MY INTERACTIONS WITH ANIMALS

• Personal – pets– falconry– birdwatching

• Professional– endangered

species– wildlife

conservation– biodiversity

HUMAN-WILDLIFE HUMAN-WILDLIFE RELATIONSHIPSRELATIONSHIPS

Knowledge, attitudes, preferences, values, activities and issues

ONTOGENY OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE RELATIONSHIPS

• Key components develop early in life and may even be innate (the “biophilia hypothesis”)

• <8 years old--affected strongly by basic emotions related to animals (fear, cuddly things, etc.)

• 8-12 years old--most significant period, acquire “facts” about animals from personal experiences– outdoor interactions with wildlife are very important– reinforced by books, stories, classroom learning, and TV

(13% of children’s books have an animal in the title!)

• 13-16 years old--concepts, abstract ideas, ethics– begin to understand the complexity of relationships

Human-animalrelationships

Basic attitudes towards animals

Knowledge ofanimals

Preferences forcertain animals

Values attributed to animals

Activitiesinvolvingwildlife

Opinions onkey wildlife

issues

KNOWLEDGE OF WILDLIFE• Most Americans are surprisingly ignorant about

wildlife, but they often have strong “beliefs” that are thought to be factual (but often aren’t)

• Stephen Kellert’s 1980 study (T-F and multiple choice test), for example:– “Most insects have backbones” (57% correct)– “The manatee is an insect” (26% correct)– “The coyote is an endangered species” (26% correct)– “Raptors are small rodents” (13% correct)

• Overall, for the general population, 53% correct• Many errors could be traced to common “myths”

about wildlife

KNOWLEDGE OF WILDLIFE• Americans were most knowledgeable

about:– Dangerous wild animals (63% correct)– Pets (56% correct)– Domestic animals (53% correct)

• Americans were least knowledgeable about:– Native predators (47% correct)– Taxonomic relatedness (38% correct)– Invertebrates (36% correct)

KNOWLEDGE OF WILDLIFE• Most knowledgeable groups:

– birdwatchers, trappers and hunters, college educated, high income, members of nature groups, residents of Alaska and Rocky Mountains

• Least knowledgeable groups:– < high school education, >75 years old,

<25 years old, residents of large cities

A SHOCKING DISCOVERY

• 2002 study of British school children (4-12 years old)

• Identification and knowledge of native wildlife versus Pokémon characters– Sex and age differences existed– Overall, kids knew much more

about Pokémon characters (78% correct) than native species (53% correct)!!!

ATTITUDES TOWARD ANIMALS

• 1980 study by Stephen Kellert is a classic• Based on responses of Americans to a

battery of questions designed to reveal attitudes toward animals

• Used statistical methods to arrange respondents into categorical groups

• Revealed 10 groupings of basic attitudes• Subsequently validated by many other

similar studies

10 ATTITUDES• Naturalistic: primary interest in wildlife and outdoors;

animals are the context for activities in natural setting (backpackers, nature study, sport hunting)

• Ecologistic: Primary concern for environment as a system, emphasis on wildlife interactions with other species (ecological study, conservation activism)

• Humanistic: Primary interest and affection for individual animals, especially pets and large attractive species (pet ownership, casual zoo visitation, anthropomorphism)

• Moralistic: Primary concern for ethically correct treatment of animals, strongly opposed to exploitation and cruelty (animal welfare/rights group member)

• Scientistic: Primary interest in studying the physical attributes and biological functioning of animals (scientific study, collecting)

10 ATTITUDES (continued)• Aesthetic: Primary interest in the artistic and

symbolic features of animals (nature appreciation, wildlife art)

• Utilitarian: Primary concern for the practical and material values of animals (farmers, meat hunters, trappers)

• Dominionistic: Primary satisfaction derived from mastery and control of animals, typically in a sporting context (trophy hunters, animal spectator sports)

• Negativistic: Primarily concerned about avoiding animals because of fear and dislike (fear of animals, cruelty to animals)

• Neutralistic: Completely uninterested, passive avoidance due to indifference (avoidance of animals)

WHO’S IN AND NOT IN THESE GROUPS

• Naturalistic: college educated, Alaska vs <6th grade, black• Ecologistic: college educated, Alaska vs <6th grade, black• Humanistic: 18-25 yrs old, female vs farmers, >60 yrs old• Moralistic: west coast, female vs rural, male• Scientistic: college educated,18-25 yrs old vs >60<12 yrs

old• Aesthetic: female, east coast vs <6th grade, farmer• Utilitarian: farmers, >60 yrs old vs college educated, urban• Dominionistic: farmer, male vs west coast, female• Negativistic: black, <8th grade vs college educated, rural• Neutralistic: urban, female vs rural, male

HOW MANY ARE IN THESE GROUPS?

• Naturalistic: 1978 (10%), 1995 (12%) • Ecologistic: 1978 (7%), 1995 (13%)• Humanistic: 1978 (35%), 1995 (22%)• Moralistic: 1978 (20%), 1995 (16%)• Scientistic: 1978 (1%), 1995 (<1%) • Aesthetic: 1978 (15%), 1995 (13%)• Utilitarian: 1978 (20%), 1995 (14%)• Dominionistic: 1978 (3%), 1995 (8%)• Negativistic: 1978 (2%), 1995 (15%)• Neutralistic: 1978 (35%), 1995 (40%)• Theistic: 1995 (<1%) a new category?• Note: totals are >100% because of overlap

2002 CLASS

• Naturalistic: 24% (vs 12%)• Ecologistic: 22% (vs 13%)• Humanistic: 28% (vs 22%)• Moralistic: 19% (vs 16%)• Scientistic: 2% (vs <1%)• Aesthetic: 9% (vs 13%)• Utilitarian: 6% (vs 14%)• Dominionistic: <1% (vs 8%)• Negativistic: <1% vs 15%)• Neutralistic: <1% (vs 40%)• Theistic: <1% (vs <1%)• Note: totals are >100% because of overlap

ANIMAL PREFERENCES• Not all animals are liked by people; favorites

exist• Kellert’s study ranked a range of species• Top favorites (among choices offered):

– dog, horse, swan, robin, butterfly, trout, salmon, eagle, elephant, owl, turtle, cat

• Bottom least favorites:– cockroach, mosquito, rat, wasp, rattlesnake, bat, vulture,

shark, skunk, lizard, crow, coyote

• We generally prefer animals that are:– beautiful, intelligent, related to us, large, useful,

economically valuable, not threatening, not predatory, graceful

WHY WE VALUE ANIMALS• We have relied on wildlife as valuable resources

for >99% of human history• Today, we value wildlife in 2 basic ways:

– Instrumental value: We still value animals that are useful to us because they help us achieve our own goals (an anthropocentric view)

– Intrinsic value: We also value animals in their own right, regardless of their usefulness (a biocentric view)

• Many Americans do not value wildlife highly in either context and are willing to compromise human needs for only a few favored species

PARTICIPATION IN ACTIVITIES INVOLVING WILDLIFE

• American interact with wildlife in a variety of ways:– 78% watched nature shows on TV– 67% owned a pet– 59% feed birds– 45% visit zoos– 44% fished– 12% hunted– 11% belonged to a conservation organization– 8% birdwatched seriously

• How they interact with wildlife influences their relationship with wildlife (e.g., the “Bambi” effect)

MOST ASPECTS OF HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE DYNAMIC

• Much variation exists within American public– gender, ethnicity, age, regional, etc.

• Differences exist between different cultures

• Changes take place over time• Education influences human-animal

relationships

GENDER AND ATTITUDES

ETHNICITY AND ATTITUDES

USA VERSUS JAPAN

Rank USA J apan

1 Humanistic (38%) Humanistic (37%)

2 Moralistic (28%) Negativistic (31%)

3 Negativistic (26%) Dominionistic (28%)

4 UUUtttiiillliiitttaaarrriiiaaannn (23%) Naturalistic (22%)

5 Ecologistic (22%) UUUtttiiillliiitttaaarrriiiaaannn (22%)

6 Naturalistic (20%) Moralistic (18%)

7 Dominionistic (13%) Ecologistic (15%)

Knowledge 53% 48%

CULTURAL VIEWS OF WHALING

HISTORICAL CHANGES IN ATTITUDES

EDUCATION AFFECTS ATTITUDES

naturalistic

moralistic

ecologistic

negativistic

utilitarian

dominionistic

“Negative” attitudes diminish; “positive” attitudes replace them

EDUCATION AFFECTS ATTITUDES

MANY AMERICANS PURSUE WILDLIFE-RELATED

ACTIVITIES• In 1996, there were 40 million “consumptive

recreational users” and 110 million “non-consumptive recreational users”

• 82 million feed birds, 60 million bird watched, 18 million photographed animals

• Most Americans support wildlife conservation and management

• Most Americans want stronger wildlife protection (e.g., 82% favor the Endangered Species Act in spite of special-interest opposition)

OPINIONS ON WILDLIFE ISSUES VARY WIDELY

• In the USA wildlife species are held as a public trust and managed by government in ways that reflect “the public’s” views

• But, “the public” can be divided on key wildlife issues, reflecting differences between individuals/groups

• Divergent opinions can often be interpreted in terms of underlying knowledge, attitudes, preferences and values

PEOPLE WANT GOVERNMENT TO TAKE CARE OF THEIR WILDLIFE

VIEWS ABOUT HUNTING ARE COMPLEX

SPECIES PREFERENCES AND WILLINGNESS TO SACRIFICE

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES

SPECIAL INTERESTS AND WILDLIFE

EDUCATION AND VIEWS ON WILDLIFE ISSUES

HUMAN-WILDLIFE RELATIONSHIPS CAN IMPROVE

• Better knowledge, improved attitudes, increased value, and broader tolerance promote an ethic of care and compassion

• Education makes a huge difference• Early experiences with animals are very

important• Messages and images conveyed by the media

can be very influential (e.g., whaling, tuna-porpoise, killing baby seals for fur, listing feral cats as unprotected animals, etc.)