NAME THE SEVEN DWARVES

NOW PICK OUT THE SEVEN DWARVES.

Turn your paper over

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Goofy Sleazy Shy Droopy Moody Hoppy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Ren Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Cheesy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Itchy Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Diddy Stimpy

SEVEN DWARVES

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

MEMORY

MEMORY FEATS

5

Definition: Learning that has persisted over time; The ability to retain knowledge

Adaptive Advantage?Allowed animals to use information from the past to respond quickly to immediate challenges

WHAT IS MEMORY?

Memorized series of nonsense syllables(TUV, YOF, GEK)

More times he practiced the list on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2

Retention Curve

HERMANN EBBINGHAUS

The human memory system is often compared to that of a computer

Information has to be encoded (getting information to our brain)

Then stored (retained)And finally retrieved (getting in out of the

memory system)

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

Proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

See pg 187

THREE STAGE PROCESSING MODEL

Sensory Input

Rehearsal

Forgetting Forgetting

ENCODING

Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings Space – we often encode the place on the page where

material appears Time – we unintentionally note the sequence of a day’s

events Frequency – we effortlessly keep track of how many times

things happen (I ran into you four times today!) Well-learned information – reading billboards, the writing

on a truckEffortful Processing: Encoding that requires

attention and conscious effort Often produces durable and accessible memories

AUTOMATIC V. EFFORTFUL PROCESSING

Rote Rehearsal: Repeating information over and overBoosts memory

Spacing Effect: Distributed v. Massed Rehearsal Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study/practice

Repeated quizzing also helps “Testing is a powerful means of improving

learning, not just assessing it.” – Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke

EFFORTFUL PROCESSING: REHEARSAL & SPACING EFFECT

Our tendency to recall best the last and fi rst items in a list

Primacy Eff ect: Enhanced recall for items at the beginning of the list More time to practice

Recency Eff ect: Enhanced recall for the last items on a list Still in working/short-term memory

Presidents, names, word lists, etc.

REHEARSAL: SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

Visual: Encoding of picture images (imagery)Acoustic: Encoding of sound (the sound of

words)Semantic: Encoding of meaning (meaning of

words)Which yields the best memory of verbal

information?Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving

Flashed a word at people Then asked a question that required participants to

process the word visually, acoustically, or semantically Is the word in capital letters? Does the word rhyme with train? Would the word fit into this sentence? The girl put the

______on the table.

WHAT WE ENCODE

TYPES OF ENCODING: RESULTS

Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable/meaningful units; often occurs automatically; Helps you fit more into your STMCould be a single letter, a name, or a concept

FBIIRSCIAEPAFBI IRS CIA EPA

Hierarchies: Composed of a few broad concept divided and subdivided into narrower concepts

ORGANIZING INFORMATION FOR ENCODING

ENCODING: MNEMONIC DEVICE

A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts

“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale

“People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”

MNEMONIC DEVICES

Loci Method: A person associates items to be remembered with places

Peg-Word: A person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorizedGoal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

PEG WORD SYSTEM

STORAGE

First stage of storage that holds large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time Just long enough for it to be screened for importance

Iconic Memory: Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli A photographic or picture-image memory lasting no

more than a few tenths of a secondEchoic Memory: Momentary sensory memory of

auditory stimuli If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be

recalled within 3 or 4 secondsCan hold up to 12 bits of information

SENSORY MEMORY/SENSORY REGISTERS

SENSORY MEMORY EXPERIMENT

22

The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.

R G TF M QL Z S

50 ms (1/20 second)

“Recall”R T M Z

(44% recall)

Sperling (1960)

PARTIAL REPORT

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Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

“Recall”J R S

(100% recall)

Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally

thought.

50 ms (1/20 second)

S X TJ R SP K Y

SENSORY MEMORIES

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Iconic0.5 sec. long

Echoic3-4 sec. long

Hepatic< 1 sec. long

The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

A tiny amount of information from your sensory registers will move to short term memory Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly

before it is stored or forgotten

Stays in as long as you can rehearse it Slightly better for what we hear than what we see

Small capacity; 20-30 second durationCan hold the “magic number 7 plus or minus

2” – George Miller Can increase it by chunking

Also called working memory

WORKING MEMORY (SHORT-TERM)

Actively manipulating informationEverything entering consciousness does so

through WMMake experiences meaningful by blending

them with info from long-term memoryMental workspace where you think about

memories pull from long-term storage

WORKING MEMORY

Information moves to long term as a result of rehearsal Rote or…Elaborative Rehearsal: linking new material to things you already know

FROM SHORT TERM TO LONG TERM

Capacity is limitlessEstimates on capacity range from 1000

billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986)

LONG TERM MEMORY

Explicit (Declarative): Memories for information we can readily express in words and that we are aware of having; Can be intentionally retrieved from memory Semantic: Facts and concepts not liked to a particular time; Like

a dictionary or encyclopedia Episodic: Personally experienced events Processed by hippocampus (active during deep sleep), not

stored here Implicit (Nondeclarative): Memories for information that

we cannot readily express in words and may not be aware of having Procedural: motor skills and habits Emotional Memories: learned emotional responses to various

stimuli (usually through classical conditioning) Processed by the cerebellum

Flashbulb memories

TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORIES

TO SUMMARIZE….

Memories are not stored in one “spot” in the brain

Working memory is processed in the prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe

Long-term semantic memories are located in the frontal and temporal lobes

Episodic memories are stored in the frontal and temporal lobes

WARNING

Experience does modify the brain’s neural network Increased activity in a

particular pathway causes neural interconnections to form or strengthen

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) An increase in a synapse’s

firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Basis for learning

NEURAL BASIS FOR MEMORY

In stressful situationsEmotion-triggered stress hormones make more glucose energy available for brain activity (brain is getting ready for something to happen!)

Boost in amygdala activity (processes memories that have strong emotional associations)

Result: Arousal can sear certain events into the brain

Weaker emotion = weaker memories Sudden stress hormones can block older

memories (class presentation?)

STRESS AND MEMORIES

RETRIEVAL

Recall v. Recognition: We remember more than we recall

During retrieval, information flows from long-term memory back to working memory

Mind reconstructs a memory out of the stored bits

Retrieved information is blended with the new content currently present in the working memory Prone to changeFuture retrievals will bring up the modified file!

Memories are held in a storage by a web of associations (info is interconnected with other bits) Those other memories then serve as retrieval cues

Most effective cues are those we generate ourselves Elaborative rehearsal

The more retrieval cues, the more likely you are to remember

Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

CUES: STIMULI THAT HELP YOU ACCESS TARGET INFORMATION

Context Congruent Memory: Enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information More similar to your retrieval circumstances are to

your encoding circumstances, the more likely you are to remember the information Retracing your footsteps Revisiting the scene of a crime

Mood Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

CONTEXT/MOOD CONGRUENT MEMORY

FORGETTING

Daniel Schacter Three Sins of Forgetting

Absent-mindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding failure

Transience: storage decay over time Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information

Three Sins of Distortion Misattribution: confusing the source of information Suggestibility: the lingering effects of

misinformation Bias: belief-colored recollections

One Sin of Intrusion: Persistence: unwanted memories

WHY DO WE FORGET?

Most of what we sense, we never noticeIf you don’t encode it, you can’t retrieve it

Slower encoding with age

ENCODING FAILURE

Hermann Ebbinghaus’ “Forgetting Curve”We forget a lot right away, but then it levels off!

Result: Some memories do “decay”

Explanation?Fading of the memory traces in our brains?

STORAGE DECAY

Forgetting is often a result of not being able to get out the memories we have stored

Why? Proactive Interference: Something you learned

earlier disrupts your recall of something you learn later Forward-acting

Retroactive Interference: Occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier Backward-acting

Information that is presented in the hour before sleep is protected from retroactive interference But not in the few minutes before sleep!

RETRIEVAL FAILURE

We unknowingly revise our memories People who were told the benefit of tooth-brushing

recalled having frequently more brushed their teeth in the preceding two weeks then people who were not told the benefit of tooth-brushing

Memory is often self-serving Sigmund Freud and Memory

We repress (banish from the conscious) painful memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety

“Submerged” memories will linger and can be retrieved by some later cue or during therapy

Many psychologists think repression is rare We might actually be more likely to remember emotional

memories

MOTIVATED FORGETTING

We infer our past from stored information plus what we later imagined, expected, saw, or heard

Elizabeth Loftus Misinformation Effect: After exposure to subtle misinformation,

many people misremember We alter and save the new fi le

False Memories: One experiment showed people digitally altered photos depicting themselves (from childhood) taking a hot air balloon ride three times over two weeks. Half of the participants “remembered” the experience.

It is then hard for us to discriminate between these altered and real memories

Source Amnesia (misattribution): attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined You recall events, but are not sure how you learned about them Rumors!

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

For example, your friend told you about his bike trip to Wisconsin. A year later, you recall details about the trip, however, you are not sure about how you learned about the details. You may falsely conclude that you have traveled to Wisconsin. You may reason that you recall things so clearly, you must have been there yourself. The source of the information - your friend - is forgotten, and the second-hand information is integrated in your memory.

Or maybe your friend told you that apples are bad for you because they are high in fat. You may later recall the fact, and wonder how you learned about it. You conclude that you learned it from TV or the news paper article. You may avoid eating apples believing that they are high in fat. (In reality, apples contain no fat). You give the knowledge more weight if you believe you learned about it from credible media instead of an unreliable friend.

SOURCE AMNESIA EXAMPLES

Children’s memories are extremely susceptible to suggestibility

Experiments Researchers asked 3-year-olds to show on anatomically correct

dolls where a pediatrician had touched them; 55% of children who had not received genital examinations pointed there.

Preschoolers overheard a false comment that a magician’s rabbit had gotten loose in their classroom. Later, when suggestively questioned, 78% recalled actually seeing the rabbit.

Children chose cards from a deck of possible happenings and an adult read the card followed by, “Think real hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you. Can you remember going to the hospital with a mousetrap on your finger?” After 10 weekly interviews, with the same adults repeatedly asking children to think about several real and fictitious events, a new adult asked the same question. 58% produced false, often vivid, stories regarding one or more events they had never experienced.

CHILDREN AND EYEWITNESS RECALL

Use a neutral personDo not ask leading questions Keep children from involved adults

before questioning them

SUGGESTIONS FOR CHILDREN’S TESTIMONY

Can clinicians help their patients “recover” memories of childhood abuse?

How can we interpret therapists who use “memory work” techniques like guided imagery, hypnosis, and dream analysis?

RECOVERING REPRESSED MEMORIES

1. Sexual abuse happens2. Injustice happens3. Forgetting happens4. Recovered memories are commonplace

Do our minds forcibly repress painful experiences?5. Memories of things happening before age 3

are unreliable6. Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or

the influence of drugs are especially unreliable

7. Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting

AGREED UPON FACTS REGARDING REPRESSED MEMORIES

Anterograde Amnesia: Cannot recall events that happen after the onset of the amnesia Damage to hippocampus

Retrograde Amnesia: Cannot recall events before the amnesia set in Disease, brain injury

Infantile Amnesia: Most people cannot remember events prior to the age of 3 Immaturity in parts of the brain Lack of language development

TYPES OF AMNESIA