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Muslim slavery and slaving: A bibliography
Joseph C. Miller
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Muslim Slavery and Slaving: A Bibliography
JOSEPH C. MILLER
The w estern-language historiography of Muslim slavery and slaving began
by following broad outlines set by politicians and propagandists and by
later scholars working in similar tones on the history of slavery and the
slave trade elsewhere in the world, particularly in the Americas. Studies
have moved only recently toward concentrating on issues and concepts
specific to the multiple cultures and histories of the Islamic lands.
Western writing on Muslim slavery arose from the British-led abolitionist
campaign against slavery around the globe. Nineteenth-century liberals
castigated M uslims in general terms, sometimes distinguishing them only
slightly from A rabs in particular, as inveterate 'master slaver s and drew
the attention of shocked readers in Europe and America to continuing
exchanges of human beings, under various legal subterfuges, in African
colonies and in the territories of the Middle East from the 1920s on.
An excu lpatory counterthrust arose from a few western-educated Muslims
and from a larger number of orientalist-inclined western sympathizers.
The western apologists focused on the variety of personal statuses available
to slaves, or ex-slaves, unde r Muslim religious law to mo derate the image
of cruelty implicit in the liberal-abolitionist critique.
2
The approach to
Islamic slavery through religio-legal institutions resonated with the parallel
western tradition of studying slavery in ancient Rom e throug h R oma n law
and, more remotely, with the law-based first generation of comparisons
among American slave systems typified by Frank T anne nbau m's famous
Slave and Citizen?
Before the 1970s, when the relationship of slavery to racism animated
scholarly debate in the Americas, academic defenders of the Islamic faith-
ful also excused Muslim slave-holding by alleging tha t blacks, and certainly
the descendants of Africans enslaved there , seemed to have suffered less
racial oppression than the survivors of black slavery in the New World.
The confusion of racial issues with those of slavery on both sides added
little clarity to the discussion of either. In add ition, apologists em phasized
the exotic and - by western standards - anom alous military
4
and harem
slaves often found in Islamic states. These comfortable and even powerful
slaves struck westerners as unusual, if not unique, compared with the
poverty and oppression tha t characterized the New World slavery familiar
to them.
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25 0 THE HUMAN COMMODITY
A modern wave of corrective scholarship formed with publication of
Bernard Lewis's
Ra ce and Color in Islam,
which drew together the evidence
of racism - and the cruelties of slavery - amo ng Muslims.
5
Subsequent
studies viewed Islamic slavery beyond the Arab and Turkish heartlands
to Muslim Africa, to India, and to south-eastern Asia, without the rose-
coloured glasses of the older generation of orien talists. The image of Islam
as a unified civilization, rooted in the early reliance on legal sources,
disintegrated, and M uslim me rchants, warriors, desert noma ds, planters,
and urban bourgeois family heads emerged as a highly varied range of
masters beh ind the exotic veil of religious culture imposed by westerners.
Slavery among Muslims, seen as a social and economic institution, be-
came comparable w ith American bon dage, particularly where capitalistic
plantation forms of production prevailed.
6
Others emphasized slave
revolts,
7
or assessed the significance of slaves in the specific historical
circumstances in which they had become prom inent in Islamic lands, as
elsewhere in the world.
With the general tendencies of slavery becoming clearer in this new
comparative scholarsh ip, it became possible to distinguish the pecu liarities
of Muslim slavery and to explain them in terms of historical and cultural
features particular to the Islamic lands. The first efforts in this vein
retained a modified tone of Muslim exceptionalism. The slave soldiers
and h arem wom en came to be seen as an elite minority of the m any indi-
viduals, of numerous origins and occup ations, nearly all of them hum ble
and oppressed, w hom M uslims held in bondage. But Daniel Pipes explained
the propensity of Muslim rulers to employ slaves as soldiers as a produ ct
of the moral failings, and consequent popular abandonment, of secular
rulers inevitable in a theocratic society: people in power, but unable to
rule, called on outsiders, particularly slaves, for support.
8
Patricia Crone
saw these Stoves on Horses as a logical response to political weakness
rooted in the fragility of factions ruling states divided by parochial
interests of family and sect.
9
Cooper, in Plantation Slavery, set slavery
in Muslim Zanzibar in a more open comparative context by focusing on
the strength of patron-client ties throughout Islamic society to explain
the appa rently - bu t only appa rently - less harsh features of slavery in
Islam. Elsewhere, and particularly among Africanists, issues specific to
the regional historiography became the major analytical focus of work
on slavery in Islamic areas and thus removed the discussion even further
from the peculiarities, orientalist and neo-orientalist, of Islam.
10
Emphasis o n the slave trade has always characterized African histori-
ography, particularly on the Atlantic side of the continent where most
of the captives taken to the Americas originated. The study of Muslim
slaving in the Ind ian Ocean grew as an extension of these studies on slave
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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY 251
trading from Africa rather than from the central concerns of Islamic
history. Similarly, the trans-Saharan trade and its origins in Sudanic
Africa
12
and slaving in the Red Sea area
13
arose more from Africanist
concern with numbers, as in the scholarship on Atlantic slaving in the
1970s and 1980s, and economic history. Although these concerns dominated
the scholarship attempting t o sketch the trades th at supplied slaves to the
Islamic Middle East, the m ost comprehensive single study, Ehud Toledano,
The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression, concentrated also on
institutions and on the trade's diplomatic and legal frameworks.
Recent studies of slaves and slave trading among Muslims, still in
tandem with the principal currents of scholarship on slavery elsewhere
in the world, have blended w ith general work on the social and economic
history of the specific regions where slaves originated, were transported,
and were put to wo rk. Islamic law is no longer the determinative frame-
work, nor is the culture of the masters a transcending constant. M uslim
masters, like Rom ans, o r Brazilian planters, turned to slavery where the
oppo rtunity presented itself and slaves contested the Islamic conditions
of their bondage according to m omentary and local circumstances. Either
side may have drawn where it could on Islamic ideals, but they did so
in the midst of numerous other concerns. From this more historical
perspective, slavery and Islam both become aspects of the general histories
and cultures of p articular times and p laces. There were many kinds and
experiences of slavery in Muslim lands, even as there were - and are -
many versions of 'Is lam '. In these circumstances, the specific bibliography
of works focused on slavery is blending almost indistinguishably into
other streams of scholarship on Islam.
The following bibliography covers secondary writings published since
1900 in western Europ ean languages on slavery or the slave trade anywhere
in the Muslim world: monographs, notes and articles in scholarly
periodicals, substantial reviews and review essays, conference pape rs, and
chapters in edited volumes and Festschriften focused p rimarily on slavery
or slave trading. It does not include important materials on slavery in
Islamic lands found in writings focused on other subjects, for example,
the history of Muslim agriculture, theological treatises on
jihad
the
abolitionist m ovement in Euro pe, the general comm ercial history of the
western Indian Ocean, or the place of slavery in the political economy of
sudanic Africa.
The entries in this bibliography appeared first in Joseph C. Miller,
Slavery:
A Comparative Teaching Bibliography (Waltham, M ass.: Cross-
roads Press, 1977) and in annual installments in Slavery and Abolition
(London: Frank Cass, Vol. 1, 1980). All materials through the 1983 sup-
plement were corrected, con solidated, reorganized, and indexed in Joseph
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252 THE HUMAN COMMODITY
C. M iller,
Slavery:
A Worldwide
B ibliography,
1900-1982 (Wh ite Plains,
N.Y.:
Kraus International, 1985). Additional materials appeared in the
1983 supplement (with Larissa V. Brown) in Slavery and A bolition, 4, 2
(1983), 163-208 (Part I), and 4, 3 (1983), 232-74 (Part II), including
unverifiable references accumulated to that date. 'Slavery: Annual Biblio-
graphical Supplement (1984)' and 'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical
Supplement (1985)' (both with James V. Skalnik), and 'Slavery: Curren t
Bibliographical Supplement (1986)' and 'Slavery: Current Bibliographical
Supplement (1987)' (both with David F. Appleby) appeared in Slavery
and A bolition, 6, 1 (1985), 5 9- 9 2; 7 , 3 (1986), 31 5- 88 ; 8, 3 (1987),
353-86; and 9, 2 (1988), 204-42. 'Slavery: Current Bibliographical
Supplement (1988)' (with Randolph C. H ead) is in 10, 2 (1988), 231-71 ,
'Slavery: An nua l Bibliographical Supplement (1989)' (with Jena R . Gaines)
is in 11 , 2 (1990), 252 -30 9, a nd a supplement for 1990 will appear in
the volume for 1991. Full 'an nu al' versions of the abridged 'curre nt'
supplements for 1986, 1987, and 1988 ('Slavery: Annual Bibliographical
Supplement [1986]', 'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement [1987]'),
and 'Slavery: An nual Bibliographical Supplement [1988]') exist in m anu-
script. Plans are under way to consolidate all materials compiled since 1983
in a new single-volume indexed bibliography to be prepared in abou t 1991.
NOTES
Items marked with an asterisk (*) have not been verified in detail.
1. Still today, John Laffin,
The Arabs as Master Slavers.
2.
For example, the well-known summary of slave law by R. Brunschvig in the
Encyclopedia
of Islam (v. 'Abd'), the most accessible survey of this genre.
3.
New York: Knopf 1947.
4.
For example, David Ayalon,
Gunpowder and Firearms In the Mamluk Kingdom: A
Challenge
to M edieval Society.
5. New York: Harper and Row, 1971 (rev. edn.). A good recent summary is Hunwick, 'Black
Africans in the Islamic Wo rld'. A lso see Murray Gordon,
Slavery in the Arab World.
6. Frederick Cooper,
Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa.
7. Alexandre Papovic,
Révolte des esclaves en Iraq,
or, for Africa, P aul Lovejoy, 'Fugitive
Slaves'.
8.
Slave Soldiers and Islam.
9.
Crone,
S laves on Horses.
10.
Fisher and Fisher,
Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa;
papers in Meillassoux (ed.)
t
L esclavage en Afrique;
ako the studies of Jan S. Hogendorn and Paul E. Lovejoy.
11. For example, Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), Th e Economics of the Indian O cean Slave
Trade in the Nineteenth C entury'. A general comparative work on this, and the trans-
Saharan and Atlantic, slave trades is Patrick M anning,
Slavery and African Life: Occiden -
tal,
Oriental
and African Slave Trades,
New York: Cambridge University Press , 1990.
12.
For example. Fisher and Fisher,
Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa,
and this
collection. See also Austen, 'The Trans-Saharan Slave Tra de' an d upda tes.
13. Austen, 'The Islamic Red Sea Slave Trad e'; Ewald, 'T he Nile Valley System and the
Red Sea Slave Trade'.
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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY 253
1. General and Comparative
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Rights', American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 4, 1 (1987), 31-50 .
Ahmad,
Shafiq. L'esclavageau point de vue musulman.
Cairo: Imprimerie Nationale, 1891.
Arafat, W. 'The Attitude of Islam to Slavery',
Islamic
Qu arterly, 10 ,1 -2 (1966), 12-18.
Barbour, Bernard, and M ichelle Jacobs. 'The Mi'raj: A Legal Treatise on Slavery by Ahmad
Baba', in Willis (ed.), Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Vol. 1, 125-59.
Bashir Ahmad, Mirza.
Islam and
Slavery. Qadian, P unjab: Book Depot Talifo- Ish a'at,
1935.
•Bousquet, G. H. 'Des droits de l'esclave: fragment extrait de l'lh'ya de Ghazali',
Annales
de I'Institute d'dtudes occitanes, 10 (1952), 420-27.
Brunschvig, R. 'Abd\ in
Encyclopaedia of Islam
(2nd edn.) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960),
Vol.1,
24-40.
Burton-Page, J. 'Habshi',
Encyclopedia of Islam (new
edn.) (Leiden and London, 1971),
Vol.3, 14-16.
Colin, G.S. 'Hartini', in
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Vol.3, 230-31.
Davis,
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El Wahid Wafi, Ali Abd. 'Human Rights in Islam',
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64-75.
Ewald, Janet. 'His Freer Fettered a Hand: Manumission in the Lands of the Red Sea in
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Farias, Paulo Fernando de Moraes. 'Models of the World and Categorial Models: The
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Slavery in
Muslim
Africa: Vol. 1, 27-46.
Fisher, Humphrey J. 'Of Slaves and Souls of Men (review essay: Willis (ed.),
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Forand, Paul G. 'The Relation of the Slave and the Client to the Master or Patron in
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Islamic
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Goldstein, Ferdinand. 'Die Sldaverei in Nordafrika und im Suda n',
Zeitschrift fu r Social-
wissenschaft,
11 (1908), 352-69.
Gordon, Murray.
Slavery in the Arab World.
New York: New Amsterdam, 1989.
Translated as
L 'esclavage dans le monde arabe: Vlle-XXe siecle
(Paris: Robert Laffont,
1987).
Greenidge, C.W.W. 'Slavery in the Middle East',
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7, 12 (1956),
435-40.
Haa s, Samuel S. 'T he Contribution of Slaves to and Their Influence upon the Culture of
Early Islam' (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1942).
Halfdan, Endresen. Als Sklave
verkauft:
Sklaverei und Sklavenhandel im heutigen Afrika
undArabien.
Basel: Friedrich Reinhardt Verlag, n.d. Translation of
Solgt som slave:
om slaved og
slavenhandel
iAfrika
og
A
rabia
i vart
arhundre.
Stavanger: Nomi Forlag,
n.d.
•Hambly, Gavin R. G. 'Islamic Slavery: An Overview' (Unpublished paper, 1972).
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Hunwick, J. O. 'Black Africans in the Islamic World: An Understudied Dimension of the
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5 (1978), 20-40 . R eprinted in
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75-91.
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Juynboll, Th . W. 'Eunuch (Muslim)', Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh:
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Kessel, Joseph .
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Laffin, John. The Arabs as Master Slavers. Englewood, N .J. : SBS Publishing, 1982.
*Laffin, Jo hn. 'The Arabs as Slavers', in Case
Studies in Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms
(The Hague: M artinus
Nijhoff
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Brill, 1960), Vol. 1 388-89.
Lewis, Bernard.
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New York: Harper and Row, 1971. Rev. edn.
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Oxford University Press, 1990,
Lugard, Frederick D. 'Mohammedan Slavery', Encyclopaedia Britannica (14th edition)
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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY 255
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2 .
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25 6 THE HUMAN COMMODITY
*Barry, Djenaba O uedraogo. 'Fenunes libres, femmes esclaves dans les cours caliphales sous
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Beachey, R.W. A
Collection
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Documents
on the
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New
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Beachey, R.W. The
Slave Trade
of
Eastern Africa.
New York: Barnes and Noble, 1976.
Beachey, R. W. 'Some Observations on the Volume of the Slave Trade of Eastern Africa
in
the
Nineteenth Century', in African H istorical Demography (Centre
of
African Studies,
University of Edinburgh) (Edinburgh, 1978), 365-72.
Campbell, Gwyn R. 'Madagascar and Mozambique in the Slave Trade of the Western
Indian Ocean 1800-1861',
Slavery
and
Abolition,
9, 3 (1988), 16 6-93 .
Campbell, Gwyn. 'Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895',
Journal
of
African
History, 22, 2 (1981), 203-27. Reprinted in Omaly
sy
Anio (Hier
et
aujourd-hui),
17-20 (1983-84), 279-309.
Clarence-Smith, William Gervase. 'The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the
Nineteenth Century:
An
Overview', Slavery
and
Abolition,
9, 3
(1988),
1-20.
Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (ed. ). The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade
in the Nineteenth Century', Slavery
and
Abolition, 9, 3 (1988), special issue.
See Ahmad, Austen, Campbell, Carter and Gerbeau, Clarence-Smith, Ewald,
Fernyhough, Jwaideh and Cox, Renault, Ross, and Sheriff.
Collister, Peter.
The
Last Days
of
Slavery: England
and the
East African Slave T rade
1870-1900.
Dar-es-Salaam: East African Literature Bureau, 1961.
Curtin, Patricia Romero. 'Lamu (Kenya), Slave Trade, and British Efforts to Suppress',
Slavery
and
Abolition,
7, 2 (1986), 148 -59.
Gerbeau, Hubert. 'The Slave Trade
in the
Indian Ocean: Problems Facing
the
Historian
and
Research to be Undertaken', in UNESCO,
The African Slave T rade from
the
F ifteenth
to
the
Nineteenth Century (Paris: UNESCO, 1978), 184-207.
•Glassman, Carla. 'The Illegal Seagoing East African Slave Trade, 1873-1900:
A
Strategic
Approach' (Unpublished paper, Trinity College, Cambridge, n.d.).
*Glassman, Carla.
A
Quantitative Social H istory
of
the Illegal, Seagoing, E ast Africa Slave
Trade, 1873-1900' (Unpublished paper, 1977).
Gupta, Anirudha. 'Suppression of Slave Trade and British Imperialist Strategies in the
Indian Ocean 181 5-1870 ', in U. Bissoondoyal and S. B. C. Servansing (ed s.),
Slavery
in
South West Indian Ocean
(Moka, Mauritius: Mahatma Gandhi Institute, 1989), 366 -8 2.
Harris, Joseph E. 'The East African Slave Trade and Repatriation in Kenya', in Genna Rae
McNeil and Michael R. Winston (eds.),
Historical Judgments Reconsidered (Selected
Howard University Lectures
in
Honor
of
Rayford
W.
Logan)
(Washington: Howard
University Press, 1988), 19-38.
Howell, Raymond. The
Royal Navy
and the
Slave Trade.
New York: St Martin's Press,
1987.
Kelly, John B. 'The Arab Slave Trade, 1800 -184 2', in idem,
Britain
and the
Persian
Gulf,
1795-1880
(London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 41 1- 51 .
Kelly, John B. The Attack on the Slave Trade, 1 842-1 873' , in idem,
Britain
and the
Persian
Gulf,
1795-1880 (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 57 6- 63 7.
Kelly, John
B. A
Q uantitative Assessment
of the
Arab Slave Trade
of
East Africa,
1770-
18%',
Kenya Historical Review,
5, 1
(1977),
71-91 .
Martin, Esmond B., and T. C. I. Ryan. 'The Slave Trade of the Bajun and Benadir Coa sts',
Transafrican Journal
of
History,
9, 1-2(1980), 103-32.
Newitt, M. D. D. 'Angoche, the Slave Trade and the Portuguese c. 1844-1910',
Journal
of African History,
13, 4 (1972). 659-72.
Ogot, Bethwell A. 'Population Movements Between East Africa, the Horn of Africa and the
Neighbouring Countries', in UNESCO,
The African Slave Trade from
the
F ifteenth
to
the Nineteenth Century (Paris: UNESCO, 1978), 175-82.
Renault, Francois.
Un
colloque
sur la
traite orientate
des
esclaves
en
Afrique', Africa,
43,
1 (1988), 125-2 8.
Ricks, Thomas M. 'The Political Economy of 18 th - 19th Century Persian Gulf Slave Trading:
A Reassessment' (Unpublished paper presented
to
annual meeting
of the
Middle East
Studies Association, New Orleans, 1985).
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Ricks,
Thom as M . 'Slaves and Slave Traders in the Persian Gulf, 18th and 19th Centuries:
An Assessment',
Slavery and Abolition,
9, 3 (1988), 60-70.
Romer o, Patricia. 'Lamu (K enya), Slave Trade, and British Efforts to Suppress', in Serge
Daget (ed.), De la traite a I'esclavage (Actes du Co lloque international sur la traite des
Noirs, Nantes, 1985) (Paris/Nantes: Social Francaise d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer and
Centre de Recherche sur l'Histoire du Monde Atlantique, 1988), Vol. 2, 383-93.
Russell, C. E. B.
General Rigby, Zanzibar and the Slave Trade with Journals, Dispatches,
etc. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1935. (Ed. Mrs. Charles E. B. Russell)
Sakarai, Lawrence J. 'Indian Merchants in East Africa, Part I: The Triangular Trade and
the Slave Econom y', Slavery and Abolition, 1, 3 (1980), 29 2-3 38 .
Saldana, Jerome A. (ed.). Precis on Slave Trade in the Gulf of Oman and the Persian
Gu lf - 1873-1905, with a Retrospect into Previous History from 1882.
Calcutta,
1906. (Part 5 of Persian Gulf Gazeteer).
Sheperd, Gill. 'The Comorians and the East African Slave Trade', in James L. Watson
(ed.),
Asian and African Systems of Slavery (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
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Sheriff, Abdul. 'Localisation and Social Composition of the East African Slave Trade,
1858-73', Slavery and Abolition, 9, 3 (1988), 131 -45.
Sheriff,
Abdul. Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of
a n
East African Com-
'mercial Empire into the World Economy 1770-1873. Londo n: James Currey, 1987.
Slipchenko, S. A . 'Text of a paper on (a) three main periods in the history of slav e trade;
(b) racism - the heritage of the slave trade' (Unpublished paper, International Seminar
on Slavery in the South-West Indian Ocean, Moka, Mauritius, 26 February-2 March
1985).