has large and important seabird

colonies.

The Plaice Box: This is a nursery area for cod and plaice.

The Norway Pout Box: Here, large fish stocks of young haddock

and whiting are threatened by industrial fishing for Norway Pout,

a type of catfish.

The Western Margin: This is a very sensitive area for seabirds

that feed off fish populations.

The United Kingdom Coastal Zone: These coastal areas are the

habitat nurseries for young herring, cod, and haddock.

Facing the Issues 23

As northern fisheries collapse, fleets of European and North American fishing trawlers will turn their attention to the southern oceans. A net from one of these ships is said to be capable of wrapping together 12 jumbo jets. As you read in the introductory story of this c.hapte4 trawlers from the European Union ( already fishing, with disastrous consequen areas dose to Senegal in Africa.

World Wildlife Fund (WE government organization dedicated conservation, believes that worldwide harvests far more fish than fisheries can s tam. Experts are predicting, that,

human populations will consumption by 1 8 million tonnes cv'

Greenpeace, an environmental

wilt suffer resoe

could fail from the 1990 level of 10.2 kilo-grams per person to between 5.1 and 7.6 kilo-grams by 2050. This will affect more than 1 billion people who rely on fish as their main source of protein. Most of these people live in developing countries.

ea tas

In groups o six students, you will be assigned one of six roles. u are representatives who are joiningforce t discuss the problem of depict in e North Sea. Your objective . int action plan to improve the situation or solve the issue.:.,

Review the information about. the North Sea: fishery in thischaptez Study the role- .that his been assigned make notes on the position, you wiU fake, and possible- - statements you, will make

b):. Join representatives. with thc,- same role from. the other groups in your class., Share your idieai, and decide on the best possible .' stance . and objectives for yout Rejoin your .ask force group an first session. Representatives shoul introduce themselves individually and State briefly what they hope to achieve from this Meeting.

an open- discussion; once introductions have been ma Take a ,"time-out" and return for a, meeting with, delegates ,who have the. - same role in other groups.; You may wish to, share experiences and report on the progress made toward the actiont plan; Return ' to your task farce group and... continue until you have aii. .actioli plan that - is agreed.'upon and signed by all . representatives., . Share your action plan with the other groups.

Food s

The o nature

years, for year bell

24 On the Threshold

OCEAN RESOURCES

#GE13

Solution: 19 letters, 3 words (These words certainly apply to the world's oceans)

P G A N S E L U DON 0 G

S UNF 0 OR A DOC GN

A K R I B T S GMEI I I

GI E S L R K L AL GL L

L E T L EL A N SE A L W

A E NK P S ON AR L N A

R V NI R GER L L E ER

U A ON R MEI T NP T T

T GR A ND B A NK S T I

A T P S L A R E NI MI D

N H DE ME R S AL NNE

Y DR 1 L L I N GR I GS

Clues

C • Important commercial fish of the North Atlantic Ocean, now endangered (3)

D • A term which describes fish that live in the deep water of the ocean (8) • They are used to extract oil from beneath the ocean floor and may be supported by legs

or by pontoons (8,4)

G • Method of catching fish by hanging a net like a curtain to entangle the fish (4,7) • One of the world's greatest fishing areas, located off the coast of Newfoundland (5,5)

• Seaweed from which is made iodine, soap, glass, and food (4)

• Large, edible marine crustacean (7)

M • lin, gold, platinum, and copper, for example, which are known to exist in large offshore deposits (8)

N • Fossil fuel which is being increasingly extracted from under the sea (7,3) • Potato-sized chunks of minerals that are found on the bed of the deep-sea floor (7)

0 • The study and exploration of the oceans (12)

• A term which describes fish that live close to the surface of the ocean (7) • Microscopic plant and animal organisms which form the basis for the ocean's food chain (8) • Method of fishing by which fish are encircled with a net which is,then drawn shut (5,7)

S • Family of fish important for commercial and recreational reasons in both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans (6)

• Sodium chloride, for example .... an important resource from the sea (4) • Method of "seeing" underwater by using sound waves (5)

T• Ships used to transport oil at sea (7) • They are being harnessed to provide electric power (5) • Method of fishing which involves the dragging of a bag-shaped net behind a boat (8) • Method of fishing which involves dragging lures or baited hooks behind a boat (8)

© ACADEMIC GAMES, 1991 (Division of 516798 Ontario Limited)

RIVER SYSTEMS

Solution: 13 letters, 3 words (Two of the world's most important rivers)

F DI SCH AR GE1 R A

L M A Z WOBX OR E TM

OY T I V AR GR CR NE

O F A L L S T I R I 00A

D R AI NAGEBASI N

E M A DN A AURNASD

CND A T T T MR S NOE

RI E I 1 AL L OEHRR

U COOR AI NEUWEE

O N N V EL L AV DT OD

S A CI GOL OR D Y HP

L I N T ER MI T TENT

#GEll

Clues

D • Often necessary to harness a river for hydro-electric power (3) • Feature formed at river mouth when sediment carried by the river is deposited (5) ▪ The volume of water that a river carries usually measured in cubic meters per second (9) • The area drained by a river and its tributaries (8,5)

E • Process by which moving water wears away material from the bottom or banks of a river (7)

F • Multnomah, Bridalveil, and Niagara, for example (5) • In some rivers, such as the Nile, this event deposits rich silt over the adjacent land; in

other rivers it causes disaster (5)

G • Force that causes water to flow in a certain direction (7)

H • The process by which water moves continuously through land, water, and air is called the water cycle or the cycle (10)

• Rivers or streams that dry up for part of the year are called streams (12) • Many rivers throughout the world are used as a means of , bringing water to the

surrounding land (10)

M • An S-shaped curve in a river (7) • The place where a river or stream empties into another body of water (5)

0 • Possible river destination (5) • When a meander is cut off from a river, an lake is formed (5)

P • Many rivers are used to generate hydro-electric (5)

R • One source of water renewal in rivers (4) • Boating, sports fishing, and swimming are examples of the uses of rivers (12)

S • Where a river begins (6)

T • A river that flows into a larger river (9)

V • Result of erosion by rivers (6)

W • A ridge between regions whose water drains into two different river systems (9)

© ACADEMIC GAMES, 1991 (Division of 516798 Ontario Limited)

Case in point Thailand The World Resources Institute tells us that a portion of tropical rain forest measuring 18 kilometres by 18 kilometres is cut down each day. Some scientists and environmentalists fear that within our lifetime, rain forests could be completely destroyed.

These forests are one of the planet's mecha-nisms for absorbing carbon dioxide. The Rainforest Action Network estimates that the cutting and burning of tropical rain forests contributes approx-imately 20 percent of the carbon dioxide (CO2) that is added annually to the atmosphere.

They also estimate that about 50 000 plant and animal species become extinct each year, largely due to rain forest destruction.

Why is there so much pressure on rain forests? Commercial logging, clearing of land to grow crops and graze cattle, mineral and oil extraction, as well as the building of hydro-electric dams and their expanding reservoirs, are some of the com-plex causes of deforestation.

Deforestation is one of the most pressing issues facing countries within the Southeast Asian region. As determined by the World Wildlife Fund (WW), roughly 16 percent of the world's forests are in the Asian/Pacific region, and have been affected by extensive deforestation and decline in quality. In Thailand, forests have been fragmented, and a governmental logging ban has

At a glance — Thailand

▪ Total area: 514 000 km2

a Climate: tropical; forests and woodlands

comprise 26% of the land area

I Population: 61 797 751

• GDP per capita: US$6700

▪ Economy: service industry 47%,

industrial 40%, agriculture 13%

increased logging pressure in the forests of neighbouring Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam, as well as increasing illegal logging within Thai borders.

Historical background to the current situation Many Southeast Asian countries experienced rapid economic growth prior to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and resource extraction of timber and water were significant contributors to Asian economies during this growth period. Thailand's tropical hardwood exports — namely teak — have been valuable components of Thailand's economy since the 1850s. Timber production in Thailand rose steadily during the 1980s, due to growing international demand for tropical hard-wood: exports to large furniture markets such as Japan, United States, and France totalled over 60 percent of Thailand's total furniture exports. The Trade and Environment Database (TED) reports that, by the late 1980s, Thailand's exports to the United States had reached US$68 million.

To meet this strong international demand, clearcutting measures were used. (Clearcutting is a method of forest harvesting in which no trees are left to decompose. As a result, the soil lacks nutrients and the forest can take over 50 years to regrow.) The Trade and Environment Database also notes that, by 1989, large amounts of Thailand's forest were cleared for expanding cattle grazing and agricultural land. Thailand faced a huge depletion of its tropical hardwood resource.

To help combat this;rapid deforestation, in 1985 Thailand's government introduced the National Forest Policy. This aimed to increase the amount of forest land to 40 percent of Thailand's total land area, by allocating 15 percent for con-servation (no human use or settlement allowed)

130 On the Threshold

FIGURE 8-14 How would you describe the distribution of types of forest

• Protected areas II Tropical evergreen

forests 1111 Scrub forest III Mixed deciduous

forest 1111 Dry diperocarp

forest III Pine forest II Rubber plantation I Mangrove forest 0 Non-forest

of rid rig

and 25 percent as forest use. Protected areas were established without consulting local residents, in particular highland villagers. Many villages were relocated to poor agricultural land. This led to overcrowding, disputes, and increased clearing of forests for new, better agricultural land.

To aggravate matters, during the late 1980s, devastating landslides in southern Thailand — resulting from extensive soil erosion in deforested areas — killed thousands of people and cost millions of dollars in dam-age. In response, the Thai govern-ment banned commercial logging in 1989 and planned to expand pro-tected areas. In the mid-1990s, the Seventh Economic and Social Development Plan increased forest conservation to 25 percent and reduced the target for forest use to 15 percent.

The commercial logging ban had a significant effect on the timber industry: timber production in 1992 was half of the 1988 amount of 4.5 million cubic metres. According to the World Rainforest Movement, Thailand's main logging organization — the state-owned Forestry Industry Organization (FIO) — earned profits of approximately US$4 million prior to the ban, but now has a debt of almost US$12 million.

To help combat this debt, the Forestry Industry Organization is focussing on commer- cial tree plantations — mainly fast-growing euca- lyptus — which can be turned into pulp to meet Thailand's growing demand for paper, as well as for export to Taiwan and Japan. First, how- ever, the Forestry Industry Organization needs its forestry plans to be "certified" by the non- profit group, SmartWood. This certification allows the Forestry Industry Organization to

sell timber products to industrialized countries that are looking to purchase goods from sus-tainable and well-managed resources. The Forestry Industry Organization, in conjunction with the Thailand Authority on Tourism, has also begun building ecotourism sites to help increase revenues.

Despite this, the Rainforest Action Network states that Thailand's annual rate of deforesta-tion is 8.4 percent, which is considerably higher than Brazil's rate at 2.3 percent and Indonesia's at 1.4 percent. Losing over 300 000 hectares of forest per year, Thailand is ranked among the top ten countries in the world in terms of its rate of deforestation.

in Thailand? How does this distribution relate to the protected areas?

Managing the World's Resources 131.

Seeking forest sustainability What can Thailand do to ensure the sustainability of its precious forest? This question has become more difficult for Thailand to solve, as wood from neighbouring Cambodia, Laos, Mynamar, and Vietnam continues to be imported, and as illegal logging continues to take place, particularly along Thailand's northern borders.

As well, the government's efforts at reforesta-tion have had limited success. Approximately half a million villagers living in the remote highland regions of northern Thailand have had to be reset-tled. These communities have strongly opposed the large-scale tree plantations and, more recently, the ecotourism projects that take over village farm-land and forest areas. The efforts of the Forestry Industry Organization have resulted in the degra-dation of the local forest ecosystem, disrupted watersheds, and altered the villagers' way of life by either forcing them to work on the plantations, or by displacing them to marginal forest areas, which must then be cleared for agriculture — and so the cycle continues.

It is also argued by the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute (NAREBI) of Thailand that reforestation can replace neither the number of trees cut down, nor the quality of the forest's ecosystem, in terms of its diverse species, soil, and water resources. Therefore, the Thai government and the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives are looking to the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute for help in developing forestry management policies that will guide Thailand into 2016. The main policies include:

• increasing forest cover to SO percent of the country, with at least 30 percent for conservation and 20 percent as economic, in order to try and balance social and economic demands

• sustaining the forests through laws, monitoring, and careful consideration of the ecosystem, prior to granting permission for use of forested areas

A protecting the remaining natural forest areas by managing reserve forests, increasing the efficiency of forest protection, rehabilitating degraded forests, and preventing the use of remaining healthy, forested areas

reducing conflict over the use of forest and other related resources by developing a master plan for agricultural land reform, issuing land certificates to poor farmers, and allowing people to stay in protected areas if they do not expand the existing use of forests

if protecting, preserving, and conserving the plant and animal species of the forested areas by enforcing legal conservation measures, closely monitoring activities that may impact the biodiversity, supporting research, and involving local people in management.

These policies are intended to help Thailand seek ways to balance increasing pressure for greater industrial development with the need to sustain its tropical rain forests.

24. Create a web diagram to outline the complex aspects of the deforestation issue in Thailand.

25. Prioritize the list of forest management policies being considered by the Thai government, in terms of which you feel would have the most impact. Can you add to the list?

26. Outline the contrasting positions of economic development versus environmental protection of Thailand's tropical rain forests.

27. As a member of the World Rainforest Movement (an international network of groups working to "defend" rain forests), you have been asked to provide the Thai government with four proposals to assist in the development of a resource sustainability policy, to guide future management of the rain forests. Use the information from this section, plus additional information from the Internet, to justify your proposals.

132 On the Threshold

ALTERNATIVE MERCY DEFINITION!

1. TOUR EMMY: energy that comes from the sun. Solar energy can be used to heat air or water in residential homes, or it can be converted to electricity. Solar panels collect and store energy that can be used at a later time. BENEFIT:

DRAWBACK:

2. HYDROGEN MERCY: energy released when hydrogen molecules break down. Hydrogen can be used as an alternative to fuels like gasoline and can be stored in fuel cells. BENEFIT:

DRAWBACK:

3. NUCLEAR MERCY: energy released when radioactive materials (like uranium) break down in a controlled environment. The energy that is released is used to produce steam, which turns turbines in a nuclear reactor and produces power that people can use in homes or businesses. BENEFIT:

DRAWBACK:

4. TIDAL MERCY: energy produced when ocean water travels through turbines that activate a generator that makes electricity. BENEFIT:

DRAWBACK:

5. WIND ENEMY: generating power from the wind. Giant turbines grouped together on "wind farms" generate electricity that can be transferred to a local power grid. This is a rapidly expanding form of alternative energy in Manitoba.

IREPIETIT:

DRAWBACK:

6. 1110MAII MERCY: Organic matter (decaying plants and animals) is used to create heat, fuel or electricity. BENEFIT:

DRAWBACK:

7. 113101DIETEIL: Processed fuel created from vegetable oil that can be used in diesel engines. BENEFIT:

DRAWBACK:

8. CEOTHIERMAIL ENERCY: Using the earth's heat as a source of energy. For example, water in a geothermal furnace is warned by heat from beneath the earth's surface. This heat is then transferred through ductwork into a home or business. DENENT:

DRAWBACK:

WGE12 B FOREST RESOURCES

1111111111111111 1110111111111111 Ur •

MIN 111

6

• • 1111111111111111111111111 111111111111111111

IIII I III III • • III

• • 16 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 18111

211 III • III • •

• 111 111111111111111 III ga

111111111111111 • • 28 29 11111111111 • •

111 11111111111111111 • • • MAI

NI • • • • • MIMI • 111

1111111111111111111111111 • ill 36 11111

38

I II SIMI1I 11111111111111111111111 • • • II • MI

9 10

ELM

VR

19

26

• II • • 1111111111111111 • • II 39 40 1111111111111111 ASH

OAK SAP PIT

IWW

CLEARCUTT1NG MILL EVERGREEN PINE SELECTIVE BARK RENEWABLE TREE DECIDUOUS ACRE

EROSION CEDAR CANADA CORDS LUMBER SUGAR TONGASS ASPEN SAWDUST PAPER

PORCUPINE CELLULOSE NEWSPRINT BUD WORM PLYWOOD

COSTS CHAIN WASTE LIGNIN

TRUCKS

SLAB BOOM KNOT PULP BIRCH

CONIFEROUS VENEER POPLAR RIVERS

SPRUCE

ACROSS 2 World's leading nation for production of newsprint 4 Harmful consequence of clear cutting 7 Deciduous shade tree 9 Where logs are cut into lumber or ground into pulp 11 Pine, spruce, or cedar, for example 13 Forest insect pest: the spruce 14 Valuable softwood used for siding, shingles, & decking 17 Made by pressing together several veneers 18 Most common Canadian conifer 19 Cubic measurement for cut fuel wood (plural) 21 Product derived from maple sap 22 Outside piece cut from log in squaring it for lumber 24 Woodworkers' union (abbr.) 27 Deciduous tree with paperlike bark 29 Gluelike substance which holds wood fibres together 30 Largest U.S. national forest, located in Alaska 31 Carries nutrients through trees 33 Core or central kernel of certain fruits 34 Rodent that eats bark, buds, leaves, and twigs 36 Thin wood layer used in making plywood 37 Common method of conveying logs to a saw or pulp mill 40 Deciduous tree, noted for its rapid growth 41 The types of logging done in an area is often determined

by their relative 42 Descriptive of cutting only older or larger trees in a stand 43 Deciduous tree used for furniture, flooring, and boats

DOWN 1 Traditional means of getting logs to a saw or pulp mill 2 Removing the entire stand of trees in an area (2 words) 3 Common unit for measuring a forest area 5 Because they can be regrown, trees are a resource 6 Product of pulp mill 8 Forest product used for building construction 10 Wood ingredient used for making paper and rayon 12 Veneer rating (abbr.) 13 Group of logs lashed together for water transportation 15 Trees which have needles and produce cones 16 Important power-driven forest tool: the saw 20 Trees which lose their leaves each year 23 Hard node on tree trunk from which a branch grows 25 By utilizing all parts of a log, modern saw mills create

very little 26 its quality depends on the relative amounts of chemical

and groundwood pulp that are mixed 28 Often used to heat the kilns that dry lumber 32 Coniferous tree used for construction and paper pulp 33 Mixture of matted wood fibres from which paper is made 35 Type of poplar tree 37 Western red cedar or Douglas fir, for example 38 A tree's outer covering 39 Deciduous tree whose wood is used to make baseball

bats and hockey sticks

© ACADEMIC GAMES, 1991 (Division of 516798 Ontario Limited)

Hibernia: the Search for Oil and Gas

Fossil fuel reserves were formed millions of years ago when organic material was compressed and converted into oil and natural gas. Today, geologists use a variety of techniques to identify areas that are rich in oil and gas deposits. Some methods used by geologists to discover these resources include: a. looking for surface rocks that contain traces of oil. b. searching for clues in sedimentary rock which indicate the right conditions for the formation of oil and gas. C. drilling sample cores into the ground. d. using seismic surveys to find oil and gas deposits underground.

Once an oil and gas reserve has been located, it must be recovered. This happens in two ways: 1. a flowing well is built if there is enough pressure to force the oil or gas to the surface. 2. a non flowing well is built if there is not enough pressure to force the oil or gas to the surface. A pump is then used to create pressure.

The Canadian oil and gas industry is centred in Alberta, where most of our fossil fuel resources are found. Both conventional crude oil and oil sand, which is used to make synthetic oil, are extracted from the ground. In recent years, however, the Hibernia Oil Field in the Grand Banks off Newfoundland has become an important source of oil and natural gas.

Read pages 357-363 in your text and answer the following questions about the Hibernia Oil Field:

1. What is Hibernia and where is it located? What structure enables the extraction of oil and gas? 2. State 4 hazards of constructing a drilling platform in the North Atlantic. How was the Hibernia platform moved into place and secured? 3. Is the Hibernia project environmentally friendly? Justify your answer. 4. State 3 ways that the Hibernia project has affected the economy of Newfoundland.

INSIDE the ISSUE

Megadam sustainability

The Three Gorges hydro-electric dam, which is being built along China's Yangtze River, is her

as the world's largest hydro-electric project, and is projected to be completed by

q' 2009. Some Chinese call it the "modern Great *all* — it is an impres-

1. iive engineering feat. The megadam will be 185 metres high, with a 2-1cilometre concrete wall stretching across the tiorld's third-longest rive; the Yangtze,

By 2003, it will begin to fill a reservoir that *Will ultimately be 1.1 kilometres wide, 600 kilometres long, and will hold 40 billion cubic - metres of water. This reservoir will encompass a large area called the Three Gorges, which currently includes the Qutang Corge, the Wu Gorge, and the Xiling Gorge.

The Three Gorges Dam is being con-structed to provide China with inexpensive energy to support and strengthen its economic

- and social development. The dam's two power stations are expected to operate 26 of the world's largest turbine generators. The total geneiating capacity of the dam will be 18 200 megawatts — equivalent to the energy pro-duced by 18 nuclear power stations or by 40 million tonnes of coal. -

By controlling the flow of the Yangtze Ftive4 the dam will enable ships to navigate these tur-bulent waters more effectively, thus expanding the amounthf shipping along this central part of the river by 10 million tonnes to SO million tonnes annually, while cutting shipping costs by

30 to 37 percent. The dam is also intended to help control the frequency of floods, from once every ten years to once every 100 years, thus reducing the significant damage faced by down-stream areas of the Yangtze River Delta.

The construction of large-scale dams in China is not a new idea. The country has been building dams and reservoirs since 1949, and these have displaced a total of over 10 million people. The Three Gorges Dam reservoir will flood an area of 632 square kilometres, which will impact 365 townships in 21 cities, districts, or counties in Sichuan and Hubei Provinces. The International Rivers Network (IRN) — an organization established in 1985 by activists and specialists to raise awareness and oppose what the Network considers to be economically, envi-ronmentally, and socially unsound river inter-vention projects — estimates that the dam will displace 1 million to 2 million people. The Network classifies such people as "reservoir refugees." The project's preliminary stages have been hampered by poor resettlement attempts, inadequate resettlement funds, and lack of con-sultation with resettled people.

It n.

Managing the World's Resources 141

fr

The city of Wushan• lies within the proposed reservoir boundaries. In 2009, the area below the arrow FIGURE 5-22

(shown above) MO be under water.

It is expected that 28 400 hectares of fertile valley farmland will be flooded. Some people who used to live along the Yangtze River have been resettled to sites built on 25 degree slopes, making it very difficult for them to farm and develop a community. Others have been reset tied as far away as Shanghai and Xinjiang Province in China's northwest. The half-urban and half-rural resettled populations will need either new jobs or high-quality farmland to make a living.

The flooding will also cover more than 1000 factories, hundreds of tourist and cultural sites, and ancient temples and monuments such as the Qu Yuan Temple, the Han Watchtower, and the historic Moya Cliff carvings. This area also contains important burial grounds of farmers and other rural dwellers.

This dam project is being highly criticized for its enormous cost. The official estimate for completing construction is approximately US$25 billion; unofficial estimates are target-ing US$75 billion. The International Rivers Network calculates that the project is 800 percent over its original estimate, resulting in money having to be removed from other programs, as well as threatening China's economic stability. Due to the economic, environmental, and social concerns, the World Bank and the United States Export-Import Bank have not provided direct funding for this project. Howeve4 large international corporations and financial insti-tutions, such as Merrill Lynch and General Electric, have underwritten bonds, and pro-vided other financial support and equipment to help with the project's ballooning costs.

142 On the Threshold

A further criticism of the Three Gorges Dam project is that it will change the river ecosystem for fish and wildlife, and may be a threat to endangered species such as the Chinese sturgeon, the Chinese tiger, the Yangtze dolphin, and the giant panda.

Since the once faskmoving river in the Three Gorges will be transfqrmed into a lake, the more than 50 types of pollutants from human and industrial waste that are dumped into the lake will not be washed away. Chongqing — China's largest metropolitan area with over 30 million people — fears a tremendous backup of sewage. The location of the Three Gorges Dam along a fault in the earth, which makes the location more susceptible to earthquakes, is also disconcerting.

Because of these concerns, there is intense opposition to this project by locals and by promi-nent international organizations such as the International Rivers Network and Amnesty International (a grass-roots activist organization).

Supporters of the Three Gorges Dam proj-ect argue that, by controlling the flow of water, the lives of over 15 million people downstream will be protected, since the threat of a flood will be remote. They stress the ultimate aim of the project — to provide China with large amounts of hydro-electric power so that it will no longer need to rely on power from coal, which damages the environment.

Sustainability report

You and a partner have been contracted by the Worldwatch Institute to provide them with an up-to-date "sustainability report" about the Three Gorges megadam. Your report will include the following:

a) A cost/benefit analysis: Use the information from this text, as well as other research, to complete a cost/benefit analysis of China's Three Gorges Dam. Under separate head-ings, record the political, environmental, social, and economic costs or negative aspects of the project, as well as the benefits or positive aspects of the Three Gorges Dam.

b) A sustainability ranking: Create an organizer to record information on the Three Gorges Dam project Within your organizet; rank this project, based on each of the following criteria:

• extraction/harvesting methods • resource uses/demands • amount of energy generated • environmental impacts • conservation considerations

Rank each criterion on a scale of 1 to 3, whereby 1 is the least sustainable criterion and 3 is the most sustainable. In which of these areas is the Three Gorges Dam most sustainable and in which is it least sustain-able? How sustainable is this project overall? Are you a supporter or a critic of the project? Add your conclusions and recommendations regarding this megadam to your report.

c) A sustainability comparison: Complete the same ranking system for the Alberta oil-sands project, using the same criteria and scale. Which of these two projects do you feel is the more sustainable? Why? In the final section of your report to the Worldwatch Institute, record your conclu-sions regarding comparative sustainability of the Three Gorges Dam project.

Managing the World's Resources 143

Section D [Application]: 16 marks total

Complete the following problems, using the skills that you acquired during this chapter.

1. Apply the issue organizer below to a significant topic that you have studied in Chapter 1.

Issue:

Concern:

Causes:

, Implications:

• Political

• Environmental

• Social

• Economic

i Possible solutions:

On the Threshold Teacher's Resource Binder o 2003 Gage Learning Corporation 293

La point Alberta While Canada's provinces mainly control its energy resources, it is the federal government's job to develop policies and guidelines regarding the overall development and management of these resources. Over time, Canadian policy has shifted from being primarily concerned with sup-ply and demand to focussing, in the 1993 policy, on the economic and environmental aspects of energy. Canada now has commitments to the North American Free Trade Agreement and to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Since 1997, a sustainable energy policy has been devel-oped to help prevent pollution and mismanage-ment of resources. Canada's energy policy continues to evolve and may see still more changes, in response to the new United States National Energy Policy.

The depletion of conventional oil resources, the rise in oil prices, and the development of unproved technologies have given rise to oil exploration in more remote regions. Alberta — Canada's leading oil producer — is looking to further explore and extract its oil-sands deposits near Fort McMurray and the surrounding Athabasca River region.

The sands cover an area greater than New Brunswick, and may contain 2.5 trillion barrels

ININVINCIRP The Alberta oil sands make up one of

the two largest oil deposits of this kind in the world.

(The other is in the Orinoco Belt in Venezuela.)

of oil, 300 billion of which are recoverable. An amount of 2.5 trillion barrels of oil is greater than existing supplies in Saudi Arabia!

Oil sands are a mixture of bitumen, sand, watet; and clay. Bitumen is a thick, tar-like hydro-carbon that surrounds the sand and water; it is separated and upgraded to high-quality oil called "synthetic crude." Oil sands are not extracted by drilling, but by removing approximately 15 to 20 metres of "overburden," comprised mostly of soil and trees, which cover the sands.

The development of the Alberta oil sands is expensive. Large-scale equipment and technical operations are needed to extract and upgrade the bitumen into usable oil. According to recent arti-cles in Maclean's and Canadian Geographic, it is estimated that CDN$5.1 billion dollars will be

invested between 1996 and 2010, with output targets of 170 million barrels a year by 2007. Long-standing Canadian companies in the oil-sands business — namely Suncor and Syncrude — argue that they are just "scratching the sur-face," in terms of oil-sands output. The National Energy Board of Canada estimates that, by 2025, about 70 percent of Canada's oil production will come from Alberta's bitumen deposits located in the Fort McMurray area.

Extracting synthetic crude from the oil sands is not a new concept. Its development resurged in the mid-1990s, when federal and provincial gov-ernments offered tax and royalty breaks, improved technologies became available, world oil prices rose, and there were ongoing fossil fuel demands from strong North American economies. Rising political pressure from the United States National Energy Policy, and recent corporate consolidation in the oil industry have strengthened the prospects for future develop-ment of the oil sands through large-scale invest-ments of money and technology.

Beside the economic costs, how else is Alberta's oil-sands development impacting the sustainability of the area? From a social aspect, the population of Fort McMurray has increased from only a few thousand residents 30 years ago, to over 40 000 people in 2001. Over the past few years, Fort McMurray has experienced a "growth spurt," with new people arriving to satisfy the demand for workers in the oil-sands industry. This has led to a need to expand the existing infrastructure. Also, it has became difficult for employers in the area to find employees for lower-wage jobs, because oil companies offer significantly higher pay.

From an environmental aspect, there is appre-hension over the extensive strip mining involved in the extraction of oil sands. This method scrapes away and discards overlying vegetation, soil, and rock. The proximity of mines and processing

plants to the Athabasca River is also of concern. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions from the mining and refining processes raise fears of increasing acidification of nearby lakes.

Air pollution is the greatest worry, however. According to Canadian Geographic, Suncor and Syncrude are now the fourth-largest sources of car-bon dioxide emissions in Canada. The amount of these emissions doubled in less than ten years, and it is estimated that these two companies combined will emit up to 8 to 10 megatonnes by 2002. This is an issue: carbon dicodcle emissions are thought to contribute to global warming.

Suncor and Syncrude have made attempts to reduce emissions by investing in expensive smoke-stack scrubbers, which remove some impurities before emissions are released into the atmosphere. Howevec as oil sand companies' production levels rise, so do their greenhouse gas emissions, which the National Energy Board of Canada calculates will approach 49 megatonnes by 2015. This is double the output measured in 2000. The National

Energy Board also suggests that the development of oil sands will contribute up to one-quarter of Canada's excess greenhouse gas emissions (accord-ing to levels set by a 1997 international agreement called the Kyoto Protocol).

As the development of Alberta's oil sands expands, and North America's economic and per-sonal dependency on oil continues, questions about the sustainability of this oil boom persist.

How do oil sands differ from conventional oil resources?

Describe where Alberta's oil-sands deposits are located. Refer to Figure 5-18.

3. Outline the factors that have contributed to the resurgence of the oil-sands development in Alberta.

In a chart format, contrast the costs and the benefits of Alberta's oil-sands development.

At a glance Fort McMurray's oil sands

3 Community of over 40 000 people •1 Located 450 km northeast of Edmonton,

where the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers meet

,11 all sands often described as a "hydrocarbon triangle," spanning almost 78 000 km2

II First oil-sands boom In 1964, with the construction of the Great Canadian Oil Sands plant

Ai Second boom in 1973, when Syncrude Canada Ltd. built a large-scale oil-sands mine, which is currently operating Many of the workers come from neighbouring Cree and Chippewa communities

q Region contains differing ecological systems within Its boreal forests (primeval forests that almost completely encircle the northern part of the globe)

• New projects are exploring the use of underground extraction wells called "situ projects to minimize impact of open-pit mining, and to access deep oil-sands reserves

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