Nanomaterials, Nanotechnologies and Design

An Introduction for Engineers and Architects

ELSEVIER

Michael F. Ashby

Paulo J. Ferreira

Daniel L. Schodek

^ШШШ ' AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON & Ш-И NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO

SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

Contents

Preface xiii The first three chapters in the Acknowledgments xix hook are introductory in

, . „ „ „ „ „ . , , ,T , nature. Chapter 1 provides CHAPTER 1 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies: •*<.•, ,

an overview of the general An Overview 1 characteristics and field of

1.1 Why Nanomaterials? 1 mnomateriah

1.2 Scale, Structure, and Behavior 11 Further Reading 15

CHAPTER 2 An Evolutionary Perspective 17 Chapter 2 presents a 2.1 A Brief History of Materials 17 retrospective look at 2.2 Nanomaterials and Nanostructures in materials, nanomaterials in

Nature 23 nature, and nanomaterials as 2.3 Nanomaterials in Art and Cultural Heritage.... 29 they have long been found in

Examples Found in Art 29 works of artisans. Conservation 32

Further Reading 38 CHAPTER 3 The Design Context 41 Chapter 3 discusses the 3.1 Materials in Design 41 general use of materials in

Design Focus 47 architecture and product 3.2 Product Design, Architecture, design, general product and

and Engineering 49 building types, and design Products 49 processes—all with a special Characterizing Products: A Broad emphasis on the emerging

Perspective 50 role of nanomaterials. Production Volumes 52 Value 52 General Product Complexity and

Performance 53 Architecture, Building Engineering, and Civil

Engineering 55 The Design and Development Context 55 Building Types 58

Contents

3.3 Environments, Systems, and Assemblies 59 Environments 59 Systems and Assemblies 61 Unitary and Modular Design Approaches to

Systems and Assemblies 67 3.4 The Design and Development Process 70

The Overall Development Process 70 Structured Design Processes in Relation to

Materials 74 Unstructured Design Processes 76

3.5 A Design Vignette 78 Further Reading 85

Chapter 4 presents the basic properties CHAPTER 4 Material Classes, Structure, of materials from a qualitative and and Properties 87 quantitative perspective. Topics should 4.1 Classes of Materials 87 be familiar to engineers and material Metallic Materials 87 scientists and can be of interest to Ceramic Materials 87 technically oriented designers. Polymeric Materials 88

Composite Materials 88 Electronic Materials 88 Biomaterials 88 Nanomaterials 89

4.2 The Internal Structure of Materials 89 Atomic Structure 89 Atomic Bonding 92 Crystal Structure 95 Molecular Structure 98 Defects 99

4.3 Mechanical Behavior 103 Stress, Strain, Stiffness, and Strength 103 The Origins of Strength 109

4.4 Thermal Behavior 113 Intrinsic Thermal Properties 113 The Physics of Thermal Properties 115

4.5 Electrical Behavior 117 Resistivity and Conductivity 118 Dielectric Behavior 119 The Physics of Electrical Properties 122

4.6 Magnetic Behavior 127 Magnetic Fields in a Vacuum 127 Magnetic Fields in Materials 128 Measuring Magnetic Properties 128 The Physics of Magnetic Behavior 130

Contents

Optical Behavior 132 The Interaction of Materials and Radiation. 133 Specular and Diffuse Reflection 134 Absorption 134 Transmission 134 Refraction 134 The Physics of Optical Properties 136

Acoustic Behavior 141 Sound Velocity and Wavelength 141 Sound Management 141 Sound Wave Impedance and Radiation

of Sound Energy 143 Further Reading 144

Material Property Charts and Their Uses 147 Material Property Charts 147

The Modulus Bar Chart and the Modulus-Density Bubble Chart 147

The Modulus-Relative Cost Chart 149 The Strength-Density Chart 150 Thermal Expansion, a, and Thermal

Conductivity, A 151 Feel: Tactile Attributes 152 Hearing: Acoustic Attributes 154

Using Charts to Select Translation, Screening, Ranking, and Documentation 154

Translation 155 Screening 157 Ranking: Material Indices 157 Documentation 157

Plotting Limits and Indices on Charts 158 Screening: Constraints on Charts 158 Ranking: Indices on Charts 159 Computer-Aided Selection 160

Resolving Conflicting Objectives 162 The Method of Weight Factors 163 Systematic Methods: Penalty Functions and

Exchange Constants 164 Tradeoff Strategies 165 Penalty Functions 166 Values for the Exchange Constants, a 167

Further Reading 170

Chapter 5 presents a structured design process based on material property charts that can be used for material selection and resolving conflicting design objectives. The approach is of great interest to design-oriented engineers and technically oriented architects.

Contents

Chapter 6, 7, and 8 provide an introduction to the classes and fundamental characteristics of nanomaterials, how they are made and characterized, and their properties. The treatment generally assumes some level of prior technical background in materials. These chapters are of interest to engineers and material scientists who are entering the field of nanomaterials. Technically oriented architects and designers who want a deeper understanding of nanomaterials will find these sections useful.

CHAPTER 6

6.1 6.2

CHAPTER 7 7.1

7.2

7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7

CHAPTER 8

8.1

Nanomaterials: Classes and Fundamentals 177 Classification of Nanomaterials 177 Size Effects 182

Surface-to-Volume Ratio Versus Shape 182 Magic Numbers 187 Surface Curvature 190 Strain Confinement 194 Quantum Effects 194

Further Reading 197

Nanomaterials: Properties 199 Mechanical Properties 199

Scale and Properties 199 Scale Dependence of

Material Properties 200 The Mechanical Properties of

Nanostructured Materials 201 Thermal Properties of Nanomaterials 211

Melting Point 211 Thermal Transport 214

Electrical Properties 218 Magnetic Properties 222 Optical Properties 227 Acoustic Properties 232 Special Cases 233

Carbon Nanotubes 233 Nanocomposites 239

Further Reading 254

Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Characterization 257 Synthesis of Nanoscale Materials and Structures 257

Methods for Making 0-D Nanomaterials 257 Methods for Making 1-D and 2-D

Nanomaterials 260 Methods for Making 3-D Nanomaterials 263 Тор-Down Processes 264 Intermediate Processes 266 Bottom-Up Processes 267 Methods for Nanoprofiling 267

Characterization of Nanomaterials 271 Further Reading 289

Design Environments and Systems 291 Environments and Systems 291 Structural and Mechanical Environments 293

Nano-Based Structural/Mechanical Applications 296

The Thermal Environment 307 Basic Heat Transfer 308 Thermal Environments in Products 309 Thermal Environments in Spaces 312 Application of Nanomaterials in the

Design of Thermal Environments 317 Electrical and Magnetic Environments 328

Electronic Materials 328 General Trends 328 Impacts 331

Light and Optical Environments 334 Fundamentals of Light 336 Color 339 Visual Perception 340 Luminous Environments 342 Applications of Nanomaterials 344 Nano-Related Phenomena 345 Light Control Films, Coatings, and

Sheets 347 Antireflection, Transmission,

and Contrast Enhancement 348 Dichroics 350 Polarizing Films and Glasses 351 Chromics 352 Luminescence 355 Nanophosphors in Lighting 355 Solid-State Lighting: Quantum Dots

andQLEDs 357 Displays, Screens, and Electronic

Papers 360 Other Nano-Based Technologies 363

Sound and Acoustical Environments 364 Fundamental Characteristics of Sound

Environments 365 General Noise-Control Approaches 367

Chapter Э looks at characteristics of primary design environments that are important in architecture and product design. The role of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies within these environments are explored in a qualitative way. For those not in the design fields, the chapter provides an insight into how nanomaterials impact real applications and how an applications perspective can stimulate ideas about developing novel materials.

Contents

Space Acoustics 369 Applications of Nanomaterials in Sound

Environments 372 Manipulating Properties 372 Nanoporous Sound Insulation Materials 374 Acoustical Damping and Isolation 374 Sound Sources 376 Musical Instruments 377 Other Applicaations 378

9.7 Enabling Environments and Systems: Energy 379

9.8 Interactive, Smart, and Intelligent Systems and Environments 389

Responsive Environments 389 Characterizing Interactive, Smart,

and Intelligent Environments 392 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology

Applications 395 9.9 Nanomaterials Costs 396

Types 397 Further Reading 401

Chapter 10 explores the many different CHAPTER 10 Nanomaterial Product Forms and and exciting functional and form Functions 403 characteristics of nanomaterials that are 10.1 Characterizing Forms and Functions 403 related to architecture, engineering, and Ю.2 Functional Characteristics 406 product design as well to the several Fundamental Approaches for Cleaning industries that produce them. Chapter a n d Antimicrobial Actions 407 10 is suitable for readers with any type Self-Cleaning and Easy-Cleaning of background. Materials 412

Self-Healing Materials 423 Antifogging, Antireflection, and Other

Characteristics 427 10.3 "Smart" Materials 427 10.4 Nanoproduct Forms 431

Nanocoatings 433 Multilayers and Nanofilms 436 Nanopaints and Nanosealants 438 Nanoadhesives 443 Nanoporous Materials 446 Nanotextiles 450 Nanocosmetics 459

Further Reading 465

C o n t e n t s

CHAPTER 11 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies in Health and the Environment 467

11.1 The Context 467 11.2 Medical and Pharmaceutical

Nanotechnology Applications 468 11.3 Health Concerns 472

Primary Considerations 475 Effects 476 A Specific Debate 478

11.4 Environmental Benefits and Impacts 481 Reducing Environmental Impacts:

General Source Reductions 482 General Remediation and Treatment 485 Environmental Monitoring 486 Water Cleaning and Purification 486 Air Cleaning and Purification 491 Special Applications in Air Pollution

Reduction 494 Soil Remediation 495 General Environmental Risks 496 Workplace Sources and Exposures 498

Further Reading 499

CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context 501 12.1 Industry Perspectives 501 12.2 The Automotive Industry 502 12.3 The Building and Construction Industry 510

Directions 510 Systems 512

12.4 Aerospace, Textiles, Sports, and Other Industries 518

12.5 A Closing Comment 523 Further Reading 525

Chapter 11 surveys the many positive applications of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies in the medical and pharmaceutical world as well as in improving the environment. Health questions are also addressed. Chapter 11 is suitable for readers with any type of background.

Chapter 12, the final chapter of the book, succinctly reviews drivers (economic, societal, ethical) that are leading to increased uses of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies in various industries.

Index 527