NATIONALISM, ROMANTICISM, LIBERALISM, AND CONSERVATISM

NATIONALISM, NATIONALISM, ROMANTICISM,ROMANTICISM,

LIBERALISM, AND LIBERALISM, AND CONSERVATISMCONSERVATISM

The Birth and Growth of The Birth and Growth of Ideologies in EuropeIdeologies in Europe

Ideologies in EuropeIdeologies in Europe

Ideologies developed out of a variety Ideologies developed out of a variety of new ideas and circumstances in of new ideas and circumstances in European history, such as the European history, such as the Enlightenment and the French Enlightenment and the French RevolutionRevolution

Political, social, and economic Political, social, and economic upheavals were the driving factors upheavals were the driving factors behind the birth and growth of behind the birth and growth of ideologiesideologies

Ideologies in EuropeIdeologies in Europe

Nationalism, liberalism, and Nationalism, liberalism, and conservatism would be the three conservatism would be the three main ideologies to emerge in this main ideologies to emerge in this time periodtime period

Later ideologies would include Later ideologies would include communism, socialism, and fascismcommunism, socialism, and fascism

Romanticism influenced all of these Romanticism influenced all of these but it was more of a mood than a but it was more of a mood than a movement or ideologymovement or ideology

NATIONALISMNATIONALISM

Nationalism is the belief that people Nationalism is the belief that people derive their identity from their nation derive their identity from their nation and owe their nations their primary and owe their nations their primary loyaltyloyalty

Some criteria for nationalism include Some criteria for nationalism include a common language, religion, a common language, religion, political authority, traditions, and political authority, traditions, and shared historic experiencesshared historic experiences


As traditional religious values became As traditional religious values became undermined, nationalism offered a new undermined, nationalism offered a new locus of faith and became an ideal locus of faith and became an ideal espoused as strongly as a religionespoused as strongly as a religion

The Italian, Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-The Italian, Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), declared that nationalism was 1872), declared that nationalism was “a faith and mission” ordained by God, “a faith and mission” ordained by God, which helps to explain why so many which helps to explain why so many people were drawn to itpeople were drawn to it


Nationalism’s earliest manifestation, Nationalism’s earliest manifestation, cultural nationalism, had its roots in cultural nationalism, had its roots in Rousseau’s ideas of the organic nature of Rousseau’s ideas of the organic nature of a peoplea people

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1833), Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1833), Rousseau’s German disciple, declared Rousseau’s German disciple, declared that every people has a “national spirit”that every people has a “national spirit”

Intellectuals all over Europe began Intellectuals all over Europe began collecting folk poems, songs and tales to collecting folk poems, songs and tales to find out more about this spiritfind out more about this spirit


The Grimm brothers, Jacob and The Grimm brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm, documented the German Wilhelm, documented the German spirit by collecting fairly tales which spirit by collecting fairly tales which they published, including “Little Red they published, including “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Snow White”Riding Hood” and “Snow White”


Political nationalism developed in the Political nationalism developed in the 1770s among the French nobility and 1770s among the French nobility and then during the French Revolution when then during the French Revolution when neighbouring countries attacked France, neighbouring countries attacked France, prompting the Legislative Assembly to prompting the Legislative Assembly to call on the French people to save the call on the French people to save the nationnation

In response to the threat posed by In response to the threat posed by France, German and Italian intellectuals France, German and Italian intellectuals embraced nationalismembraced nationalism


The German philosopher, Johann The German philosopher, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, in his Gottlieb Fichte, in his Addresses to the Addresses to the German NationGerman Nation, issued following the , issued following the Prussian defeat at Jena, called on all Prussian defeat at Jena, called on all Germans to rise up against NapoleonGermans to rise up against Napoleon

Fichte argued that Germans were Fichte argued that Germans were endowed with a special genius that endowed with a special genius that had to be safeguarded for the benefit had to be safeguarded for the benefit of all mankindof all mankind


The Italian writer, Vittorio Alfieri, argued The Italian writer, Vittorio Alfieri, argued that it was not the French, but the Italians, that it was not the French, but the Italians, as the heirs and descendants of ancient as the heirs and descendants of ancient Rome, who had the right to lead the Rome, who had the right to lead the peoples of Europepeoples of Europe

Greek nationalist intellectuals promoted Greek nationalist intellectuals promoted their ancient culture by reissuing the their ancient culture by reissuing the classics of ancient Greek literature, and by classics of ancient Greek literature, and by “purifying” the Greek language, ridding it “purifying” the Greek language, ridding it of developments in popular speechof developments in popular speech


Herder and Mazzini believed it was Herder and Mazzini believed it was the destiny of Europe’s peoples to the destiny of Europe’s peoples to achieve nationhood and that then achieve nationhood and that then European nations would live side by European nations would live side by side in peaceside in peace

ROMANTICISMROMANTICISM

The notion of a new style, opposed to The notion of a new style, opposed to the rationalism of and classicism of the rationalism of and classicism of the Enlightenment, emerged toward the Enlightenment, emerged toward the end of the 18th centurythe end of the 18th century


German writers of the “German writers of the “Sturm und Sturm und DrangDrang” (Storm and Stress) ” (Storm and Stress) movement in the 1780s, in movement in the 1780s, in particular, had defied convention and particular, had defied convention and celebrated emotioncelebrated emotion

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a famous German writer of this group, famous German writer of this group, who wrote his well-known work, who wrote his well-known work, The The Sorrows of Young WertherSorrows of Young Werther


Although by 1800 German critics had Although by 1800 German critics had made a distinction between “classical” and made a distinction between “classical” and “romantic,” the term romantic has “romantic,” the term romantic has nonetheless escaped definitionnonetheless escaped definition

Romanticism was more of a mood than a Romanticism was more of a mood than a movementmovement

The essence of romanticism was a The essence of romanticism was a rejection of established rules and rejection of established rules and conventionsconventions


The romantics were quite diverse in The romantics were quite diverse in their politics and aesthetics, but their politics and aesthetics, but they tended to share four things:they tended to share four things:

First, they rejected the 18First, they rejected the 18thth century’s limitations on form and century’s limitations on form and structure in artstructure in art


In music, romantics such as Ludwig In music, romantics such as Ludwig van Beethoven, the unparalleled van Beethoven, the unparalleled master of the symphony, and Richard master of the symphony, and Richard Wagner, the dogmatic theorist and Wagner, the dogmatic theorist and practitioner of “total opera,” gleefully practitioner of “total opera,” gleefully disregarded inherited conventions of disregarded inherited conventions of form, and of orchestra size and form, and of orchestra size and compositioncomposition


Poets such as William Wordsworth Poets such as William Wordsworth deliberately chose a poetic deliberately chose a poetic vocabulary closer to spoken English vocabulary closer to spoken English than to the measured couplets of than to the measured couplets of predecessors such as Alexander Popepredecessors such as Alexander Pope

Continental drama abandoned for Continental drama abandoned for good the restrictions on subject, good the restrictions on subject, time, and place that Aristotle’s time, and place that Aristotle’s aesthetic theories had imposedaesthetic theories had imposed


Secondly, the romantics prized Secondly, the romantics prized emotion, the stronger the betteremotion, the stronger the better

The line between emotion and The line between emotion and morbid self-preoccupation was morbid self-preoccupation was narrow, but the romantic emphasis narrow, but the romantic emphasis on the creative power of the on the creative power of the individual’s imagination was a individual’s imagination was a liberating forceliberating force


Thirdly, the romantics tended to Thirdly, the romantics tended to celebrate naturecelebrate nature

Their nature was not that of the Their nature was not that of the manicured 18manicured 18thth-century ornamental -century ornamental garden, but nature in its raw formgarden, but nature in its raw form

Rousseau showed the way with his Rousseau showed the way with his mystical mystical Reveries of a Solitary WandererReveries of a Solitary Wanderer. . This celebration of nature applied to This celebration of nature applied to such things as the poetry of Wordsworth such things as the poetry of Wordsworth and the philosophy of Spinozaand the philosophy of Spinoza


Finally, the romantics both celebrated Finally, the romantics both celebrated and embodied the cult of the solitary, and embodied the cult of the solitary, youthful, misunderstood geniusyouthful, misunderstood genius

The genius defied convention and The genius defied convention and perhaps suffered persecution for political perhaps suffered persecution for political radicalismradicalism

The cult of the artist as misfit was in part The cult of the artist as misfit was in part an extension of romantic emphasis on an extension of romantic emphasis on imagination, on the creative power of the imagination, on the creative power of the individualindividual


The collapse of aristocratic art The collapse of aristocratic art patronage after 1789 may also have patronage after 1789 may also have contributed, for the middle classes contributed, for the middle classes were not yet rich enough to step inwere not yet rich enough to step in


Romanticism did not outlast mid-Romanticism did not outlast mid-century, but it broke Enlightenment century, but it broke Enlightenment formalism for goodformalism for good

Art was henceforth what the artist, Art was henceforth what the artist, the individual as towering genius, the individual as towering genius, decreed it to bedecreed it to be

LIBERALISMLIBERALISM

Liberalism descended directly from Liberalism descended directly from the Enlightenment’s critique of 18the Enlightenment’s critique of 18thth c. c. absolutismabsolutism

1919thth c. liberals believed that c. liberals believed that individual freedom was best individual freedom was best safeguarded by reducing safeguarded by reducing government powers to a minimumgovernment powers to a minimum


They wanted to impose constitutional They wanted to impose constitutional limits on government, establish the rule of limits on government, establish the rule of law, eliminate all restrictions on individual law, eliminate all restrictions on individual enterprise – specifically, state regulation of enterprise – specifically, state regulation of the economy – and ensure a voice in the economy – and ensure a voice in government for men of property and government for men of property and educationeducation

Romanticism influenced liberalism by Romanticism influenced liberalism by emphasizing individual freedom and the emphasizing individual freedom and the imperative to develop the human imperative to develop the human personality to its full potentialpersonality to its full potential


Liberalism was also affected by Liberalism was also affected by nationalism, especially in nationalism, especially in multinational autocratic states like multinational autocratic states like Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, in which free institutions Empire, in which free institutions could be established only if political could be established only if political independence were wrested from, independence were wrested from, respectively, Vienna, St. Petersburg, respectively, Vienna, St. Petersburg, and Constantinopleand Constantinople


Liberalism was both an economic and a Liberalism was both an economic and a social theorysocial theory

In 1776, Adam Smith (1723-1790), a In 1776, Adam Smith (1723-1790), a Scottish economist, published Scottish economist, published An Inquiry An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nationsof Nations

Smith advocated freeing national Smith advocated freeing national economies from mercantilism, under economies from mercantilism, under which the state regulated the prices and which the state regulated the prices and conditions of manufactureconditions of manufacture


Smith argued for letting the free Smith argued for letting the free forces of the marketplace shape forces of the marketplace shape economic decisions, stating that the economic decisions, stating that the economy would be guided as if “by economy would be guided as if “by an invisible hand”an invisible hand”

In France this policy was called In France this policy was called laissez fairelaissez faire (to leave alone) (to leave alone)


Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), an Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), an Anglican minister, in his Anglican minister, in his An Essay of An Essay of the Principle of Populationthe Principle of Population argued argued that if employers paid their that if employers paid their employees more money they would employees more money they would marry earlier and have more marry earlier and have more children, thus glutting the children, thus glutting the labourlabour market and driving wages downmarket and driving wages down


David Ricardo (1772-1823), an English David Ricardo (1772-1823), an English stockbroker, in his stockbroker, in his Principles of Political Principles of Political EconomyEconomy (1817), stated that capitalists (1817), stated that capitalists had to keep lowering wages, because they had to keep lowering wages, because they were capitalists’ major expenses, and that were capitalists’ major expenses, and that the economy is driven by laws and any the economy is driven by laws and any intervention will worsen the situationintervention will worsen the situation

Liberals in the political realm argued that Liberals in the political realm argued that political power must be limited to prevent political power must be limited to prevent despotismdespotism


While some liberals, such as Jeremy While some liberals, such as Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) (known for his Bentham (1748-1832) (known for his utilitarianism) and John Stuart Mill utilitarianism) and John Stuart Mill (1803-1873), both of England, (1803-1873), both of England, argued for universal suffrage, other argued for universal suffrage, other liberals feared the masses and liberals feared the masses and vigorously opposed democracy, vigorously opposed democracy, believing that the vote should be believing that the vote should be reserved for the well-off and reserved for the well-off and educatededucated


Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), an Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), an American president and follower of the American president and follower of the Enlightenment, asserted in the Declaration Enlightenment, asserted in the Declaration of Independence that “life, liberty, and the of Independence that “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” were inalienable pursuit of happiness” were inalienable rightsrights

The basic tenets of liberalism were the The basic tenets of liberalism were the sanctity of human rights, freedom of sanctity of human rights, freedom of speech and freedom to organize, the rule speech and freedom to organize, the rule of law and equality before the law, and the of law and equality before the law, and the abolition of tortureabolition of torture

CONSERVATISMCONSERVATISM

Conservatism was the guiding Conservatism was the guiding principle of the powers represented principle of the powers represented at the Congress of Viennaat the Congress of Vienna

The period after 1815 is known as The period after 1815 is known as the Restoration, for the restoration of the Restoration, for the restoration of the conservative order and the conservative order and hereditary monarchyhereditary monarchy


Conservative ideology developed as a Conservative ideology developed as a reaction against the ideas of the reaction against the ideas of the philosophesphilosophes and the revolutionaries and the revolutionaries

In particular, conservatives objected to the In particular, conservatives objected to the excessive reliance of the excessive reliance of the philosophesphilosophes on on reason, especially abstract reason which reason, especially abstract reason which was used to justify “natural rights” and the was used to justify “natural rights” and the introduction of new political and social introduction of new political and social institutionsinstitutions


As a coherent movement As a coherent movement conservatism sprang up both during conservatism sprang up both during and after the French Revolution to and after the French Revolution to support resistance to the forces of support resistance to the forces of change; prior to this it hadn’t been change; prior to this it hadn’t been thought necessary to create a thought necessary to create a coherent conservative ideology; the coherent conservative ideology; the existing political institutions existing political institutions appeared to be permanentappeared to be permanent


Conservatism emphasized the need Conservatism emphasized the need to preserve the existing orderto preserve the existing order

Edmund Burke, an Irish-born, English Edmund Burke, an Irish-born, English statesman and political theorist, statesman and political theorist, launched one of the first intellectual launched one of the first intellectual assaults on the French Revolution in assaults on the French Revolution in his his Reflections on the Revolution in Reflections on the Revolution in FranceFrance


In an attack on the claims by the In an attack on the claims by the revolutionary National Assembly, revolutionary National Assembly, which stated that ancient which stated that ancient prerogatives had been superseded prerogatives had been superseded by the rights of man and principles of by the rights of man and principles of human equality based on appeals to human equality based on appeals to natural law, Burke stated that such natural law, Burke stated that such claims were abstract and dangerous claims were abstract and dangerous and that the belief in human equality and that the belief in human equality undermined the social orderundermined the social order


Burke appealed to “experience” as a Burke appealed to “experience” as a guide in politics, which was part of a guide in politics, which was part of a broader appeal to “tradition” and broader appeal to “tradition” and “history” which were at the heart of “history” which were at the heart of conservative political thoughtconservative political thought

Some counter-revolutionaries and Some counter-revolutionaries and ultra-royalists wanted to restore ultra-royalists wanted to restore society to its pre-revolutionary society to its pre-revolutionary conditioncondition


Burke, however, was willing to Burke, however, was willing to countenance some change, but it countenance some change, but it had to take place slowly because had to take place slowly because both society and government are both society and government are products of a long historical products of a long historical development, and therefore of a development, and therefore of a great deal of experience that no man great deal of experience that no man could amass in one lifetimecould amass in one lifetime

CONSERVATISMCONSERVATISM Most conservatives agreed that society Most conservatives agreed that society

was an organism that had evolved over was an organism that had evolved over centuries and that the individuals who centuries and that the individuals who composed it were indissolubly bound with composed it were indissolubly bound with those who had preceded them and those those who had preceded them and those who were to followwho were to follow

For conservatives it was meaningless to For conservatives it was meaningless to talk of “individual liberty” apart from talk of “individual liberty” apart from society, since freedom could be achieved society, since freedom could be achieved only through the communityonly through the community

The community took precedence over the The community took precedence over the individualindividual


This was in opposition to the This was in opposition to the Enlightenment emphasis on the Enlightenment emphasis on the individual and his rightsindividual and his rights

This emphasis stemmed from John This emphasis stemmed from John Locke and his disciples who viewed Locke and his disciples who viewed society and government as society and government as necessary evils or artificial necessary evils or artificial constructionsconstructions


Conservatives deplored the Conservatives deplored the persecution of the church during the persecution of the church during the revolution and the lack of respect for revolution and the lack of respect for ecclesiastical authority and attacks ecclesiastical authority and attacks on Christian dogmaon Christian dogma

For conservatives, organized religion For conservatives, organized religion was essential to the social orderwas essential to the social order


Conservatism was influenced by Conservatism was influenced by romanticism, with its glorification of the romanticism, with its glorification of the past, taste for pageantry, and belief in the past, taste for pageantry, and belief in the organic unity of societyorganic unity of society

Not all conservatives were romantics. Not all conservatives were romantics. Metternich saw his work as the attempt of Metternich saw his work as the attempt of an enlightened mind to restore the world an enlightened mind to restore the world that had been undermined by the that had been undermined by the emotional turmoil of the French Revolutionemotional turmoil of the French Revolution


The thought of German philosophy The thought of German philosophy professor, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel professor, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) was interpreted by many of (1770-1831) was interpreted by many of his disciples as a defense of the his disciples as a defense of the conservative order re-established by the conservative order re-established by the Congress of ViennaCongress of Vienna

Hegel believed that history was propelled Hegel believed that history was propelled from one stage to another by the “world from one stage to another by the “world spirit” incarnate in the dominant powerspirit” incarnate in the dominant power

ConclusionConclusion

The birth of modern ideologies took place The birth of modern ideologies took place in 19in 19thth century Europe century Europe

These ideologies grew and were modified These ideologies grew and were modified over timeover time

These ideologies remain in our present These ideologies remain in our present day and continue to be debated, with day and continue to be debated, with conflict taking place between themconflict taking place between them

The greatest showdown between The greatest showdown between ideologies took place in World War II and ideologies took place in World War II and the Cold War which followedthe Cold War which followed

THE ENDTHE END

NATIONALISM, ROMANTICISM, LIBERALISM, AND CONSERVATISM

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