NANOROBOTICS: MEDICINE OF THE FUTURE · Nanorobotics is an emerging, advanced and multidisciplinary...
Transcript of NANOROBOTICS: MEDICINE OF THE FUTURE · Nanorobotics is an emerging, advanced and multidisciplinary...
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NANOROBOTICS: MEDICINE OF THE FUTURE
Dhanashree Kad*, Sachin Hodgar and Kiran Thorat
Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kasturi College of Pharmacy,
Shikrapur, 412208 Pune.
ABSTRACT
Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or
close to the microscopic scale of a nanometer (10−9 meters). More
specifically, nanorobotics refers to the still largely hypothetical
nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building
nanorobots, devices ranging in size from 0.1-10 micrometers and
constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. As no artificial
non-biological nanorobots have yet been created, they remain a
hypothetical concept. The names nanobots, nanoids, nanites or
nanomites have also been used to describe these hypothetical devices.
Nanorobotics is an emerging, advanced and multidisciplinary field that
calls for scientific and technical expertise of medical, pharmaceutical,
bio-medical, engineering as well as other applied and basic scientists.
Nanorobots differ from macro-world robots, specifically in their nano sized constructs.
Assembly and realization of nanorobots depend on the principles of molecular
nanotechnology and mechano-synthetic chemistry. Practically, these systems are nano-
electromechanical devices that are capable to carry out pre-programmed functions in a
reliable and accurate manner with the help of energy provided by a preinstalled nanomotor or
nano-machine. Due to their small size and wide functional properties, nanorobots have
created exceptional prospects in medical, biomedical and pharmaceutical applications.
Although, no technology is available to construct artificial nanorobots, it is now possible to
create nanorobots by using biological means. The review presents a brief discussion on basic
nano-robotics and its possible applications in medical, biomedical and pharmaceutical
research.
WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
SJIF Impact Factor 7.421
Volume 7, Issue 8, 1393-1416 Review Article ISSN 2278 – 4357
Article Received on
21 June 2018,
Revised on 10 July 2018,
Accepted on 31 July 2018
DOI: 10.20959/wjpps20188-12191
*Corresponding Author
Ms. Dhanashree Kad
Assistant Professor,
Department of
Pharmaceutical Chemistry,
Kasturi College of
Pharmacy, Shikrapur,
412208 Pune.
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KEYWORDS: Nanotechnology, Nanomedicine, Nanomachines, Nanomotors,
Bionanorobots.
INTRODUCTION
The need for targeted drug delivery systems is increasing as today‘s biomedical technologies
request new, innovative systems to replace difficult procedures. By developing a micro-scale
delivery system we hope to replace the need for traditional methods and
instruments. Biomedical micro-robots are one possible solution to this and various other
medical challenges. Nanomedicine offers the prospect of powerful new tools for the
treatment of human diseases and the improvement of human biological systems by
engineering nano/micro-scale robots that travel throughout the human body we can
implement new technologies that re-define conventional processes.
―Nanomedicine‖ is the process of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic
injury, of relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using molecular
tools and molecular knowledge of the human body. Nanorobots would constitute
any ―smart‖ structure capable of actuation, sensing, signaling, information processing,
intelligence, manipulation and swarm behavior at nano scale (10-9m).[1,2]
Bio Nanorobots are Nanorobots designed (and inspired) by harnessing properties of
biological materials (peptides, DNAs), their designs and functionalities. These are inspired
not only by nature but machines too. Nanorobots could propose solutions at most of the
nanomedicine problems. Nanomedicine mainly refers to application of nanotechnology in
medicine. Nanotechnology refers to the science and engineering activities at the level of
atoms and molecules. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, that is, about 1/80,000 of the
diameter of a human hair, or 10 times the diameter of hydrogen atom. Nanorobots can offer a
number of advantages over current methods such as.[3]
i. Use of nanorobot drug delivery systems with increased bioavailability.
ii. Targeted therapy such as only malignant cells treated;
iii. Fewer mistakes on account of computer control and automation;
iv. Reach remote areas in human anatomy not operatable at the surgeon‘s operating table;
v. As drug molecules are carried by nanorobots and released where needed the advantages
of large interfacial area during mass transfer can be realized;
vi. Non-invasive technique;
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vii. Computer controlled operation with nobs to fine tune the amount, frequency, time of
release;
viii. Better accuracy;
The word "nanobot" (also "nanite", "nanogene", or "nanoant") is often used to indicate this
fictional context and is an informal or even pejorative term to refer to the engineering
concept of nanorobots. The word nanorobot is the correct technical term in the nonfictional
context of serious engineering studies. Some proponents of nanorobotics, in reaction to the
grey goo scare scenarios that they earlier helped to propagate, hold the view that nanorobots
capable of replication outside of a restricted factory environment do not form a necessary
part of a purported productive nanotechnology, and that the process of self-replication, if it
were ever to be developed, could be made inherently safe . They further assert that free-
foraging replicators are in fact absent from their current plans for developing and using
molecular manufacturing.
History of Nanorobots
1980‘s by Nobel Prize laureate Richard Smalley. Smalley has extended his vision to carbon
nanotubes, discovered by Sumio Iijima, which he envisions as the next super interconnection
for ultra small electronics. The term nanotechnology has evolved to mean the manipulation of
the elements to create unique and hopefully useful structures.[4]
December 29, 1959: Richard Feynman gives the famous ―There‘s Plenty of Room at the
Bottom‖ talk. First use of the concepts of nanotechnology. Describes an individual atoms
and molecules can be manipulated.
1974: Professor Norio Taniguchi defines nanotechnology as ―the processing of,
separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by atom / molecule.‖
1980‘s: Dr. Eric Drexler publishes several scientific articles promoting nanoscale
phenomena and devices.
1986: The book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology by Dr. Eric
Drexler is published. He envisioned nanorobots as self replicating. A first book on
nanotechnology.
Recently, researched chemical and biomedical engineering have used carbon nano tubes as a
vessel for delivering drugs into the body.
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Components of Nanorobot
The various components in nanorobot include power supply, fuel buffer tank, sensors,
motors, manipulators, onboard computers, pumps, pressure tanks and structural support. The
substructures in a nanorobot include.
1. Payload: This void section holds a small dose of drug/medicine. The nanorobots could
transverse in the blood and release the drug to the site of infection/injury.
2. Micro camera: The nanorobot may include a miniature camera. The operator can steer the
nanorobot when navigating through the body manually.[5,6]
3. Electrodes: The electrode mounted on the nanorobot could form the battery using the
electrolytes in the blood. These protruding electrodes could also kill the cancer cells by
generating an electric current, and heating the cells up to death.
4. Lasers: These lasers could burn the harmful material like arterial plaque, blood clots or
cancer cells.[5]
5. Ultra sonic signal generators: These generators are used when the nanorobot are used to
target and destroy kidney stones.
6. Swimming tail: The nanorobot will require a means of propulsion to get into the body as
they travel against the flow of blood in the body.
The nanorobot will have motors for movement and manipulator arms or mechanical leg for
mobility. The two main approaches followed in construction of Nanorobots are Positional
assembly and Self assembly. In self assembly, the arm of a miniature robot or a microscopic
set is used to pick the molecules and assemble manually. In positional assembly, the
investigators will put billions of molecules together and let them automatically assemble
based on their natural affinities into the desired configuration.[6, 7, and 8]
Nanorobot Control
Design is the software developed for simulating nanorobots in environment with fluids which
is dominated by Brownian motion.[8]
The nanorobots have chemical sensors which can detect
the target molecules.
The nanorobots are provided with swarm intelligence for decentralization activity. Swarm
intelligence techniques are the algorithms designed for artificial intelligence of the nanorobot.
The swarm intelligence technique is been inspired by the behavior of social animals such as
ants, bees and termites which work collaboratively without a centralized control. The three
main types of swarm intelligence techniques deigned are ant colony optimization (ACO),
artificial bee colony (ABC) and particle swarm optimization (PSO).[10]
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Types of Nanorobot
The types of nanorobots designed by Robert A. Freitas Jr as artificial blood are.
i. Respirocytes: Respirocytes are the nanorobots designed as artificial mechanical red blood
cells which are blood borne spherical 1 µm diameter size. The outer shell is made of
diamonded 1000 atm pressure vessel with reversible molecule-selective pumps.[11, 12]
Respirocytes carry oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules throughout the body. The
Respirocytes is constructed of 18 billion atoms which are precisely arranged in a diamondoid
pressure tanks that can store up to 3 billion oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules.[11]
The
respirocyte would deliver 236 times more oxygen to the body tissues when compared to
natural red blood cells. The respirocyte could manage the carbonic acidity which will be
controlled by gas concentration sensors and an onboard nanocomputer.[12]
The stored gases
are released from the tank in a controlled manner through molecular pumps. The respirocytes
exchange gases via molecular rotors. The rotors have special tips for particular type of
molecule.[13]
Each respirocyte consists of 3 types of rotors. One rotor releases the stored
oxygen while travelling through the body. The second type of rotor captures all the carbon
dioxide in the blood stream and release at the lungs while the third rotor takes in the glucose
from blood stream as fuel source.[14,13]
There are 12 identical pumps which are laid around
the equator; oxygen rotors on the left, water rotors in the middle and carbon dioxide rotors in
the left. There are gas concentration sensors on the surface of respirocyte.
When the respirocyte passes through the lung capillaries, O2 partial pressure will be high and
CO2 partial pressure will be low, therefore the onboard nanocomputer commands the sorting
rotors to load in oxygen and release the carbon dioxide molecules.[6]
The water ballast
chambers aid in maintaining buoyancy. The respirocytes can be programmed to scavenge
carbon monoxide and other poisonous gases from the body.
The respirocyte works as an artificial erythrocyte by mimicking the oxygen and carbon
dioxide transport functions. A 5 cc therapeutic dose of 50% respirocyte saline suspension
containing 5 trillion nanorobots would exactly replace the gas carrying capacity of the
patient‘s entire 5.4 liters of blood. Once the therapeutic purpose is served, the respirocyte
may be extracted from circulation, requiring respirocyte activating protocol. During this
protocol called nanapheresis, the blood to be cleared would be passed from the patient to a
specialized centrifugation apparatus where the ultrasonic transmitters command the
respirocyte to maintain neutral buoyancy. There are no other solid blood components that can
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maintain neutral buoyancy; hence those components are precipitate outwards during
centrifugation. The blood components are added back to filtered plasma. The filtered plasma
is recombined with centrifuged solid blood components and then returned undamaged to the
patient‘s body.[11]
An artificial red cell—the respirocyte designed by Robert A.Freitas Jr is
given in fig. 1.
Fig 1: An artificial red cell—the respirocyte designed by Robert A.Freitas Jr.
ii. Microbivores: Microbivores are the nanorobot which functions as artificial white blood
cell and also known as nanorobotic phagocytes. The microbivore is a spheroid device made
up of diamond and sapphire which measures 3.4 µm in diameter along its major axis and 2.0
µm diameter along minor axis and consists of 610 billion precisely arranged structural atoms.
It traps in the pathogens present in the blood stream and break down to smaller molecules.
The main function of microbivore is to absorb and digest the pathogens in the blood stream
by the process of phagocytosis. The microbivore consist of 4 fundamental components.
An array of reversible binding sites.
An array of telescoping grapples.
A morcellation chamber.
Digestion chamber[15]
During the cycle of operation, the target bacterium binds to the microbivore surface via
species-specific reversible binding site. A collision between the bacterium and the
microbivore brings in the surface into intimate contact, allowing the reversible binding site to
recognize and weakly bind to the bacterium. A set of 9 different antigenic markers should be
specific and confirm the positive binding event confirming the presence target microbe.
There would be 20,000 copies of the 9 marker sets distributed in 275 disk shaped regions
across microbivore. When the bacterium is bound to the binding site, the telescopic robotic
grapples rise up from the surface and attach to the trapped bacterium thereby establishing a
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secure anchorage. The grapple‘s handoff motion can transport the bacterium from binding
site to the ingestion port. Further the bacterium is internalized into the morcellation chamber
where in the bacterium is minced into nanoscale pie. The remains are pistoned into the
digestion chamber which consists of a pre-programmed set of digestive enzymes. :
Mechanism of phagocytosis by microbivore is given in fig 2.
.
Fig. 2: Mechanism of phagocytosis by microbivore.
These enzymes are injected and extracted 6 times during a single digestion cycle, where in
the morcellate is progressively reduced into amino acids, mononucleotides, free fatty acid and
simple sugars. These small molecules are then discharged into the blood stream through the
exhaust port. After the destruction of pathogens the microbivores exits the body through the
kidneys and are then excreted in urine.An entire cycle of phagocytosis by microbivore will be
completed in 30 seconds. There are no chances of septic shock or sepsis as the bacterial
components are internalized and digested into non-antigenic biomolecules.[14]
The
microbivore is 1000 times faster acting than antibiotic aided white blood cells and the
pathogen stand no chance of multiple drug resistance. They can also be used to clear
respiratory, cerebrospinal bacterial infection or infections in urinary fluids and synovial
fluids.
iii. Clottocytes: Hemostasis is the process of blood clotting when there is damage to the
endothelium cells of blood vessels by platelets. These platelets can be activated by collision
of exposed collagen from damaged blood vessels to the platelets. The whole process of
natural blood clotting can take 2-5 minutes. The nanotechnology has shown the capabilities
of reducing the clotting time and reducing the blood loss. In certain patients, the blood clots
are found to occur irregularly. This abnormality is treated using drugs such corticosteroids.
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The treatment with corticosteroids is associated with side effects such as hormonal secretions;
blood/platelet could damage lungs and allergic reactions.[16]
Blood clotting mechanism of
clottocytes is gien in fig 3.
Fig. 3: Blood clotting mechanism of clottocytes.
The theoretically designed clottocyte describes artificial mechanical platelet or clottocyte that
would complete hemostasis in approximately 1 sec. It is spherical nanorobot powered by
serum-oxyglucose approximately 2 µm in diameter containing a fiber mesh that is compactly
folded onboard. The response time of clottocyte is 100-1000 times faster than the natural
hemostatic system.[15]
The fiber mesh would be biodegradable and upon release, a soluble
film coating of the mesh would dissolve in contact with the plasma to expose sticky mesh.[17]
Reliable communication protocols would be required to control the coordinated mesh release
from neighboring clottocytes and also to regulate multi-device-activation radius within the
local clottocyte population. As clottocyte-rich blood enters the injured blood vessel, the
onboard sensors of clottocyte rapidly detects the change in partial pressure, often indicating
that it is bled out of body. If the first clottocyte is 75 µm away from air-serum interface,
oxygen molecules from the air diffuse through serum at human body temperature. This
detection would be broadcasted rapidly to the neighboring clottocytes through acoustic
pulses. This allows rapid propagation of a carefully controlled device-enablement cascade.
The stickiness in the fiber mesh would be blood group specific to trap blood cells by binding
to the antigens present on blood cells. Each mesh would overlap on the neighboring mesh and
attract the red blood cells to immediately stop bleeding.[15]
The clotting function by clottocyte is essentially equivalent to that of natural platelets at about
1/10,000th the concentration in the blood stream i.e. 20 clottocytes per cubic milimeter of
blood.[18]
The major risk associated with the clottocytes is that the additional activity of the
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mechanical platelets could trigger the disseminated intravascular coagulation resulting in
multiple micro thrombi.
Onboard Computers of Nanorobot
Functions that are controlled by the onboard computer include.
1. Pumping: Molecular pumps would be a primary system in nanorobots like respirocyte
and pharmacyte. Single-molecule recognition, sorting and pumping via molecular sorting
rotors to allow molecule-by-molecule exchange with in the environment.
2. Sensing: Chemical, pressure, temperature sensors, electromagnetic, magnetic, optical
sensors, gravity, position/orientation sensors, molecular recognition sites. The nanorobot
of approximately 1 micron diameter could employ approximately 104-10
5 sensors of
various kinds for controlling the device.
3. Configuration: Control of device shape; gas-driven extensible bumpers to maintain
physical contact among adjacent device, control of internal ballasting for nanapheresis
and control of chemical ligands for hull displays, for controlled adhesion regulation of
external surfaces.
4. Energy: Control of onboard power generation or power receiver systems including
thermal, mechanical, acoustic, chemical, electrical, photonic, or nuclear sources;
management of onboard energy storage; controlling the transduction, conditioning, and
conversion of tethered energy sources; and control of internal power distribution and load
balancing throughout a nanorobotic device.
5. Communication: Control of communications hardware including receivers and
transmitters, whether chemical, acoustic, electromagnetic, or other modality;
interpretation of received signals as new commands from the physician; replacement of
existing operating parameters with new ones and out messaging, coordination of
nanorobot populations to accurately transfer information directly to or from the patient.
6. Navigation: Establishing absolute or relative physical position across many regimes
including bloodstream, tissues, organs, and cells; positional navigation by dead
reckoning, cartotaxis, macro/micro transponder networks.
7. Manipulation: Deployment and actuation of manipulators including ciliary, pneumatic,
or telescoping systems; stowage, retrieval, selection, installation, use, and detachment of
tooltips and other end-effectors; management of tool and manipulator garages;
management of coordinated manipulator arrays; and control of onboard disposal or
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disassembly systems including morcellation, grinding, sonication, thermal or chemical
decomposition systems.
8. Locomotion: Control of specific in vivo locomotion systems including ciliary or grapple
systems, surface deformation, inclined planes/screws, volume displacement, and viscous
anchoring systems; control of locomotion across cell-coated tissue surfaces, amoeboid
motion or inchworm locomotion.[15]
Some scientists are looking at the world of
microscopic organisms for inspiration. Paramecium move through their environment
using tiny tail-like limbs called cilia. By vibrating the cilia, the paramecium can swim in
any direction. Similar to cilia are flagella, which are longer tail structures. Organisms
whip flagella around in different ways to move around. Locomotion of Nanorobots is
given in fig 4.
Fig 4: Locomotion of Nanorobots.
Elements of Nanorobots
Carbon will likely be the principal element comprising the bulk of a medical nanorobot,
probably in the form of diamond or diamondoid/fullerene nanocomposites. Many other light
elements such as hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, silicon, etc. will be used for
special purposes in nanoscale gears and other components. The chemical inertness of
diamond is proved by several experimental studies. One such experiment conducted on
mouse peritoneal macrophages cultured on DLC showed no significant excess release of
lactate dehydrogenase or of the lysosomal enzyme beta N-acetyl-Dglucosaminidase (an
enzyme known to be released from macrophages during inflammation). Morphological
examination revealed no physical damage to either fibroblasts or macrophages, and human
osteoblast like cells confirming the biochemical indication that there was no toxicity and that
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no inflammatory reaction was elicited in vitro. The smoother and more flawless the diamond
surface, the lesser is the leukocyte activity and fibrinogen adsorption. An experiment by Tang
et al. showed that CVD diamond wafers implanted intraperitoneally in live mice for 1 week
revealed minimal inflammatory response. Interestingly, on the rougher ―polished‖ surface, a
small number of spread and fused macrophages were present, indicating that some activation
had occurred. The exterior surface with near-nanometer smoothness results in very low
bioactivity. Due to the extremely high surface energy of the passivated diamond surface and
the strong hydrophobicity of the diamond surface, the diamond exterior is almost completely
chemically inert. The typical size of a blood born medical nanorobot will be 0.5-3
micrometers as it is the maximum size that can be permitted due to capillary passage
requirement. These nanorobots would be fabricated in desktop nanofactories specialized for
this purpose. The capacity to design, build, and deploy large numbers of medical nanorobots
into the human body would, make possible the rapid elimination of disease and the effective
and relatively painless recovery from physical trauma. Medical nanorobots can be of great
importance in easy and accurate correction of genetic defects, and help to ensure a greatly
expanded health span.
Nanorobots: What Are They?
Nanorobots are theoretical microscopic devices measured on the scale of nanometers (1nm
equals one millionth of 1 millimeter). When fully realized from the hypothetical stage, they
would work at the atomic, molecular and cellular level to perform tasks in both the medical
and industrial fields that have heretofore been the stuff of science fiction. Nanomedicine's
nanorobots are so tiny that they can easily traverse the human body. Scientists report the
exterior of a nanorobot will likely be constructed of carbon atoms in a diamondoid structure
because of its inert properties and strength. Super-smooth surfaces will lessen the likelihood
of triggering the body's immune system, allowing the nanorobots to go about their business
unimpeded. Glucose or natural body sugars and oxygen might be a source for propulsion and
the nanorobot will have other biochemical or molecular parts depending on its task.
Nanomachines are largely in the research and- development phase, but some primitive
molecular machines have been tested. An example is a sensor having a switch approximately
1.5 nanometers across, capable of counting specific molecules in a chemical sample. The first
useful applications of nanomachines, if such are ever built, might be in medical technology,
where they might be used to identify cancer cells and destroy them. Another potential
application is the detection of toxic chemicals, and the measurement of their concentrations,
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in the environment. Recently, Rice University has demonstrated a single-molecule car which
is developed by a chemical process and includes buckyballs for wheels. It is actuated by
controlling the environmental temperature and by positioning a scanning tunneling
microscope tip.[19]
Approaches of Nanorobots
Biochip: The joint use of nanoelectronics, photolithography, and new biomaterials, can be
considered as a possible way to enable the required manufacturing technology towards
nanorobots for common medical applications, such as for surgical instrumentation,
diagnosis and drug delivery. Indeed, this feasible approach towards manufacturing on
nanotechnology is a practice currently in use from the electronics industry.So, practical
nanorobots should be integrated as nanoelectronics devices, which will allow tele-
operation and advanced capabilities for medical instrumentation.[20]
Nubots: Nubot is an abbreviation for "nucleic acid robots." Nubots are synthetic robotics
devices at the nanoscale. Representative nubots include the several DNA walkers reported
by Ned Seeman's group at NYU, Niles Pierce's group at Caltech, John Reif's group at
Duke University, Chengde Mao's group at Purdue, and Andrew Turberfield's group at the
University of Oxford.
Positional nanoassembly: Nanofactory Collaboration[6]
, founded by Robert Freitas and
Ralph Merkle in 2000, is a focused ongoing effort involving 23 researchers from 10
organizations and 4 countries that is developing a practical research agenda specifically
aimed at developing positionally-controlled diamond mechanosynthesis and a
diamondoid nanofactory that would be capable of building diamondoid medical
nanorobots.[21]
Bacteria based: This approach proposes the use biological microorganisms, like
Escherichia coli bacteria. Hence, the model uses a flagellum for propulsion purposes. The
use of electromagnetic fields are normally applied to control the motion of this kind of
biological integrated device, although his limited applications.
Open Technology: A document with a proposal on nanobiotech development using open
technology approaches has been addressed to the United Nations General Assembly.
According to the document sent to UN, in the same way Linux and Open Source has in
recent years accelerated the development of computer systems, a similar approach should
benefit the society at large and accelerate nanorobotics development.[22]
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The use of nanobiotechnology should be established as a human heritage for the coming
generations, and developed as an open technology based on ethical practices for peaceful
purposes.
Making Nanorobots
Research and design of drug-carrying nanorobots is not new. Scientists have already created
nanobot prototypes by using advanced molecular design software to create nanostructures
that can store various molecular cargo.
Using a method known as ‗DNA origami‘, pioneered in 2006 by scientist Paul Rothemund
from Caltech University in the U.S., scientists have been able to manipulate DNA material
into specific shapes and even program the 3-D DNA structures to carry out very basic robotic
tasks, such as fusing to other cells and operating within other DNA material.
However, the DNA nanorobots created so far have faced challenges in movement, activation
and targeting of drug release. Although DNA nanorobots have already been programmed to
carry cargo and work in conjunction with other nanorobots, this new study is the first time
that structural techniques have been exploited by advanced computing functions to securely
deliver treatment to specific diseased cells.
How It Works
Instead of building a single complex molecule to identify multiple features of a cell surface,
Dr. Stojanovic and his colleagues at Columbia used a different, and potentially easier,
approach based on multiple simple molecules, which together form a robot (or automaton, as
the authors prefer calling it).
To identify a cell possessing three specific surface proteins, Dr. Stojanovic first constructed
three different components for molecular robots. Each component consisted of a piece of
double-stranded DNA attached to an antibody specific to one of the surface proteins. When
these components are added to a collection of cells, the antibody portions of the robot bind to
their respective proteins (in the figure, CD45, CD3, and CD8) and work in concert.
On cells where all three components are attached, a robot is functional and a fourth
component (labeled 0 below) initiates a chain reaction among the DNA strands. Each
component swaps a strand of DNA with another, until the end of the swap, when the last
antibody obtains a strand of DNA that is fluorescently labeled. At the end of the chain
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reaction- which takes less than 15 minutes in a sample of human blood-only cells with the
three surface proteins are labeled with the fluorescent marker.
"We have demonstrated our concept with blood cells because their surface proteins are well
known, but in principle our molecules could be deployed anywhere in the body," Dr.
Stojanovic said. In addition, the system can be expanded to identify four, five, or even more
surface proteins.
Nanotechnology is the creation of fully mechanical machine with its physical or its
components size very close to the nanometre range. Nanorobots are programmable
assemblies of nanometer scale components constructed by manipulating macro/micro devices
or by self assembly on pre-programmed templates or scaffolds . Nanorobots are essentially
nanoelectromechanical devices (NEMS). These nanorobotic devices are comparable to
biological cells and organelles in size. The technology of design, fabrication, and
programming of these nanorobotsis known as Nanorobotics. It is a multidisciplinary field
requiring advanced level input from different areas of science and technology including,
physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, pharmaceutical sciences, engineering, biotechnology
and other biomedical sciences.
Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a
nanometre (10-9 metres). More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the still largely theoretical
nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots. Nanorobots
(nanobots or nanoids) are typically devices ranging in size from 0.1- 10 micrometres and
constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. As no artificial non-biological nanorobots
have so far been created, they remain a hypothetical concept at this time. Another definition
sometimes used is a robot which allows precision interactions with nanoscale objects, or can
manipulate with nanoscale resolution.
Following this definition even a large apparatus such as an atomic force microscope can be
considered a nanorobotic instrument when configured to perform nanomanipulation. Also,
macroscale robots or microrobots which can move with nanoscale precision can also be
considered nanorobots2. Initial uses of nanorobots to health care are likely to emerge within
the next ten years with potentially broad biomedical applications. The ongoing developments
of molecular-scale electronics, sensors and motors are expected to enable microscopic robots
with dimensions comparable to bacteria. Recent developments on the field of biomolecular
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computing has demonstrated positively the feasibility of processing logic tasks by bio-
computers, which is a promising first step to enable future nano processors with increasingly
complexity. Studies in the sense of building biosensors and nano-kinetic devices, which is
required to enable nanorobots operation and locomotion, has been advanced recently too.[4]
Fields of Application
Some possible applications using nanorobots are as follows:
1. To cure skin diseases, a cream containing nanorobots may be used. It could remove the
right amount of dead skin, remove excess oils, add missing oils, apply the right amounts of
natural moisturising compounds, and even achieve the elusive goal of 'deep pore cleaning' by
actually reaching down into pores and cleaning them out. The cream could be a smart
material with smooth-on, peeloff convenience.
2. A mouthwash full of smart nanomachines could identify and destroy pathogenic bacteria
while allowing the harmless flora of the mouth to flourish in a healthy ecosystem. Further,
the devices would identify particles of food, plaque, or tartar, and lift them from teeth to be
rinsed away. Being suspended in liquid and able to swim about, devices would be able to
reach surfaces beyond reach of toothbrush bristles or the fibres of floss. As short-lifetime
medical nanodevices, they could be built to last only a few minutes in the body before falling
apart into materials of the sort found in foods (such as fibre).
3. Medical nanodevices could augment the immune system by finding and disabling
unwanted bacteria and viruses. When an invader is identified, it can be punctured, letting its
contents spill out and ending its effectiveness. If the contents were known to be hazardous by
themselves, then the immune machine could hold on to it long enough to dismantle it more
completely.
4. Devices working in the bloodstream could nibble away at arteriosclerotic deposits,
widening the affected blood vessels. Cell herding devices could restore artery walls and
artery linings to health, by ensuring that the right cells and supporting structures are in the
right places. This would prevent most heart attacks.
Nanorobotics in Dentistry
The growing interest in the future of dental applications of nanotechnology is leading to the
emergence of a new field called Nanodentistry. Nanorobots induce oral analgesia,
Desensitize tooth, manipulate the tissue to re-align and straighten irregular set of teeth and to
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improve durability of teeth. Further it is explained that how nanorobots are used to do
preventive, restorative, curative procedures.
Major tooth repair: Nanodental techniques involve many tissue engineering procedures for
major tooth repair. Mainly nanorobotics manufacture and installation of a biologically
autologous whole replacement tooth that includes both mineral and cellular components
which leads to complete dentition replacement therapy.
Tooth Durability and Appearance: Nanodentistry has given material that is nanostructured
composite material, sapphire which increases tooth durability and appearance. Upper enamel
layers are replaced by covalently bonded artificial material such as sapphire. This material
has 100 to 200 times the hardness and failure strength than ceramic. Like enamel, sapphire is
a somewhat susceptible to acid corrosion. Sapphire has best standard whitening sealant,
cosmetic alternative. New restorative nano material to increase tooth durability is
Nanocomposites. This is manufactured by nanoagglomerated discrete nanoparticles that are
homogeneously distributed in resins or coatings to produce nanocomposites. The nanofiller
include an aluminosilicate powder having a mean particle size of about 80nm and a 1:4ratio
of alumina to silica. The nanofiller has a refractive index of 1.503, it has superior hardness,
modulous of elasticity, translucency, esthetic appeal, excellent color density, high polish and
50% reduction in filling shrinkage. They are superior to conventional composites and blend
with a natural tooth structure much better.
Nano Impression: Impression material is available with nanotechnology application.
Nanofiller are integrated in the vinylpolysiloxanes, producing a unique addition siloxane
impression material. The main advantage of material is it has better flow, improved
hydrophilic properties hence fewer voids at margin and better model pouring, enhanced detail
precision.
Nanomedicine
Potential applications for nanorobotics in medicine include early diagnosis and targeted drug
delivery for cancer biomedical instrumentation, surgery, pharmacokinetics, monitoring of
diabetes, and health care.[9]
In such plans, future medical nanotechnology is expected to
employ nanorobots injected into the patient to perform treatment on a cellular level. Such
nanorobots intended for use in medicine should be non-replicating, as replication would
needlessly increase device complexity, reduce reliability, and interfere with the medical
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mission. Instead, medical nanorobots are posited to be manufactured in hypothetical,
carefully controlled nanofactories in which nanoscale machines would be solidly integrated
into a supposed desktop-scale machine that would build macroscopic products.[4]
Treating arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis refers to a condition where plaque builds along the walls of arteries.
Nanorobots could conceivably treat the condition by cutting away the plaque, which would
then enter the blood stream. Nanorobots may treat conditions like arteriosclerosis is given in
fig 5.
Fig 5: Nanorobots may treat conditions like arteriosclerosis.
Nanorobots in Cancer Detection and Treatment
Cancer can be successfully treated with current stages of medical technologies and therapy
tools. However, a decisive factor to determine the chances for a patient with cancer to survive
is: how earlier it was diagnosed; what means, if possible, a cancer should be detected at least
before the metastasis has began. Another important aspect to achieve a successful treatment
for patients, is the development of efficient targeted drug delivery to decrease the side effects
from chemotherapy. Phagocytosis process by Nanorobots is given in fig 6.
Fig 6: Phagocytosis process by Nanorobots.
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Considering the properties of nanorobots to navigat as bloodborne devices, they can help on
such extremely important aspects of cancer therapy. Nanorobots with embedded chemical
biosensors can be used to perform detection of tumor cells in early stages of development
inside the patient's body. Integrated nanosensors can be utilized for such a task in order to
find intensity of E-cadherin signals.Therefore a hardware architecture based on
nanobioelectronics is described for the application of nanorobots for cancer therapy. Analyses
and conclusions for the proposed model is obtained through real time 3D simulation.[23]
Breaking up kidney stones
Kidney stones can be intensely painful the larger the stone the more difficult it is to pass.
Doctors break up large kidney stones using ultrasonic frequencies, but it's not always
effective. A nanorobot could break up kidney stones using a small laser. Breaking up kidney
stones mechanism by Nanorobots is given in fig 7.
Fig 7: Breaking up kidney stones mechanism by Nanorobots.
Nanorobots in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Diabetes
Glucose carried through the blood stream is important to maintain the human metabolism
working healthfully, and its correct level is a key issue in the diagnosis and treatment of
diabetes. Intrinsically related to the glucose molecules, the protein hSGLT3 has an important
influence in maintaining proper gastrointestinal cholinergic nerve and skeletal muscle
function activities, regulating extracellular glucose concentration. The hSGLT3 molecule can
serve to define the glucose levels for diabetes patients. The most interesting aspect of this
protein is the fact that it serves as a sensor to identify glucose.[24]
The simulated nanorobot prototype model has embedded Complementary Metal Oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) nanobioelectronics. It features a size of ~2 micronmeter, which
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permits it to operate freely inside the body. Whether the nanorobot is invisible or visible for
the immune reactions, it has no interference for detecting glucose levels in blood stream.
Even with the immune system reaction inside the body, the nanorobot is not attacked by the
white blood cells due biocompatibility. For the glucose monitoring the nanorobot uses
embedded chemosensor that involves the modulation of hSGLT3 protein glucosensor
activity. Through its onboard chemical sensor, the nanorobot can thus effectively determine if
the patient needs to inject insulin or take any further action, such as any medication clinically
prescribed. The image of the NCD simulator workspace shows the inside view of a venule
blood vessel with grid texture, red blood cells (RBCs) and nanorobots. They flow with the
RBCs through the bloodstream detecting the glucose levels. At a typical glucose
concentration, the nanorobots try to keep the glucose levels ranging around 130 mg/dl as a
target for the Blood Glucose Levels (BGLs). A variation of 30mg/dl can be adopted as a
displacement range, though this can be changed based on medical prescriptions. In the
medical nanorobot architecture, the significant measured data can be then transferred
automatically through the RF signals to the mobile phone carried by the patient. At any time,
if the glucose achieves critical levels, the nanorobot emits an alarm through the mobile
phone.
Nanorobots in Surgery
Surgical nanorobots could be introduced into the body through the vascular system or at the
ends of catheters into various vessels and other cavities in the human body. A surgical
nanorobot, programmed or guided by a human surgeon, could act as an semiautonomous on-
site surgeon inside the human body. Such a device could perform various functions such as
searching for pathology and then diagnosing and correcting lesions by nanomanipulation,
coordinated by an on-board computer while maintaining contact with the supervising surgeon
via coded ultrasound signals. The earliest forms of cellular nanosurgery are already being
explored today. For example, a rapidly vibrating (100 Hz) micropipette with a <1 micron tip
diameter has been used to completely cut dendrites from single neurons without damaging
cell viability. Axotomy of roundworm neurons was performed by femtosecond laser surgery,
after which the axons functionally regenerated. A femtolaser acts like a pair of ―nano-
scissors‖ by vaporizing tissue locally while leaving adjacent tissue unharmed.[25]
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Nanorobots in Gene Therapy
Medical nanorobots can readily treat genetic diseases by comparing the molecular structures
of both DNA and proteins found in the cell to known or desired reference structures. Any
irregularities can then be corrected, or desired modifications can be edited in place. In some
cases, chromosomal replacement therapy is more efficient than in cytorepair. Floating inside
the nucleus of a human cell, an assembler-built repair vessel performs some genetic
maintenance. Stretching a supercoil of DNA between its lower pair of robot arms, the
nanomachine gently pulls the unwound strand through an opening in its prow for analysis.[26]
Upper arms, meanwhile, detach regulatory proteins from the chain and place them in an
intake port. The molecular structures of both DNA and proteins are compared to information
stored in the database of a larger nanocomputer positioned outside the nucleus and connected
to the cell-repair ship by a communications link. Irregularities found in either structure are
corrected and the proteins reattached to the DNA chain, which re-coils into its original form.
With a diameter of only 50 nanometers, the repair vessel would be smaller than most bacteria
and viruses, yet capable of therapies and cures well beyond the reach of present-day
physicians. With trillions of these machines coursing through a patient's bloodstream,
"internal medicine" would take on new significance. Disease would be attacked at the
molecular level, and such maladies as cancer, viral infections and arteriosclerosis could be
wiped out.
Diagnosis and Testing
Medical nanorobots can perform a vast array of diagnostic, testing and monitoring functions,
both in tissues and in the bloodstream. These devices could continuously record and report all
vital signs including temperature, pressure, chemical composition, and immune system
activity, from all different parts of the body. Nanorobots swallowed by a patient for
diagnostic purposes approach the surface of the stomach lining to begin their search for signs
of infection.[4]
Cryostasis
The extraordinary medical prospects ahead of us have renewed interest in a proposal made
long ago: that the dying patient could be frozen, then stored at the temperature of liquid
nitrogen for decades or even centuries until the necessary medical technology to restore
health is developed. Called cryonics, this service is now available from several companies.
Because final proof that this will work must wait until after we have developed a medical
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technology based on the foundation of a mature nanotechnology, the procedure is
experimental. We cannot prove today that medical technology will (or will not) be able to
reverse freezing injury 100 years from now. But given the wonderful advances that we see
coming, it seems likely that we should be able to reverse freezing injury - especially when
that injury is minimized by the rapid introduction through the vascular system of
cryoprotectants and other chemicals to cushion the tissues against further injury.[4]
Disadvantages[3]
The initial design cost is very high.
The design of the nanorobot is a very complicated one.
Electrical systems can create stray fields which may activate bioelectric-based molecular
recognition systems in biology.
Electrical nanorobots are susceptible to electrical interference from external sources such
as rf or electric fields, EMP pulses, and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices.
Hard to Interface, Customize and Design, Complex
Nanorobots can cause a brutal risk in the field of terrorism. The terrorism and anti-groups
can make use of nanorobots as a new form of torturing the communities as
nanotechnology also has the capability of destructing the human body at the molecular
level.
Privacy is the other potential risk involved with Nanorobots. As Nanorobots deals with
the designing of compact and minute devices, there are chances for more.[1]
Future footsteps of nanorobotics
In the future, nanorobots could revolutionize medicine. Doctors could treat everything from
heart disease to cancer using tiny robots the size of bacteria, a scale much smaller than
today's robots. Robots might work alone or in teams to eradicate disease and treat other
conditions. Some believe that semiautonomous nanorobots are right around the corner
doctors would implant robots able to patrol a human's body, reacting to any problems that
pop up. Unlike acute treatment, these robots would stay in the patient's body forever. Another
potential future application of nanorobot technology is to re-engineer our bodies to become
resistant to disease, increase our strength or even improve our intelligence. Dr. Richard
Thompson, a former professor of ethics, has written about the ethical implications of
nanotechnology. He says the most important tool is communication, and that it's pivotal for
communities, medical organizations and the government to talk about nanotechnology now,
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while the industry is still in its infancy. Will we one day have thousands of microscopic
robots rushing around in our veins, making corrections and healing our cuts, bruises and
illnesses? With nanotechnology, it seems like anything is possible.
CONCLUSION
Nanotechnology as a diagnostic and treatment tool for patients with cancer and diabetes
showed how actual developments in new manufacturing technologies are enabling innovative
works which may help in constructing and employing nanorobots most effectively for
biomedical problems. Nanorobots applied to medicine hold a wealth of promise from
eradicating disease to reversing the aging process (wrinkles, loss of bone mass and age-
related conditions are all treatable at the cellular level); nanorobots are also candidates for
industrial applications.The nanorobots used in medicine are predicted to provide a wealth of
promise. When the severe side effects of the existing therapies are been considered, the
nanorobots are found to be more innovative, supportive to the treatment and diagnosis of vital
diseases. The respirocytes would be 236 times quicker when compared to normal red blood
cells. The nanorobotics are found to exhibit strong potential to diagnose and treat various
medical conditions like cancer, heart attack, diabetes, arteriosclerosis, kidney stones etc. The
nanorobot can allow us a personalized treatment, hence achieving high efficacy against many
diseases.
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