National Geographic Geography Handbook geographic... · grams called geographic information systems...

Geography Handbook GH1Geography Handbook GH1

Saharan sanddunes, Morocco

▼The Gui River,Guilin, China

▼

The Amazon, Brazil ▼

The story of the world begins with geog-raphy—the study of the earth in all of itsvariety. Geography describes the earth’sland, water, and plant and animal life. It isthe study of places and the complex relationships between people and theirenvironment.

The resources in this handbook will helpyou get the most out of your textbook—andprovide you with skills you will use for therest of your life.

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GH2 Geography Handbook

Places and RegionsPlace has a special mean-

ing in geography. It meansmore than where a place is.It also describes what a placeis like. It might describephysical characteristics suchas landforms, climate, andplant or animal life. Or itmight describe human characteristics, including language and way of life.

To help organize theirstudy, geographers oftengroup places into regions.Regions are united by one or more common characteristics.

To understand how our world is connected,some geographers have broken down the studyof geography into five themes. The Five Themesof Geography are (1) location, (2) place, (3)human/environment interaction, (4) movement,and (5) regions. You will see these themes high-lighted in the Chapter Assessment GeographySkills of Journey Across Time: The Early Ages.

Six Essential ElementsRecently, geographers have begun to look at

geography in a different way. They break downthe study of geography into Six EssentialElements. Being aware of these elements willhelp you sort out what you are learning aboutgeography.

The World in Spatial TermsGeographers first take a look at

where a place is located. Locationserves as a starting point by asking“Where is it?” Knowing the loca-tion of places helps youdevelop an awareness ofthe world around you.

Physical SystemsWhen studying places

and regions, geographersanalyze how physicalsystems—such as hurri-canes, volcanoes, andglaciers—shape theearth’s surface. They alsolook at communities ofplants and animals thatdepend upon one anotherand their surroundingsfor survival.

GH2 Geography HandbookGetty Images


Geography Handbook GH3

Environment and SocietyHow does the relation-

ship between people andtheir natural surroundingsinfluence the way peoplelive? This is one of the questions that the theme of human/environmentinteraction investigates. It also shows how people use the environment andhow their actions affect the environment.

Human SystemsGeographers also examine

human systems, or howpeople have shaped ourworld. They look at howboundary lines are deter-mined and analyze whypeople settle in certainplaces and not in others. Akey theme in geography isthe continual movement ofpeople, ideas, and goods.

The Uses of GeographyKnowledge of geography

helps us understand therelationships among people,places, and environmentsover time. Understandinggeography and knowinghow to use the tools andtechnology available tostudy it prepares you for life in our modern society.


Geography Handbook

Getty Images



HemispheresTo locate a place on the earth, geographers

use a system of imaginary lines that crisscrossthe globe. One of these lines, the Equator, cir-cles the middle of the earth like a belt. Itdivides the earth into “half spheres,” or hemi-spheres. Everything north of the Equator is inthe Northern Hemisphere. Everything south of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere.

Another imaginary line runs from north tosouth. It helps divide the earth into halfspheres in the other direction. Find this line—called the Prime Meridian on a globe.Everything east of the Prime Meridian for 180 degrees is in the Eastern Hemisphere.Everything west of the Prime Meridian is inthe Western Hemisphere.


Northern Hemisphere

North Pole South Pole

Asia

Asia

NorthAmerica

NorthAmerica

SouthAmerica

SouthAmerica

PacificOcean

PacificOcean

PacificOcean

IndianOcean

IndianOcean

Antarctica

AtlanticOcean

AtlanticOcean

AtlanticOcean

Australia

Australia

Europe

Europe

Africa

Africa

Africa

Southern Hemisphere

Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere

Hemispheres


LatitudeLines of latitude, or parallels, circle the

earth parallel to the Equator and measurethe distance north or south of the Equatorin degrees. The Equator is at 0° latitude,while the North Pole lies at latitude 90°N(north).

LongitudeLines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth

from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances eastor west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitudeand is called the Prime Meridian. The PrimeMeridian runs through the Royal Observatory inGreenwich, England.

Lines on globes and maps provide informationthat can help you easily locate places on the

earth. These lines—called latitude andlongitude—cross one another, forming a patterncalled a grid system.

Absolute LocationThe grid system formed by lines of latitude and

longitude makes it possible to find the absolutelocation of a place. Only one place can be foundat the point where a specific line of latitudecrosses a specific line of longitude. By usingdegrees (°) and minutes (') (points betweendegrees), people can pinpoint the precise spotwhere one line of latitude crosses one line of longitude—an absolute location.




The most accurate way to depict the earth is as aglobe, a round scale model of the earth. A globe

gives a true picture of the continents’ relative sizesand the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.Globes accurately represent distance and direction.

A map is a flat drawing of all or part of theearth’s surface. Unlike globes, maps can show smallareas in great detail. Maps can also display politicalboundaries, population densities, or even votingreturns.

From Globes to MapsMaps, however, do have their limitations. As

you can imagine, drawing a round object on aflat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, ormapmakers, use mathematical formulas totransfer information from the round globe to a flat map. However, when the curves of aglobe become straight lines on a map, the size, shape, distance, or area can change or be distorted.

Great Circle RoutesMapmakers have solved some problems of

going from a globe to a map. A great circle isan imaginary line that follows the curve of theearth. Traveling along a great circle is calledfollowing a great circle route. Airplane pilotsuse great circle routes because they are theshortest routes.

The idea of a great circle shows one impor-tant difference between a globe and a map.Because a globe is round, it accurately showsgreat circles. On a flat map, however, the greatcircle route between two points may not appearto be the shortest distance. Compare Maps Aand B on the right.

Mapmaking With TechnologyTechnology has changed the way maps are

made. Most cartographers use software pro-grams called geographic information systems(GIS). This software layers map data fromsatellite images, printed text, and statistics. AGlobal Positioning System (GPS) helps con-sumers and mapmakers locate places based oncoordinates broadcast by satellites.


60°N

30°N

30°S

0°

120°E 180° 120°W

PACIFICOCEAN

Map A

LosAngelesTokyo

EW

N

S

True Direction Distance5,795 mi. (9,324 km)

Great Circle Distance5,450 mi. (8,769 km)

Mercator projection3,000

3,0000 mi.

0 km

Map B

PACIFICOCEAN

60°N

40°N

180°

120°W

60°W

0°

60°E

120°E

Great Circle RouteLosAngeles

Tokyo

North Pole

EW

N

S

Polar Gnomonic projection3,000

3,0000 mi.

0 km

True Direction Route

Great Circle Route



Imagine taking the whole peel from an orange andtrying to flatten it on a table. You would either

have to cut it or stretch parts of it. Mapmakers facea similar problem in showing the surface of theround earth on a flat map. When the earth’s surfaceis flattened, big gaps open up. To fill in the gaps,mapmakers stretch parts of the earth. They chooseto show either the correct shapes of places or theircorrect sizes. It is impossible to show both. As aresult, mapmakers have developed different projec-tions, or ways of showing the earth on a flat piece of paper.

0°

0°60°W 60°E 120°E120°W

30°N

30°S

60°S

60°N

TROPIC OF CANCER

ARCTIC CIRCLE

MER

IDIA

N O

F G

REE

NW

ICH

(LO

ND

ON

)

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

EQUATOR

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

ARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

MER

IDIA

N O

F G

REE

NW

ICH

(LO

ND

ON

)

0°

60°E60°W 120°E120°W 0°

30°N

30°S

60°N

60°S

0°

30°N

60°S

30°S

60°N

60°W 60°E90°W90°E 120°W120°E 150°W150°E 180° 30°W 30°E0°

ARCTIC CIRCLE

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

MER

IDIA

N O

F G

REE

NW

ICH

(LO

ND

ON

)

A map using the Robinson projection has minor distortions. Landon the western and eastern sides of the Robinson map appearsmuch as it does on a globe. The areas most distorted on this projection are near the North and South Poles.

▼

The Winkel Tripel projection gives a good overall view of the continents’ shapes and sizes. Land areas in a Winkel Tripelprojection are not as distorted near the Poles as they are in theRobinson projection.

▼Take a second look at your peeled, flattened orange. You mighthave something that looks like a map based on Goode’sInterrupted Equal-Area projection. A map with this projectionshows continents close to their true shapes and sizes. This projec-tion is helpful to compare land areas among continents.

▼

0°

30°N

30°S

60°S

60°N

EQUATOR

ANTARCTICCIRCLE

TROPIC OF CANCER

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

ARCTIC CIRCLE

Mercator Projection

The Mercator projection shows true direction and land shapesfairly accurately, but not size or distance. Areas that are locatedfar from the Equator are quite distorted on this projection. Alaska,for example, appears much larger on a Mercator map than it doeson a globe.

▼

Winkel Tripel Projection

Robinson Projection

Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection


GH8 Geography HandbookGH8 Geography Handbook

DesertHighlandHumid continentalHumid subtropicalMarine

MediterraneanSteppeSubarcticTropicalTundra

Climate Regions of the United States

Map Key An important first step in reading a map is to note the mapkey. The map key explains the lines, symbols, and colors used on amap. For example, the map on this page shows the various climateregions of the United States and the different colors representing them.Cities are usually symbolized by a solid circle (•) and capitals by a (�). On this map, you can see the capital of Texas and the cities of Los Angeles, Seattle, New Orleans, and Chicago.

Scale A measuring line, often called ascale bar, helps you figure distance onthe map. The map scale tells you whatdistance on the earth is represented bythe measurement on the scale bar.

Compass Rose A map has a symbolthat tells you where the cardinal directions—north, south, east, andwest—are positioned.



General Purpose MapsMaps are amazingly useful tools.

Geographers use many different types ofmaps. Maps that show a wide range ofgeneral information about an area arecalled general purpose maps. Two of themost common general purpose maps arephysical and political maps.

Physical MapsPhysical maps call out landforms and

water features. The physical map of SriLanka (below) shows rivers and moun-tains. The colors used on physical mapsinclude brown or green for land and bluefor water. In addition, physical maps mayuse colors to show elevation—the heightof an area above sea level. A key explainswhat each color and symbol stands for.

8°S

Bayof

Bengal

INDIANOCEAN

Gulf of

Mannar

Pidurutalagala8,281 ft.

(2,524 m)

Point Pedro

Trincomalee

Matara

Matale

KattankudiChilaw

Colombo

Jaffna

SRI LANKA

100

1000

0

mi.

km

EW

N

S

80°E

Sri Lanka: Physical

Mountain peakNational capitalMajor city

Feet3,2801,640

650380

0

Meters1,0005002001000

Elevations

Political MapsPolitical maps show the names

and boundaries of countries, thelocation of cities and other human-made features of a place, and oftenidentify major physical features.The political map of Spain (above),for example, shows the boundariesbetween Spain and other countries.It also shows cities and riverswithin Spain and bodies of watersurrounding Spain.

10°W

40°N

0°

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Strait of Gibraltar

Bay of Biscay

ATLANTICOCEAN

Ebro R.

Tagus R.

Guadalquivir R.

Douro R.

BalearicIslands

SevilleM´alaga

Valencia

Madrid

ZaragozaBarcelona

U.K.

S P A I N

PORTUGAL

F R A N C E

ANDORRA

GIBRALTAR

A F R I C ALambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

200

2000 mi.

0 km

EW

N

S

Spain: Political


GH10 Geography HandbookGH10 Geography Handbook

Special Purpose MapsSome maps are made to present specific

kinds of information. These are called thematic or special purpose maps. Theyusually show themes or patterns, oftenemphasizing one subject or theme. Specialpurpose maps may present climate, naturalresources, and population density. They mayalso display historical information, such asbattles or territorial changes. The map’s titletells what kind of special information itshows. Colors and symbols in the map keyare especially important on these types ofmaps. Special purpose maps are often foundin books of maps called atlases.

One type of special purpose map uses colorsto show population density, or the averagenumber of people living in a square mile orsquare kilometer. As with other maps, it isimportant to first read the title and the key. The population density map of Egypt showsthat the Nile River valley and delta are verydensely populated.

Some other special purpose maps such as theone of China’s Defenses are not presented incolor. They are printed in black and white. Thisis an example of a map you might find on astandardized test or in a newspaper.

Boundary claimedby Sudan

TROPIC OF CANCER

Re d

Se a

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Nile R.

SuezCanalCairo

Alexandria

El Giza30°N

30°E

20°N

E G Y P T

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Areaprojection

300

3000 mi.

0 km

EW

N

S

Egypt: Population Density

CitiesCity with more than5,000,000 people

City with 1,000,000 to5,000,000 people

sq. kmsq. mi.Persons per

Uninhabited

Under 2

2–60

60–125

125–250

Over 250

Uninhabited

Under 1

1–25

25–50

50–100

Over 100

Great Wall of ChinaGreat Wall of China

HimalayaTaklimakanAltay Mountains

GobiManchurianPlain

YellowSea

EastChinaSea

SouthChinaSea

CHINA

NEPAL

MONGOLIA

RUSSIA

China’s Defenses

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Bar, Line, and Circle Graphs

A graph is a way of summarizingand presenting information visually.Each part of a graph gives usefulinformation. First read the graph’stitle to find out its subject. Then readthe labels along the graph’s axes—the vertical line along the left side ofthe graph and the horizontal linealong the bottom. One axis will tellyou what is being measured. Theother axis tells what units of meas-urement are being used.

Graphs that use bars or wide linesto compare data visually are calledbar graphs. Look carefully at thebar graph (right) which compares world lan-guages. The vertical axis lists the languages.The horizontal axis gives speakers of the lan-guage in millions. By comparing the lengths ofthe bars, you can quickly tell which languageis spoken by the most people. Bar graphs areespecially useful for comparing quantities.

A line graph is a useful tool for showingchanges over a period of time. The amountsbeing measured are plotted on the grid aboveeach year and then are connected by a line.Line graphs sometimes have two or more linesplotted on them. The line graph (below) showsthat the number of farms in the United Stateshas decreased since 1940.

Number of Native Speakers (in millions)Source: The World Almanac, 2003.

Languages

Chinese (Mandarin) 874

Hindi 366

English 341

Spanish 322

Bengali 207

Portuguese 176

Russian 167

Japanese 125

German 100

Korean 78

Comparing World Languages

Source: The World Almanac, 2003.

1940 1950 1960 1970 1990 20001980

1

0

7

6

5

4

3

2

Nu

mb

er

of

farm

s (i

n m

illi

on

s)

Year

U.S. Farms, 1940–2000


Line graph

Bar graph



You can use circle graphs when you want to show how the whole of some-thing is divided into its parts. Because oftheir shape, circle graphs are often called pie graphs. Each “slice” represents a part orpercentage of the whole “pie.” On the circlegraph at right, the whole circle (100 percent)represents the world’s population in 2002.The slices show how this population isdivided among some of the most heavilypopulated areas of the world.

ChartsCharts present facts and numbers in an

organized way. They arrange data, espe-cially numbers, in rows and columns foreasy reference. To interpret the chart, firstread the title. Look at the chart on page 91.It tells you what information the chart con-tains. Next, read the labels at the top ofeach column and on the left side of thechart. They explain what the numbers ordata on the chart are measuring.

PictographsLike bar and circle graphs,

pictographs are good for mak-ing comparisons. Pictographsuse rows of small pictures orsymbols, with each picture or symbol representing anamount. Look at the picto-graph (left) showing the num-ber of automobiles producedin the world’s five major auto-mobile-producing countries.The key tells you that one carsymbol stands for 1 millionautomobiles. The total numberof car symbols in a row addsup to the auto production ineach selected country.


Source: The World Almanac, 2003.

Pro

du

cti

on

fig

ure

s fo

r fi

vem

ajo

r a

uto

-pro

du

cin

g c

oun

trie

s Japan

UnitedStates

France

South Korea

Germany

= 1,000,000 passenger cars

Major Automobile-Producing Countries, 2001

Asia 61%Africa 13%

Europe12%

Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2003. *Excluding Australia

Latin America 9% North America 5%

World Population*

Using Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams

Pictograph

Circle graph



ClimographsA climograph, or climate

graph, combines a line graph and a bar graph. It gives an overall picture of the long-termweather patterns in a specific place.Climographs include several kindsof information. The green verticalbars on the climograph of Moscow(right) show average monthlyamounts of precipitation (rain,snow, and sleet). These bars aremeasured against the axis on theright side of the graph. The red lineplotted above the bars representschanges in the average monthlytemperature. You measure this lineagainst the axis on the left side.

DiagramsDiagrams are drawings that show steps in

a process, point out the parts of an object, orexplain how something works. An elevationprofile is a type of diagram that can be helpfulwhen comparing the elevations—or height—of

an area. It shows an exaggerated side view ofthe land as if it were sliced and you were view-ing it from the side. The elevation profile ofAfrica (below) clearly shows sea level, lowareas, and mountains.

Source: World Weather Guide.

°F

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Ave

rag

e m

on

thly

te

mp

era

ture

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

°C

37.8

32.2

26.7

21.1

15.6

10.0

4.4

–1.1

–6.7

–12.2

–17.8

in.

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Ave

rag

e m

on

thly p

rec

ipita

tion

mm

508

457.2

406.4

355.6

304.8

254

203.2

152.4

101.6

50.8

0

Climograph: Moscow, Russia

5,000 m

4,000 m

3,000 m

2,000 m

1,000 m

16,404 ft.

13,123 ft.

9,842 ft.

6,562 ft.

3,281 ft.

Sea level

Atlantic OceanCongo River

Margherita Peak16,763 ft.(5,109 m)

Mt. Kenya17,058 ft.(5,199 m)

LakeVictoria

IndianOcean

0 mi.

0 km

300

300

0˚ latitude (Equator)

Africa: Elevation Profile

Geography Handbook

Climograph

Diagram

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Island

Strait

Isthmus

Cape

Seacoast

Gulf

Bay

Ocean

VolcanoMountain peak

Sound

Peninsula

Delta

Harbor

Cliff

Island

Strait

Isthmus

Cape

Seacoast

Gulf

Bay

Ocean

VolcanoMountain peak

Sound

Peninsula

Delta

Harbor

Cliff

ValleyValley

absolute location exact location of a place on the earth de-scribed by global coordinates

basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches;area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevation

bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shore-line, generally smaller than a gulf

canyon deep and narrow valley with steep wallscape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or oceanchannel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses

that lie close to each other; deep part of a river or otherwaterway

cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earthcultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a

place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlementpattern

delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried down-stream by a river and deposited at its mouth

divide stretch of high land that separates river systems downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from

its source to its mouthelevation height of land above sea levelEquator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway

between the North and South Poles; used as the startingpoint to measure degrees of north and south latitude

glacier large, thick body of slowly moving icegulf part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,

generally larger and more deeply indented than a bayharbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can

anchor safelyhighland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, or

plateauhill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit;

generally smaller than a mountainisland land area, smaller than a continent, completely sur-

rounded by wateristhmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land

areaslake a sizable inland body of waterlatitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in

degreeslongitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, meas-

ured in degreeslowland land, usually level, at a low elevationmap drawing of the earth shown on a flat surfacemeridian one of many lines on the global grid running from

the North Pole to the South Pole; used to measuredegrees of longitude

mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smallerthan a plateau

As you read about world history,you will encounter the termslisted below. Many of the termsare pictured in the diagram.



Canyon

Tributary

Source of river

Lowland

UpstreamDownstream

Highland

Glacier

Basin

Mountain range

Hills

LakePlateau

River

Mouth of river

Plain

Channel

Desert

Canyon

Tributary

Source of river

Lowland

UpstreamDownstream

Highland

Glacier

Basin

Mountain range

Hills

LakePlateau

River

Mouth of river

Plain

Channel

Desert

mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet[305 m] or more) from surrounding land; generally largerand more rugged than a hill

mountain peak pointed top of a mountainmountain range a series of connected mountainsmouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a

larger body of waterocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround

the continentsocean current stream of either cold or warm water that

moves in a definite direction through an oceanparallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the

earth north or south of the Equator; used to measuredegrees of latitude

peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surroundedon three sides by water

physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, orresource

plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and oftencovered with grasses

plateau area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about300–3,000 feet (91–914 m) high

Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the NorthPole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England; start-ing point for measuring degrees of east and west longitude

relief changes in elevation over a given area of landriver large natural stream of water that runs through the landsea large body of water completely or partly surrounded by

landseacoast land lying next to a sea or oceansea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean

or seasound body of water between a coastline and one or more

islands off the coastsource (of a river) place where a river or stream begins,

often in highlandsstrait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of

watertributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river

or stream; a branch of the riverupstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the

source of a river or streamvalley area of low land between hills or mountainsvolcano mountain created as liquid rock or ash erupts from

inside the earth

Geography Handbook


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