My Grammar Scrapbook

8/13/2019 My Grammar Scrapbook

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MY GR MM RSCR PBOOK


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Grammar items Page

Language forms and functions

Modals

Gerund after prepositions

Logical and sequence connectors

The prefix pre

Punctuation

Preposition

Conjunctions

Type of sentences

Passive construction

Reported speech

Tenses

Subject-verb agreement

Verb and preposition combinations

Phrasal verbs

Adverbs of degree

Infinitives

Adjective and nouns

Nouns as adjectives


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Using some, a few, few with plural countable noun


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Language and Function

A language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used.

In speech these include:

giving instructions

introducing ourselves

making requests

In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate

ideas clearly.

These include:

describing processes

comparing or contrasting things or ideas, and

classifying objects or ideas


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Modals: should, need, may, have, might have

a) Should

We used the modal should to indicate giving advice It is similar in meaning to must

b) Should not

The negative of should

Can be written as should not or contracted form shouldnt

c) Need

We used the modal need to indicate a necessity or have to

d) Could

Is used to indicate possibility or ability

e) Might

Express two kinds of meaning, (weak probability (i.e. weaker than may). ,

Mightalso express an intrinsic meaning, which, like may, has to do withpermission.

Exchangeable with may in somecases

It might rain It may rain.

You might be right You may be right.

She might have gotlost.

She may have gotlost.

Might I use thephone?

May I use thephone?


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Gap-fill Exercise

Complete the sentences using the words listed in the box below, then click the "Check"button to check your answers. Don't forget to capitalize when necessary. Some gaps may have

more than one correct answer.

can could have to must might should

1. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He be exhausted

after such a long flight. He prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest.

2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out, you walk

downtown and explore the waterfront.

3. Hiking the trail to the peak be dangerous if you are not well prepared for

dramatic weather changes. You research the route a little more before you

attempt the ascent.

4. When you have a small child in the house, you leave small objects lying

around. Such objects be swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.

5. Dave: you hold your breath for more than a minute?

Nathan: No, I can't.

6. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It have cost a fortune.


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Gerunds after Prepositions

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

verb + preposition

Exception: toHere we use the phrase:looking forward to + Gerund

Example:I'm looking forward to seeingyou soon.

We use the Gerund after the following phrases:

accuse of They were accused of breakinginto a shop.

agree with I agree with playingdarts.

apologize for They apologize for beinglate.

believe in She doesn't believe in gettinglost in the wood.

blame for The reporter is blamed for writingbad stories.

complain about She complains about bullying.

concentrate on Do you concentrate on readingor writing?

congratulate sb. on I wanted to congratulate you on makingsuch a good speech.

cope with He is not sure how to cope with gettingolder.

decide against They decided against stealingthe car.

depend on Success may depend on becomingmore patient.

dream about/of Sue dreams of beinga pop star.

feel like They feel like goingto bed.

get used to You must get used to workinglong hours.

insist on The girls insisted on goingout with Mark.

look forward to I'm looking forward to seeingyou soon.

prevent ... from How can I prevent Kate from workingin this shop?

rely on He doesn't rely on winning in the casino.

succeed in How then can I succeed in learningchemistry?

specialize in The firm specialized in designingwebsites.

stop sb. from I stopped Andrew from smoking.

talk about/of They often talk about travellingto New Zealand.

think of Frank thinks of playingchess.


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warn sb. against We warned them against using this computer.

worry about The patient worries about havingthe check-up.

Logical and Sequence Connectors

Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a particular relationship.

These relationships can be: sequential(time), reason and purpose, adversative (opposition

and/or unexpected result), condition.

Subordinating

conjunctions

Introduce adverb clauses

Either the dependent clause or the independentclause may come first in the sentence, with nochange in meaning

Prepositions Is followed by a noun or noun phrase

Either clause may appear first

Transitions andConjunctiveadverbs

Joins two sentences separated by a period or twoclauses separated by a semi-colon.

Only one possible order of the sentences

The transition may appear clause initial, clause final,or between the subject and verb of thesecondsentence.

Conjunctions One possible order

A comma is used before the conjunction

In academic writing, do not begin a sentence with aconjunction


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- Sequential (Time)

Subordinating conjunctions untilafterbeforewhen

whilesinceoncewheneveras soon as

as long asby the time

Prepositions duringafterbeforesinceuntilupon

Conjunctive adverbs andtransitions

thennextafter that

following thatbefore thatafterwardsmeanwhilebeforehand

Conjunctions and then

- Causal (Reason and Purpose, Cause and Effect)

Subordinating conjunctions becauseassinceinasmuch asnow thatas long assuch...that


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Conjunctive adverbs andtransitions

howevernonethelessnevertheless

on the other handin contrast

on the contrary

Conjunctions but...anywaybut...stillyet...stillbut

Subordinating conjunctions Ifunlesseven if

providing (that)provided (that)in casewhether or notonly if*

*verb inversion, no comma if only iffirst in the sentence

The Prefix

A prefixis a group of letters placed before the root of a word.

Prefix Meaning Examplea-, an- without amoral, atypical

ante- Before antecedent, antenatal

anti- against anti-establishment

auto- Self Autopilot

circum- around Circumvent


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co- With co-conspirator, co-pilot

com-, con- With companion, contact

contra- against Contradiction

de- Off delist, devalue

dis- Not Disappear

en- put into enclose, envelop

ex- out of, former extract, ex-governor

extra- beyond, more than Extracurricular

hetero- different Heterosexual

homo- Same homonym, homophone

hyper- over, more Hyperactive

il -, im-, in-, ir- not, without illegal, impractical, inconsiderate, irresponsible

in- Into Insert

inter- between internet, intersection,

intra- between intranet, intravenous

macro- Large Macronutrients

micro- Small Microscope

mono- one Monocle

non- not, without nonentity, nonstarter,

omni- all, every omnipresent, omniscient

post- after post-mortem

pre-, pro- before, forward precede, project

sub- under submarine, substandard

syn- same time Synchronize

super- above supervisor, superhumantrans- across Transmit

tri- three tripod, triceratops

un- not undone, unfinished,

uni- one unicorn, unilaterally


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Punctuation

Punctuation marks make the meaning of a piece of writing clearer.

Punctuation Marks Usage Examples

a) Full stop (.) To mark the end of a sentences

To mark abbreviations and contracted

words

He is from a small town.

L.A. Los Angeles

Dr. doctor

Prof. professor

b) Comma (,) To separate actions or items in a

sentence.

To separate the main clause from the

other part of the sentences

To mark off direct speech in a

sentence

Used after expressions (for example,

however, apart from that, indeed, etc.)

James enters the kitchen,

took a sandwich and walked

out.

After I mopped the floor, I

went out to play.

It is very expensive, said

Aaron.

Indeed, he is intelligent.

c) Semi-colon (;) To elaborate on a statement in the first

part of the sentence

He has many problems;

most of them are about

money

d) Colon (:) To introduce a list of things

To make a quotation

We need to buy the

following: cooking oil,

sugar, salt and onions

The American General,

Arthur, declared: I should

return.

e) Question

mark (?)

To ask questions Where do you live?

f) Exclamation To show surprise or excitement. Its very beautiful!


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mark (!) To show strong desire or emotion But alas! I could not help.

g) Hyphen (-) To form a compound word from two

or more words

Hes a kind-hearted man.


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Preposition

A preposition is a linking word. It relates one word to another word or phrase in the

same sentence.

He sat on the bench. (on links sat to bench)

The old man rested beneath a tree. (beneath links rested to tree)

This feature is important. If the word is not linked to another word or phrase, it is

not preposition.

The beautiful woman walked in. (inmodifies walk; it is an adverb.)

Types of preposition

Simple prepositionare single words:

Under, between, for, with, against

Complex preposition

Along with, in front of, owing to

Function of preposition

Preposition help:

locate the place of the activities

He stopped at the canteen for a drink.

Ali swam in the pool.

Mabel found her ring under the bed.The little bird fell from a branch of that tree.

Indicate the time or duration of the activities

I have not seen him since January.

He waited untilfour.


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You will have to wait until noon.

He promised to finish the job bytwo oclock.

Indicate direction

The boy ran out ofthe burning house.

The guest walked towardsthe door.

We rushed to the scene ofthe fire.

Introduce phrases

The lady wore a dress of many colours.

He completed his mission despite several disappointments.

He was always lived in fear of death.

Combinations

Prepositions readily combine with nouns, verbs, and adjectives.

Nouns

Examples:

Aptitude, talent for

Belief, faith in

Evidence, hint, news, proof of

Sympathy for, with

Praise for, of

Verbs

Examples:

Annoyed by (a remark)

with (somebody)

argue about (an issue)

with (a person)


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for, against (a proposal)

agree to ( a proposal)

with (somebody)

believein (a religion)belongto (a club)

centreon (atopic, not around)

complywith (rules)

confidein (a person)

dependon (somebody)

decideon (a matter)

differfrom (a feature)

with (a person)

insiston (rights)

objectto (a remark)

quarrelwith (somebody)

relyon (a person)

Adjectives

Afraid, ashamed, aware of

Eligible to, for

Good at

Interested in

Allergic to

Fond of

Happy with

Prepositions also combine with some verbs to form idiomatic expressions; the

meanings of which have to be taken as a whole.


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Examples:

Give in to (submit)

Get away with (escape punishment)

Put up with (endure)Pull through (recover, overcome a crisis)

Spur on (encourage)

Set about(start)

Several prepositions can combine with the same verb; but the combinations carry

different meanings.

Go down (descend)

Through (experience)

Over (review)

In (enter)


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Conjunction

A conjunctionis a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob andDan are friends the conjunctionand connects two nouns and in the sentence. He will drive or

fly the conjunctionor connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go,the conjunctionbut connects two groups of words.

Coordinating conjunctionsare conjunctionswhich connect two equal parts of a sentence. The

most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways:

Andis used to join or add words together in the sentence. (example: They ate and drank.)Or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence. (example He will be here on

Monday or Tuesday.Butis used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong.so is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep.

Subordinating conjunctionsconnect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will bediscussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more

commonsubordinating conjunctionssuch as:

after before unless

although if until

as since whenbecause than while

Correlative conjunctionsare pairs of conjunctionsthat work together. In the sentence Both Janand Meg are good swimmers, both . . . and are correlative conjunctions. The most

common correlative conjunctionsare:

both . . .and

either . . . or

neither . . . nornot only . . . but also


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Type of sentences

There are three types of sentences:a) Simple

Has one subject and one verb

b) Compound

Made up of two simple sentences joined by a conjunction

The two sentences must be on the same subject

c) Complex

Made up of main clause and one or more subordinate clauses

The subordinate clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction or

relative pronoun


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Passive construction

Active voice:

A sentence is in the ACTIVE VOICE if the doer of the action comes before the action.

In other words, the subject does the action expressed by the verb.

Passive voice:

A sentence is in PASSIVE VOICE if the doer of the action comes after the action. In

other words, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb.

How to change ACTIVE VOICE to PASSIVE VOICE

Example: the cat was chased across the field by the dog.

3 2 1

Step 1:changes the place between the doer of the action and the receiver of the

action.

Step 2: changethe verb into the past participle.

Step 3: add an auxiliary verb to 2 or the action verb.


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Reported speech

1) If the introductory sentence starts in the present(Susan says), there is no backshift of tensesin Reported speech.

Example:Direct speech: Susan: "I work in an office."Reported speech: Susan says(that)sheworksin an office.

2) If the introductory sentence starts in the past(Susan said), there is often backshift of tensesin

Reported speech. (see: Note)

Example:Susan: "I work in an office."Susan said(that) she workedin an office.

Backshift of tenses

from to

Simple Present Simple Past

Simple Past

Past PerfectPresent Perfect

Past Perfect

will would

Progressive forms

am/are/is was/were

was/were

had beenhas been

had been

Backshift of tenses

From to

Peter: "I workin the garden." Peter said (that) he workedin the garden.

Peter: "I workedin the garden."

Peter said (that) he had workedin the garden.Peter: "I have workedin the garden."

Peter: "I had workedin the garden."

Peter: "I will workin the garden." Peter said (that) he would workin the garden.


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Peter: "I can workin the garden." Peter said (that) he could workin the garden.

Peter: "I may workin the garden." Peter said (that) he might workin the garden.

Peter: "I would workin the garden."(could, might, should, ought to)

Peter said (that) he would workin the garden.(could, might, should, ought to)

Progressive forms

Peter: "I'm workingin the garden." Peter said (that) he was workingin the garden.

Peter: "I was workingin the garden."

Peter said (that) he had been workingin thegarden.

Peter: "I have been workingin thegarden."

Peter: "I had been workingin thegarden."

If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.

Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday."Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.

Shifting/Conversion of expressions of time

this(evening)

that (evening)

today/thisday

that day

these(days)

those (days)

now Then

(a week)ago

(a week) before

lastweekend

the weekend before / the previousweekend

here There

next(week)

the following (week)

tomorrow the next/following day

Note:

In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.

John: "My brother is at Leipzig university."John said (that) his brother was at Leipzig university.orJohn said (that) his brother is at Leipzig university.

or


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Mandy: "The sun rises in the East."Mandy said (that) the sun rose in the East.orMandy said (that) the sun rises in the East.

Note:

The word >that< can be left out

Tenses

1) Simple present

- The commonest use of the simple present tense is to refer to general time

that is to talk about actions and situations which happen repeatedly, or all the

time, or at any time

- Example:

o I go running three times a week.

o My parents live near Dover

- The simple presence tense is not normally used to talk about temporary

o situations or actions that are going on only at the moment.- It is sometimes used to talk about the future

- It is also common in stories told in present and in commentaries on.

- The simple present is also often used in expressions and in introducing

quotations.

- Some verbs cannot usually be used in progressive tenses. With these verbs,

the simple present is used even to talk about temporary situations that are

only going at the moment


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Subject-verb agreement

Singular verbs

is writes

was

studies

has

does

goes

A singular verb is used:

1. when the subject is singular

2. when the subject is an uncountable noun

3. when abstract nouns are used

4. when the collective noun is considered as a whole

5. when the following expression are used:

Example;

each

anyone

much

either of

everybody

none

everyone

anything

6. when a gerund is used as the subject of a sentence7. when the subject is singular and used with the following expressions:

including

as well as

in addition to

along with


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together with

excluding

8. when the subject is singular and used with eitheror or neithernor

9. when a fixed amount or duration is considered as a whole

Plural verbs

A plural verb is used:

1. when the subject is plural

2. when individuals are represented by a collective noun

3. when two subjects are joined by the conjunction and


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Verb and preposition combination

Phrasal verbs

Some verbs are two partverbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases). They consist ofa verb and a particle:

grow + up>> The children are growing up.

Often this gives the verb a new meaning:

take + after

>> She takes after her mother= She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother.

count + on>> I know I can count on you= I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you.

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) have onlyone pattern:

N (subject) + V + p + N (object)

[Note: N = noun; V = verb; p = particle]

N (Subject) Verb Particle N (Object)

SheI

My father

takescan count

comes

afteron

from

her motheryou

Madrid

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) are phrasal verbs.Phrasal verbs have two different patterns:


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The usual pattern is:N + V + N + p

N (Subject) Verb (N) Object Particle

SheHeWe

gaveknockedwill be leaving

the moneythe glassour friends and neighbours

backoverbehind

But sometimes these verbs have the pattern:N (subject) + V + p + N (object)

N (Subject) Verb Particle N (Object)

SheHeWe

gaveknockedwill be leaving

backoverbehind

the moneythe glassour friends and neighbours

When the object is a personal pronoun,these verbs always have the pattern:

N + V +N + p:

She gave back it

>> She gave it back He knocked over it

>> knocked it over We will be leaving behind them

>> We will be leaving them behind

Phrasal verbs are nearly always made up of atransitive verb and a particle. Commonverbs with their most frequent particles are:


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bring: about, along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up

buy: out, up

call: off, up

carry: off, out

cut: back, down, off, out, up

give: away, back, off

hand: back, down, in, on out, over, round

knock: down, out, over

leave: behind, out

let: down, in, off, out


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pass: down, over, round

point: Out

push: about, around, over

put: across, away, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up

read: out

set: apart, aside, back, down

shut: away, in, off, out

take: apart, away, back, down, in, on, up, over

think: over, through, up


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Adverb of degree

Adverb of degree answers the question to whatextent?

Some example of adverbs of degree:

nearly

extensively

absolutely

marginally

almost

altogether partly

completely

enough

greatly

just

hardly


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Infinitives

1) negative infinitive

-is made by putting not before to

2) progressive infinitive

-progressive infinitive (to be .ing)is used for actions which are or were

going on at the time we are talking about

3) perfect infinitive

-is made by putting to have before the past participle. It has the same kind of

meaning as the perfect or past tenses.

-we often used the perfect infinitive to talk about imaginary past actions and

events: things that didnt happen

4) passive infinitive

-is made by putting to be before the past participle


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Adjective and noun

Noun as Adjective

As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that

describes a noun:

adjective noun

clever teacher

small office

black horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun"acts as" an adjective.

Nounas adjective noun

history Teacher

ticket Office

race Horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first

If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about:

a race horseis a horsethat runs in races

a horse raceis a racefor horses

a boat raceis a racefor boats

a love storyis a storyabout love a war storyis a storyabout war

a tennis ballis a ballfor playing tennis

tennis shoesare shoesfor playing tennis

a computer exhibitionis an exhibitionof computers

a bicycle shopis a shopthat sells bicycles

The "noun as adjective" is singular


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Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in

the singular form.

Right Wrong

boat race boat races NOT boats race, boats races

toothbrush toothbrushes NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes

shoe-lace shoe-laces NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces

cigarettepacket

cigarettepackets

NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets

In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only.

A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news,billiards, and athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they areunchanged:

a news reporter, three news reporters

one billiards table, four billiards tables

an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers

Exceptions:When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts,arms), we use them in the plural form:

clothes shop, clothes shops

sports club, sports clubs

customs duty, customs duties

accounts department, accounts departments

arms production

How do we write the "noun as adjective"?

We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways:

two separate words (car door) two hyphenated words (book-case) one word (bathroom)

There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all

three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)


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How do we say the "noun as adjective"?

For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:

shoeshop

boat-race bathroom

Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?

Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective"together. Look at these examples:

car production costs:we are talking about the costs of producing cars

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

Noun

costs

production costs

car production costs

England football team coach:we are talking about the coach who trains the

team that plays football for England

noun as

adjective

noun as

adjective

noun as

adjective

noun

coach

team coach

football team coach

England football team coach

Note: in England football team coachcan you see a "hidden" "noun asadjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball)have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve.Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nounsin their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries

agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as anoun and other dictionaries do not.


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government road accident research centre:we are talking about a centrethat researches into accidents on the road for the government

noun asadjective

nounas

adjective

noun asadjective

noun asadjective

noun

centre

research centre

accident research centre

road accident research centre

government road accident research centre

Newspapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look atthis example:

BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY

To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The aboveheadline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCHinto the HEALTH of BIRDS.

Note, too, that we can still use a real adjectiveto qualify a "noun as adjective"structure:

emptycoffee jar

honestcar salesman

deliciousdog food

risingcar production costs

famousEngland football team coach


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Nouns as adjective

It is very common to use nouns as adjectives by putting them before other

nouns. For example: cheese pie, cassette box and table leg.

It is not always possible to put two nouns together in this way. Sometimes it is

necessary to use the construction with of (for example: a loaf of bread, not a bread

loaf) or the possessive (for example: a miners lamp, not a miner lamp)

When two nouns are used together like this, they are sometimes written as one

word, especially when the words are short and the expression are very common (for

example: homework and raincoat). In other cases, hyphens are used (for example:

grave-digger), or the words are written separately (for example: bicycle chain).

When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is always singular

even the meaning is plural (example: toothbrush).


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Using some, a few, few with plural countable nouns

1. The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns

The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns generally has the same

significance as the presence of aor anbefore singular countable nouns.

a. Making a general statement

When used in general statements, plural countable nouns are usually not preceded by

determiners. The plural countable nouns in the following general statements are

underlined.

e.g. Musicians must practise a great deal.

Newspapers can contain valuable information.

Larches are conifers.

A general idea can often be expressed either by means of a singular countable noun

preceded by aor an, or by means of a plural countable noun not preceded by a

determiner. For instance, in each of the following pairs of sentences, both sentences in

the pair have the same meaning.

Musicians must practice a great deal.

A musician must practice a great deal.

Newspapers can contain valuable information.

A newspaper can contain valuable information.


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Larches are conifers.

A larch is a conifer.

b. Referring to something not mentioned before

Plural countable nouns are generally not preceded by a determiner when referring to

something not mentioned before.

e.g. Branches blocked our path.

Clouds were gathering overhead.

Suddenly we saw buildings in front of us.

In these examples, the plural nouns branches, cloudsand buildingsare not preceded

by determiners. It is assumed that the branches, clouds and buildings have not been

referred to previously.

c. Naming a profession

When a sentence such as the following is used to name a profession practised by two

or more people, the name of the profession is in the plural and is not preceded by a

determiner.

e.g. They are doctors.

My friends are electricians.We were chefs.

2. The use of The before plural countable nouns

a. Referring to something mentioned before

In general, thehas the same meaning when used with plural countable nouns as

when used with singular countable nouns. For instance, theis used with plural

countable nouns when referring to something which has been mentioned before.

e.g. Fallen leaves covered the ground. The leaves rustled as we walked.

In the orchard were apples and pears. The apples were nearly ripe.

The doors opened, and students and teachers began leaving the building. The

students were talking and laughing.


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In these examples, the first time the words leaves, applesand studentsappear, they

are not preceded by determiners, because the things referred to have not been

mentioned previously. The second time the

words leaves, applesand studentsappear, they are preceded by the, since the

things referred to have already been mentioned.

.

b. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant

Theis used with plural countable nouns when the speaker or writer considers it

obvious which particular persons or things are meant.

e.g. The stars are shining brightly.The roses are blooming.

We have put the children to bed.

I was sitting on the front steps.

These sentences give examples of the use of theto refer to things which are

particularly important to the speaker or writer. The expression the starsusually

refers to the stars which can be seen from the part of the earth where one lives. The

expression the rosesmight refer to roses in one's own garden, or to roses in which

one feels a particular interest. The childrenmight refer to one's own children or tochildren for whom one is responsible. The front stepsmight refer to the front steps

of one's own house.

c. Names of nationalities

Theis sometimes used with the name of a nationality in order to make a general

statement about the people of that nationality. A plural verb must be used in such a

statement.

When the name of a nationality ends in the sound of ch, s, shor z, the name of the

nationality must usually be preceded by the.

Nationality Example

French The French are famous for their fine wines.

Irish The Irish are known as poets and songwriters.


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When the name of a nationality does not end in the sound of ch, s, shor z, the

letter smust be added to the end of the name when it is used in a general

statement. Names of nationalities to which shas been added are often used without

being preceded by the.

Nationality Example

Argentinean Argentineans like to eat beef.

Canadian Canadians have a tradition of playing hockey.

d. Adjectives referring to classes of people

Adjectives such as richand poorcan be used with thein order to refer to a group of

people as a class. A plural verb must be used.

e.g. The blind attend special schools.

The poor do not own their own homes.

The rich often married for money.

In the above examples, the blindhas the meaning of blind people, the poorhas the

meaning of poor people, and the richhas the meaning of rich people.

The following table summarizes the most important uses of the determiners a, an,and thewith singular and plural countable nouns.

The absence of a determiner and the use of A, An and The before countable

nouns

UseSingular Countable

Nouns

Plural Countable

Nouns

A weakened form of One a/an

Naming a profession a/an no determinerMaking a general statement a/an no determiner

Something not mentioned before a/an no determiner

Something referred to as a class The

Something mentioned before The the

When it is obvious what is meant The the

Nationalities ending in ch, se, sh the


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Adjectives referring to classes of

peoplethe

.

3. The use of The with proper nouns

a. Names of people

In English, names of people in the singular are not usually preceded by a determiner.

e.g. Washington was the first president of the United States.

Jack and Eleanor saw the movie.

Determiners are also usually not used when a title precedes a person's name.

Doctor Defoe has a good reputation.

Mr. Carpenter is a friend of ours.

In these examples, the titles Doctorand Mr.are not preceded by determiners.

However, names of people in the plural are usually preceded by the.

e.g. The Smiths live in that house.

I have known the Harrisons for years.

b. Names of places

In English, theis usually used before the following types of place name:

Type of Place Name

canaldesert

ocean

river

sea

plural place names


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place names containing the word of

The following are examples of names of canals, deserts, oceans, rivers, and seas:

e.g. the Panama Canal

the Mojave Desert

the Atlantic Ocean

the St. Lawrence River

the Beaufort Sea

The following are examples of plural place names:

e.g. the United States

the British Isles

the Great Lakes

the Rocky Mountains

The following are examples of place names containing the word of:

e.g. the Gulf of Mexico

the Cape of Good Hope

the Bay of Biscay

the Isle of Wight

Other types of place name are usually not preceded by determiners. For instance,

determiners are usually not used before the following types of place name:

Type of Place Name Example

Lake Lake Superior

Island Manhattan Island

Mountain Mount Rainier

Park Yosemite National Park

City Boston

Street Main Street

Country Canada

State Kansas

Province Nova Scotia

County Halifax County


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4. Nouns used only in the plural

Some English nouns are usually used only in the plural. Such nouns take a plural verb,

and generally have a plural form. For instance, the following nouns, which all refer to

objects with two parts, are usually used only in the plural:

e.g. jeans

pajamas

pliers

scissors

If it is desired to refer to such objects individually, the expression pair ofis often

used.

e.g. a pair of jeans

a pair of pajamas

a pair of pliers

a pair of scissors

When the expression pair ofis used as the subject of the verb, the verb must agree

with the word pair.

e.g. Jeans are fashionable.

A pair of jeans is expensive.

Pliers are very useful.


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A pair of pliers is often useful.

In the above examples, the nounsjeansand plierstake the plural verb are, and the

noun pairtakes the singular verb is.


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