Musical Styles and Performance Practices

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1 Historical Style Periods, Musical Style Elements, Repertoire, and Performance Practice Checklist Compiled, Synthesized, and Developed by Dr. Jeffrey S. Gemmell, Millersville University It is the responsibility of performers, conductors, and music educators to be knowledgeable about historical style periods and apply this information to authentic performance practices. In this way, one participates in performances that are accurate and satisfying, especially when programming art music from the major eras of music history. MEDIEVAL ERA (c. 5001450) Medieval times in Europe also were known as the “Dark Ages.” Three classes of people existed: the poor, or serfs; the nobility, who were wealthy landowners; and the clergy. There was no middle class until late in the period, when a middle class of tradesmen, merchants, and traders gradually evolved. The peasants were, as a whole, illiterate; no system of public education was known. Their status was maintained by the powerful religious and political body: the Roman Catholic Church. Unable to read, the peasants were kept “in the dark” about the value of education and how it could better their status in this life. They were led to believe that fulfillment came in life after death. This attitude, maintained for centuries, began to change only during the Renaissance, when enlightened thinking was reborn. Musical Characteristics and Style Elements of the Medieval Era Music was advanced by the church, where religion was the center of life and culture. Early in the era, monophonic chant dominated and was later codified by Pope Gregory as a standard for use by the church throughout Europe (Gregorian chant). Beginning in c.900, twovoice polyphony was introduced (organum), which later evolved into two significant types of polyphonic composition: the motet and the mass. Motets were written for unaccompanied choir, based on sacred, nonliturgical Latin text, and generally inserted into the regular church mass. The early mass was put together from various single movements by anonymous composers. Beginning in 1360, however, the entire Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei) was composed by one person, e.g., Guillaume de Machaut’s Messe de Notre Dame. Vocal music, where polyphony was performed usually by soloists, was the dominant from of musicmaking; organs, strings, and wind instruments gradually became more acceptable. Secular vocal musicians emerged in the south of France and were called troubadours. These singers and storytellers traveled from town to town entertaining people. In northern France they were known as trouvéres, and in German they were called Minnesingers. These minstrels sang in the vernacular, and the music was folklike. The linking of poetry, music, and dancing was common; this type of entertainment flourished in the feudal courts.

Transcript of Musical Styles and Performance Practices

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Historical  Style  Periods,  Musical  Style  Elements,  Repertoire,  and  Performance  Practice  Checklist  

Compiled,  Synthesized,  and  Developed  by  Dr.  Jeffrey  S.  Gemmell,  Millersville  University    

It  is  the  responsibility  of  performers,  conductors,  and  music  educators  to  be  knowledgeable  about  historical  style  periods  and  apply  this  information  to  authentic  performance  practices.  In  this  way,  one  participates  in  performances  that  are  accurate  and  satisfying,  especially  when  programming  art  music  from  the  major  eras  of  music  history.      

MEDIEVAL  ERA  (c.  500-­‐1450)    Medieval  times  in  Europe  also  were  known  as  the  “Dark  Ages.”  Three  classes  of  people  existed:  the  poor,  or  serfs;  the  nobility,  who  were  wealthy  landowners;  and  the  clergy.  There  was  no  middle  class  until  late  in  the  period,  when  a  middle  class  of  tradesmen,  merchants,  and  traders  gradually  evolved.  The  peasants  were,  as  a  whole,  illiterate;  no  system  of  public  education  was  known.  Their  status  was  maintained  by  the  powerful  religious  and  political  body:  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Unable  to  read,  the  peasants  were  kept  “in  the  dark”  about  the  value  of  education  and  how  it  could  better  their  status  in  this  life.  They  were  led  to  believe  that  fulfillment  came  in  life  after  death.  This  attitude,  maintained  for  centuries,  began  to  change  only  during  the  Renaissance,  when  enlightened  thinking  was  reborn.      

Musical  Characteristics  and  Style  Elements  of  the  Medieval  Era    Music  was  advanced  by  the  church,  where  religion  was  the  center  of  life  and  culture.  Early  in  the  era,  monophonic  chant  dominated  and  was  later  codified  by  Pope  Gregory  as  a  standard  for  use  by  the  church  throughout  Europe  (Gregorian  chant).  Beginning  in  c.900,  two-­‐voice  polyphony  was  introduced  (organum),  which  later  evolved  into  two  significant  types  of  polyphonic  composition:  the  motet  and  the  mass.  Motets  were  written  for  unaccompanied  choir,  based  on  sacred,  nonliturgical  Latin  text,  and  generally  inserted  into  the  regular  church  mass.  The  early  mass  was  put  together  from  various  single  movements  by  anonymous  composers.  Beginning  in  1360,  however,  the  entire  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  (Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Sanctus,  Benedictus,  Agnus  Dei)  was  composed  by  one  person,  e.g.,  Guillaume  de  Machaut’s  Messe  de  Notre  Dame.    Vocal  music,  where  polyphony  was  performed  usually  by  soloists,  was  the  dominant  from  of  music-­‐making;  organs,  strings,  and  wind  instruments  gradually  became  more  acceptable.    Secular  vocal  musicians  emerged  in  the  south  of  France  and  were  called  troubadours.  These  singers  and  storytellers  traveled  from  town  to  town  entertaining  people.  In  northern  France  they  were  known  as  trouvéres,  and  in  German  they  were  called  Minnesingers.  These  minstrels  sang  in  the  vernacular,  and  the  music  was  folklike.  The  linking  of  poetry,  music,  and  dancing  was  common;  this  type  of  entertainment  flourished  in  the  feudal  courts.      

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Melody.  Early  melodies  were  pentatonic  in  structure;  later,  eight  church  modes  or  scales  were  employed.  Movement  was  mostly  conjunct,  with  small  skips  and  limited  range.      Harmony.  There  was  no  harmony  in  chant;  later,  organum  used  parallel  fourths,  fifths,  and  octaves.  In  late  polyphonic  composition,  with  complex  added  parts  intended  for  soloists,  melodic  ornamentation  occurred,  yet  open  intervals  still  dominated.      Tonality.  Music  was  modal;  each  mode  had  certain  characteristics  of  range,  style,  melodic  formula,  and  tonal  center.  Ionian  (major)  and  Aeolian  (natural  minor)  were  part  of  the  modal  system.      Rhythm.  The  pace  was  steady,  gentle,  and  unmetered  in  chant,  with  the  eighth-­‐note  the  pulse.  Early  organum  was  free  and  melismatic  until  the  Arts  Antiqua,  when  measured  organum  employed  short  and  accented  rhythmic  patterns.  In  the  Ars  Nova,  duple  rhythm  was  introduced  along  with  a  system  of  proportional  notation.      Texture.  Monophonic  texture  (a  single  line)  existed  before  900,  and  polyphony  (two  or  more  melodic  lines)  was  dominant  from  900  to  1600.        Timbre.  The  sound  of  Medieval  music  was  rather  transparent.  Both  voices  and  instruments  were  folklike,  and  no  “heavy”  singing  or  playing  was  known.      Dynamics.  No  intensity  levels  were  marked  in  the  music.  Given  the  small  ensemble  sizes  for  both  singers  and  instrumentalists,  music  making  was  probably  rather  moderately  sounded,  with  little  variation  within  pieces.      Tempo.  No  indications  of  tempo  were  marked.  Church  music  was  typically  slow  paced,  the  tactus  set  by  the  speed  of  the  human  pulse  (fifty  to  sixty  beats  per  minute).  Secular  dance  music  moved  at  a  lively  pace.      Form.  Early  sacred  forms  consisted  of  chants,  organum,  clausulae,  and  conductus.  Later  sacred  forms  included  complete  settings  of  the  mass  and  motet.  Secular  writing  included  the  minstrel  song,  caccia,  balata,  and  dance  forms.      

Selected  Composers  and  Choral  Exemplars  of  the  Medieval  Era    Chant:  Dies  irae  Chant:  Various  anonymous  Mass  settings  (Kyrie,  Gloria,  etc.)  Chant:  Pange  lingua  Hildegaard:  O  virga  ac  diadema  Song:  Sumer  Is  icumen  In    

     

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Checklist  of  General  Medieval  Era  Performance  Practice  Guidelines    

Melody.     •  Emphasize  linear  nature  of  chant.     •  Use  legato  articulation,  with  smoothly  flowing  stepwise  motion  and  abundant  airflow  to  sustain  spinning  quality  of  line.     •  Shape  lines  according  to  melodic  contour;  arch-­‐shaped  dynamics.    Harmony.     •  Highlight  chant  melody.       •  Balance  dynamics  of  added  harmonies  (organum)  and  remember  that  later  in  period,  complex  polyphonic  lines  were  intended  for  soloists.    Tonality.     •  Use  solfege  to  tune  modal  melodies  and  be  sensitive  to  tuning  intervals,  especially  half  steps  vs.  whole  steps,  ascending  and  descending.     •  Sing  with  good  intonation  by  embracing  vocal  lift,  incorporating  an  inner  smile,  maintaining  a  steady  air  flow,  and  sustaining  melodic  lines  with  a  feeling  of  forward  motion.    Rhythm.     •  Pace  the  free  flowing,  non-­‐rhythmic  motion  and  avoid  any  feeling  of  meter,  however,  consider  shaping  eighth  notes  in  groups  of  two  or  three  and  use  chironomy  to  shape  these  patterns  artistically  according  to  text.     •  For  later  rhythmic  complexity  in  polyphony,  use  gentle  feeling  of  pulse  to  group  notes  and  align  rhythms,  but  avoid  any  feeling  of  modern  bar  (hierarchy  of  beats).       •  Use  subtle  conducting  technique,  as  necessary,  to  coordinate  singing;  emphasize  thesis  and  arsis,  with  appropriate  gestures  to  encourage  breath  management  for  shaping  phrases.      Texture.     •  Monophonic  lines  must  be  treated  melodically,  with  appropriate  shaping  according  to  text  declamation  (syllabic  stress);  meaning  is  conveyed  through  overall  melodic  contour  and  dynamics  (arch-­‐shaped  phrasing).     •  Be  sensitive  to  texture  and  how  harmonies  are  added;  retain  clarity  of  structure.      Timbre.     •  Use  appropriate  vocal  timbre  with  realization  that  choirs  were  generally  small.  Develop  your  interpretation  and  aural  image  by  imagining  the  large,  resonant  cathedrals  in  which  these  chants  were  performed,  remembering  who  was  responsible  for  performing  the  chants  (men  and  boys),  and  understanding  the  context  of  their  original  “performance”  within  worship  services  used  as  liturgical  devices.     •  Sing  with  comparatively  simple  technique,  compared  to  later  styles,  and  emphasize  clarity,  transparency,  and  quality  of  pitch  and  intonation.    

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Dynamics.     •  Shape  melodic  lines  dynamically  according  to  expression  and  meaning  of  text,  especially  in  terms  of  proper  syllabic  stress  and  arched-­‐shaped  phrases.       •  Keep  interpretation  sensitive  and  direct,  almost  “folklike”  in  general  simplicity,  but  avoid  overuse  of  dramatic  dynamic  shapes  of  later  styles.    Tempo.     •  Keep  context  in  mind  (see  “Timbre”  above),  and  use  relaxed  tempo  to  express  the  text  with  sensitivity.  Tempo  will  depend  upon  acoustics  of  room  (e.g.,  large  cathedrals  require  slower  tempos),  and  be  careful  not  to  use  tempos  that  are  too  slow  or  two  fast!       •  Appropriate  tempo  will  encourage  artistic  shaping  of  lines  with  enough  forward  motion  to  sustain  energy,  pitch,  breath  flow,  and  melodic  direction.    Text.     •  Clarity  and  expression  of  text  should  predominate,  with  the  singing  providing  an  artful  and  varied  means  of  expression.       •  Musical  interpretation  must  reflect  meaning  of  text  in  most  sincere,  simple,  direct,  and  genuine  way,  with  understanding  that  original  performances  occurred  within  context  of  worship  service.    

RENAISSANCE  ERA  (c.  1450-­‐1600)      The  Renaissance  (“rebirth”)  represents  a  time  in  western  European  history  when  humankind  awoke  from  the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  a  period  of  hope  in  life  on  this  earth.  No  longer  were  people  bound  to  religious  beliefs  that  focused  more  on  life  after  death  than  the  present  life.  This  enlightenment  was  fueled  by  the  Protestant  Reformation  of  the  16th  century.  Sacred  music,  heretofore  sung  only  in  Latin  was  now  sung  in  the  vernacular,  and  commoners  were  welcomed  to  participate  in  singing.  The  invention  of  the  printing  press  by  Gutenberg  in  1450  and  the  printing  of  music  made  it  possible  to  disseminate  music  on  a  greater  scale.  The  Renaissance  marked  a  period  of  intense  musical  growth,  especially  that  of  choral  music.  The  “Golden  Era  of  Polyphony”  reached  its  peak  in  the  music  of  the  Roman  School,  headed  by  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da  Palestrina  (c.  1525-­‐1594).    

Musical  Characteristics  and  Style  Elements  of  the  Renaissance  Era    The  Renaissance  was  a  period  of  intense  growth  in  the  melodic  characteristics  of  musical  composition.  The  music  was  primarily  linear,  each  part  being  equally  important.  The  term  a  cappella  (literally  “for  the  chapel”)  is  often  associated  with  the  Renaissance,  though  singing  was  not  necessarily  performed  without  accompaniment,  except  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  where  instruments  were  banned.  The  use  of  instruments  or  the  organ  to  double  voice  parts  was  a  familiar  practice  in  this  period.    Melody.  Melodic  style  included  conjunct,  diatonic  motion,  a  smooth  contour,  narrow  range  (often  high  tessitura),  motivic  repetition  (points  of  imitation),  and  text  painting  (melodic  

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figures  representing  certain  declamations  of  the  text,  e.g.,  “sorrow”  is  painted  in  a  descending  melodic  figure).  Melismatic  passages  were  also  common,  and  instruments  often  doubled  voices.      Harmony.  Tertian  harmony  dominated,  but  the  interval  of  the  third  often  was  omitted  in  final  chords.  Suspensions  (dissonances)  were  prepared  and  resolved  naturally.  The  emphasis  was  on  linear  or  horizontal  sonorities.  The  bass  voice  was  added  to  the  choral  ensemble  around  1450,  resulting  in  four  equal  voices.      Tonality.  The  church  modes  were  employed,  with  major  and  minor  used  more  at  the  end  of  the  era.  The  “Picardy  third”  was  a  common  device  whereby  a  composition  in  minor  ended  on  a  tonic  major  chord.      Rhythm.  The  rhythm,  even  and  nonmetrical,  has  been  characterized  as  “freedom  from  the  bar  line.”  The  basic  pulse  was  typically  the  half  note.  It  is  not  correct  to  conduct  nonmetrical  music  with  standard  conducting  patterns  as  this  adds  false  accents  to  the  line  that  are  not  present.  Rather,  conducting  the  tactus  or  recurring  beat  with  regular,  light,  upward  (arsis)  and  relaxing,  downward  (thesis)  gestures  moves  the  music  along  according  to  word  accent.  This  type  of  “air  sculpture”  (known  as  chironomy)  reflects  the  natural  accents  of  the  text  rather  the  wrongfully  perceived  meter  of  the  music.  Metrical  conducting  is  applicable  to  some  late  Renaissance  music  when  the  “tyranny  of  the  bar  line”  was  being  established.      Texture.  Polyphonic  texture  dominated.  Each  part  must  be  heard  when  it  presents  important  musical  material.  All  parts  cannot  be  preeminent  at  all  times.  It  is  important  to  teach  singers  to  sing  softer  when  the  section  of  the  choir  that  has  the  “head  motive”  must  be  heard.  There  were  also  occasional  passages  in  a  more  homorhythmic  style,  and  polychoral  and  antiphonal  writing  were  practiced  at  St.  Mark’s  Cathedral  in  Venice.      Timbre.  Church  choirs  were  typically  small  and  comprised  of  men  and  boys.  The  sound  was  balanced  and  rather  light,  with  little  (if  any)  vibrato  in  order  to  produce  clear  and  transparent  textures.  Secular  ensembles  employed  one  or  two  voices  on  a  part.      Dynamics.  Loud  and  soft  were  limited,  mp  to  mf,  and  were  unmarked  before  1597,  when  Giovanni  Gabrieli  first  used  p  to  indicate  solo  and  f  to  indicate  tutti.  Subtle  contrasts  were  indicated  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  vocal  lines.  Apogic  accents  (longer  notes)  received  the  most  weight,  and  the  tonic  accent  was  important  in  well-­‐written  compositions.      Tempo.  Tempos  were  generally  not  marked;  metronome  markings  in  modern  editions  are  editorial.  Each  tempo  was  dictated  by  the  text  and  the  time  signature  (the  “proportional”  sign),  which  signified  tempus  (time,  each  measure  divided  into  two  or  three  beats)  and  prolationis  (prolation,  the  division  of  the  beat  into  two  or  three  subdivisions).  In  general,  the  tactus  (beat)  was  the  half  note  and  moved  between  48  and  80  beats  per  minute,  depending  upon  the  clarity  of  the  fastest  notes  and  the  use  of  ornamentation  (the  more  ornamented,  the  slower  the  tempo).  Sacred  music  of  the  Renaissance  was  generally  slow.  When  the  basic  metric  pattern  moved  from  two  to  three  beats  per  measure,  however,  the  

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indication  was  to  conduct  three  notes  in  the  new  section  in  the  space  of  two  in  the  previous  section,  which  caused  the  music  to  move  faster  in  the  triple  section.    Text.  There  was  much  textual  repetition  in  sacred  music.  Therefore,  the  text  was  often  obscured  in  polyphonic  writing.  Sacred  texts  (most  from  Holy  Scripture)  were  devout,  worshipful,  and  universal.  Secular  texts  were  often  frivolous  and  mostly  based  on  love  or  pastoral  themes.    Form.  The  common  sacred  forms  were  mass,  motet,  canticle,  piae  cantiones  (sacred  songs),  anthem,  and  hymn  (chorale).  Common  secular  forms  were  madrigal,  chanson,  balata,  canzonetta,  lied,  and  freemen’s  songs.      

Selected  Composers  and  Choral  Exemplars  of  the  Renaissance  Era    The  Franco-­‐Flemish  School       Selected  Composers:  Arcadelt,  Compere,  Josquin  des  Prez,  Lasso  (Lassus),  Isaac,         Jacobus  Clemens  (Clemens  non  Papa),  Mouton,  Ockeghem,  Obrecht,  Willaert,         Gombert,  and  Regnart     Selected  Compositions:       Arcadelt:  Ave  Maria       Josquin  des  Prez:  Ave  Maria       Mouton:  Noe,  noe  psalite    The  Roman  School     Selected  Composers:  Morales,  Palestrina,  and  Victoria  (Vittoria)     Selected  Compositions:       Palestrina:  Sicut  cervus       Palestrina:  Missa  Papae  Marcelli       Victoria:  Missa  “O  quam  Gloriosum”       Victoria:  O  magnum  mysterium       Victoria:  O  vos  omnes       Victoria:  Ave  Maria    The  Venetian  School         Selected  Composers:  Croce,  Andrea  Gabrieli,  Giovanni  Gabrieli  (uncle  and  nephew)     Selected  Compositions:       A.  Gabrieli:  Angelus  ad  pastores       G.  Gabrieli:  Jubilate  Deo  a  8  (1597)       G.  Gabrieli:  O  magnum  mysterium       G.  Gabrieli:  Attendite,  popule  meus            

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The  German  School       Selected  Composers:  Hassler,  Jacobus  Handl  (Gallus),  Luther,  and  Praetorius     Selected  Compositions:       Hassler:  Cantate  Domino       Hassler:  Ihr  Musici,  Frisch  auf       Hassler:  Nun  fanget  an       Luther:  Ein  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott       Luther:  Von  Himmel  hoch  da  komm  ich  her       Praetorius:  Psallite       Jacob  Handl:  Resonet  in  laudibus    The  English  School     Selected  Composers:  Byrd,  Dunstable,  Gibbons,  Tallis,  Taverner,  and  Tye     Selected  Compositions:       Byrd:  Mass  for  [Three,  Four  or  Five]  Voices       Byrd:  Ave  verum  corpus       Gibbons:  Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David       Gibbons:  This  is  the  record  of  John       Tallis:  If  ye  love  me       Tye:  Laudate  Nomen          The  English  Madrigal  School     Selected  Composers:  Bennett,  Byrd,  Dowland,  Farmer,  Gibbons,  Morley,  Weelkes,         Wilbye,  and  Ravenscroft     Selected  Compositions:       Bennett:  Weep,  O  mine  eyes       Byrd:  This  sweet  and  merry  month  of  May  (a  4)       Dowland:  Weep  ye  no  more  sad  fountains         Dowland:  What  poor  Astronomers  are  they       Farmer:  Fair  Phyllis  I  saw       Gibbons:  The  Silver  Swan       Morley:  April  is  in  my  mistress’  face       Morley:  Fyer,  Fyer       Morley:  Now  is  the  month  of  Maying       Weelkes:  As  Vesta  was  from  Latmos  hill  descending         Weelkes:  Thule,  the  period  of  cosmography    The  Italian  Madrigal  School     Selected  Composers:  Arcadelt,  Lasso,  Gesualdo,  Marenzio,  and  Monteverdi     Selected  Compositions:       Arcadelt:  Il  bianco  e  dolce  cigno         Lasso:  Matona  mia  cara       Lasso:  O  la,  o  che  bon  eccho!  (The  Echo  Song)       Lasso:  O  occhi  manza  mia       Monteverdi:  Ecco  mormorar  l’onde  (a  5)       Monteverdi:  Lasciatemi  morire  (a  5;  1614)  

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Checklist  of  General  Renaissance  Era  Performance  Practice  Guidelines    Melody.     •  Approach  various  parts  horizontally,  as  interaction  of  various  melodic  lines,  yet    be  sensitive  to  vertical  structures  at  cadence  points.       •  Use  gentle  legato  articulation:  smoothly  flowing  stepwise  motion  and  abundant  airflow  to  sustain  spinning  quality  of  various  polyphonic  lines.     •  Listen  to  the  other  parts  and  notice  how  your  part  relates  to  the  others.  Decide  whether  you  should  be  predominant  (e.g.,  head  motive)  or  supportive.     •  Shape  all  parts  according  to  melodic  contour  and  employ  arch-­‐shaped  dynamics  within  the  parts;  be  aware  of  overall  texture  and  how  your  part  relates  to  the  whole.     •  Highlight  any  examples  of  text  painting  (see  “Text”  below).     •  Emphasize  cantabile  approach  for  any  instruments  that  double  vocal  parts.    Harmony.     •  Be  aware  that  harmonies  are  created  by  interaction  of  melodic  lines  –  think  horizontally  –  and  “lock  in”  cadences  that  are  more  vertically  conceived.       •  Tune  constantly  through  awareness  of  other  parts,  especially  in  cadences,  with  an  understanding  of  your  part  in  terms  of  non-­‐harmonic  tones,  suspensions,  and  resolution  of  dissonances.      Tonality.     •  Use  solfege  to  tune  modal  melodies  and  be  sensitive  to  tuning  intervals,  especially  half  steps  vs.  whole  steps,  ascending  and  descending.     •  Sing  with  good  intonation  by  embracing  vocal  lift,  incorporating  an  inner  smile,  maintaining  a  steady  air  flow,  and  sustaining  melodic  lines  with  a  feeling  of  forward  motion.    Rhythm.     •  Pace  the  free  flowing,  non-­‐metrical  motion  and  avoid  any  feeling  of  meter  in  the  modern  sense.  See  “Rhythm”  under  Style  Elements  section  above  regarding  the  avoidance  of  the  “tyranny  of  the  barline.”  Conduct  the  “tactus”  as  necessary  and  use  chironomy  as  a  means  to  shape  the  music  according  to  text.     •  In  general,  use  a  gentle  feeling  of  pulse  to  group  notes  and  align  rhythms,  but  avoid  any  feeling  of  modern  bar  (hierarchy  of  beats)  so  that  inherent  microrhythms  can  be  heard  in  the  music.       •  Use  subtle  conducting  technique,  as  necessary,  to  coordinate  singing;  emphasize  thesis  and  arsis,  with  appropriate  gestures  to  encourage  breath  management  for  shaping  phrases,  necessary  lift  within  the  vocal  mechanism,  and  singing  on  a  cushion  of  air.    Texture.     •  Polphonic  lines  must  be  treated  melodically,  with  appropriate  shaping  according  to  text  declamation  (syllabic  stress),  meaning  as  conveyed  through  overall  melodic  contour  and  dynamics  (arch-­‐shaped  phrasing).  

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  •  Be  sensitive  to  texture  and  how  harmonies  are  created  (see  “Harmony”  above);  retain  clarity  of  structure  so  that  each  part  may  be  heard  clearly.    Timbre.     •  Use  appropriate  vocal  timbre  with  realization  that  choirs  were  generally  small.  Develop  your  interpretation  and  aural  image  by  imagining  the  large,  resonant  cathedrals  in  which  this  music  was  performed,  remembering  who  was  responsible  for  performing  the  repertoire  (men  and  boys),  and  understanding  the  context  of  the  original  “performance”  within  worship  services  where  the  music  used  as  a  liturgical  device.     •  Sing  with  comparatively  simple  technique,  compared  to  later  styles,  and  emphasize  clarity,  transparency,  and  quality  of  pitch  and  intonation.  Sound  was  balanced  and  rather  light,  with  little  (if  any)  vibrato  in  order  to  create  clear  and  transparent  textures.  Secular  ensembles  employed  only  one  or  two  voices  on  a  part.     •  Explore  a  variety  of  vocal  timbres  to  create  innovative  performances  within  a  more  “folklike”  context,  especially  by  experimenting  with  dialects,  using  colorful,  “reedy”  vocal  production.  Try  other  rambunctious  sounds  within  a  healthy  approach  to  vocal  technique.  Such  experimentation  with  “round  and  tumble”  interpretations  is  especially  effective  in  secular  music  (madrigals).    Dynamics.     •  Shape  melodic  lines  dynamically  according  to  expression  and  meaning  of  text,  especially  with  proper  syllabic  stress  and  arched-­‐shaped  phrases.       •  Create  subtle  dynamic  contrasts  with  the  melodic  rise  and  fall  of  the  phrases  (ascending  lines  =  crescendo;  descending  lines  =  descrescendo);  apogic  accents  (longer  notes)  receive  the  most  weight,  highlighted  with  the  use  of  a  gentle  messa  di  voce.     •  Keep  interpretation  sensitive  and  direct,  almost  “folklike”  in  general  simplicity;  avoid  overuse  of  the  dramatic  dynamics  of  later  styles.    Tempo.     •  Remember  that  all  modern  markings  related  to  tempo  are  editorial.  Original  proportional  signs  signified  groupings  of  notes  and  subdivisions.  In  general,  the  tactus  (beat)  was  the  half  note  and  moved  between  48  and  80  beats  per  minute,  depending  upon  composition.     •  Use  generally  slower  tempos,  with  large  note  value  receiving  the  takt  (e.g.,  common  time  should  be  conducted  in  two).  When  basic  metric  pattern  moves  from  two  to  three  beats  per  measure,  conduct  three  notes  in  the  new  section  in  the  space  of  two  notes  in  the  previous  section  (4/4  conducted  in  two  to  3/4  conducted  in  three;  see  Victoria’s  O  magnum  mysterium).     •  Keep  context  in  mind  (see  “Timbre”  above),  and  use  relaxed  tempos  to  express  texts  with  sensitivity.  Tempos  will  depend  upon  acoustics  of  room,  i.e.,  large  cathedrals  require  slower  tempos,  and  be  careful  not  to  go  too  slow  or  two  fast!  Appropriate  tempo  will  encourage  artistic  shaping  of  lines  with  enough  forward  motion  to  sustain  energy,  pitch,  breath  flow,  and  melodic  direction.        

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Text.     •  Clarity  and  expression  of  text  should  predominate,  with  the  singing  providing  an  artful  and  varied  means  of  expression.  Even  in  complex  polyphony,  text  declamation  must  remain  clear.     •  Musical  interpretation  must  reflect  meaning  of  text  in  most  sincere,  simple,  direct,  and  genuine  way,  with  understanding  that  original  performances  occurred  within  context  of  worship  service.     •  Madrigals  should  be  performed  with  animation,  energy  and  creativity.  Be  sure  to  highlight  text  painting  and  emphasize  musically  what  is  written  textually.  Experimenting  with  vocal  timbre  (see  above)  will  emphasize  music-­‐text  connection.    

BAROQUE  ERA  (c.  1600-­‐1750)      The  term  “Baroque”  originated  from  the  Portuguese  word  barocca,  which  indicated  an  irregularly  shaped  pearl.  It  was  adopted  by  later  generations  as  a  way  of  making  fun  of  Baroque  art,  which  was  considered  exaggerated  and  in  poor  taste.  Characteristics  of  Baroque  music  included  its  highly  ornamented  nature  (trills,  appoggiaturas,  etc.),  virtuosity,  dramatic  nature,  and  specific  musical  expressiveness  (known  as  “doctrine  of  the  affections”).  The  Baroque  love  of  decoration  flowed  through  the  period’s  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  as  well  as  its  music.  The  names  of  Bach  and  Handel  are  synonymous  with  Baroque  music.      

Musical  Characteristics  and  Style  Elements  of  the  Baroque  Era    The  music  of  the  Baroque  era  represented  a  radical  shift  from  that  of  the  Renaissance.  While  the  music  of  the  earlier  period  was  predominantly  vocal  and  choral,  instrumental  music  now  came  to  rival  the  voice  because  of  advancements  in  instrument  development  and  because  the  courts  of  nobility  and  royalty  demanded  secular  entertainments.  The  length  of  compositions  also  was  extended  in  the  Baroque,  and  multimovement  forms  became  common.  A  cappella  music  quickly  faded  as  instruments  were  used  to  accompany  and  play  independently.  The  era  also  saw  the  beginning  of  a  new  form:  opera.      Melody.  Melismatic  passages  became  common,  as  did  melodic  leaps  and  chromatic  pitches.  Melodies  were  greatly  ornamented,  and  included  those  both  written  and  improvised  by  soloists.  Ranges  were  moderately  wide  and  often  exceeded  the  octave.      Harmony.  Whereas  the  Renaissance  focused  on  the  melody,  the  Baroque  focused  on  the  harmony  and  its  functional  nature  (tertian,  with  some  seventh  chords,  augmented  sixths,  etc.).  Modulations  were  common  (circle  of  fifths),  as  were  sequences.      Tonality.  The  establishment  of  the  major-­‐minor  system  was  confirmed.  Standard  pitch  level  was  about  a  half  step  lower  than  today.  For  minor  tonality,  melodic  minor  was  used  when  the  melody  was  the  main  consideration,  and  harmonic  minor  was  employed  when  vertical  harmony  was  the  main  consideration.      

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Rhythm.  The  “tyranny  of  the  bar  line”  was  common  as  consistent  metrical  organization  dominated.  Characteristic  was  an  unflagging  rhythm  (fortspinnung)  that  moved  forward  with  constancy  and  even  tempo.  Dotted  rhythms  were  common  but  were  not  played  strictly  as  written.  The  French  style  increased  the  length  of  the  dotted  note  and  shortened  the  complimentary  note.  In  the  Italian  style,  dotted  notes  conformed  to  the  basic  “swing”  of  the  music;  that  is,  if  the  underlying  feeling  was  in  triplets,  dotted  notes  took  on  the  triplet  characteristic  of  long-­‐short,  as  in  Bach’s  “Jesu,  Joy  of  Man’s  Desiring.”         Baroque  music  must  dance!  To  this  end,  Weston  Noble  cites  four  basic  practices  (see  “Rhythm”  in  Performance  Practice  Checklist  below).    Texture.  Homophonic  texture  became  extensively  used,  as  did  a  more  fluid  type  of  polyphonic  writing.  This  newer  form  of  polyphony  was  highly  imitative  and  fugual  in  nature.  Monody  (solo  with  homophonic  accompaniment)  also  was  introduced  in  the  early  Baroque  period  by  composers  such  as  Monteverdi.    Timbre.  Vocal  works  were  generally  accompanied  by  instruments.  Larger  works  contained  ritornello  sections  for  instruments  alone;  the  basso  continuo  provided  the  harmonic  support  with  a  chordal  keyboard  part  (usually  harpsichord  or  organ)  and  lower  string  instruments  doubling  the  bass  line  (usually  cello).  The  composer  rarely  wrote  out  the  continuo  parts  but  employed  a  shorthand  technique  known  as  figured  bass.  Choirs  became  slightly  larger  in  the  Baroque,  with  sixteen  to  twenty  singers,  and  continued  to  comprise  only  men  and  boys.  Instrumental  compositions  often  used  contrasting  effects  between  a  small  group  of  instruments  (concertino)  and  a  full  group  (ripieno).  This  from  of  writing  became  known  as  the  concertato  or  concerted  (contrasting)  style,  which  became    the  forerunner  of  the  concerto  in  the  Classical  Period.    Dynamics.  “Terraced”  dynamics  resulted  in  blocks  of  contrasting  louds  and  softs.  The  use  of  crescendo  and  decrescendo  was  not  common  except  as  messa  di  voce  for  long  notes.  Varying  stages  of  loudness  over  long  phrases  were  indicated  by  use  of  dynamic  terms  in  sequence  (i.e.,  pianissimo,  piano,  forte,  fortissimo).      Tempo.  The  “doctrine  of  the  affections”  indicated  one  mood  (tempo)  per  movement  or  section.  Contrast  was  achieved  between  sections  or  movements  and  not  within.  Tempos  were  deliberate  and  steady  with  little  variation.  They  are  believed  to  have  been  faster  than  contemporary  interpretations  of  tempo  terminology.      Text.  Musica  poetica  emphasized  expression  and  emotion,  which  was  accomplished  through  text  (word)  painting.  Sacred  music  incorporated  religious  writing  and  poetry  as  well  as  use  of  scripture.      Form.  Single-­‐movement  forms  included  the  motet,  anthem,  and  chorale.  Multimovement  sacred  forms  were  the  mass,  cantata,  oratorio,  passion,  and  Magnificat.  Secular  forms  included  opera,  solo  song,  and  madrigal.      

 

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Selected  Composers  and  Choral  Exemplars  of  the  Baroque  Era    The  German  School     Selected  Composers:    J.  S.  Bach,  Buxtehude,  Hammerschmidt,  Handel,  Pachelbel,         Praetorius,  Schütz,  and  Telemann     Selected  Compositions:       Bach:  “Jesu,  Joy  of  Man’s  Desiring”  from  Cantata  147       Bach:  Cantata  104:  Wachet  auf,  ruft  uns  die  Stimme       Bach:  Chorale  harmonizations,  e.g.,  Jesu  meine  Freude       Bach:  Magnificat       Bach:  Motets,  BWV  225-­‐230       Buxtehude:  In  dulci  jubilo  (Cantate  de  Noël)       Buxtehude:  Wachet  auf,  BuxWV  100       Pachelbel:  Singet  dem  Herrn       Praetorius:  Wachet  auf  (a  4)       Schütz:  Also  hatt  Gott  die  Welt  gebliebt       Schütz:  Cantate  Domino       Schütz:  Selig  sind  die  Toten       Telemann:  Psalm  117:  Laudate  Jehovam  omnes  gentes    The  Italian  School     Selected  Composers:  Carissimi,  Lotti,  Marcello,  Monteverdi,  Pergolesi,  Pitoni,         A.  Scarlatti,  and  Vivaldi     Selected  Compositions:       Lotti:  Crucifixus       Monteverdi:  Vespro  della  Beata  Vergine,  1610       Pergolesi:  Magnificat       Pitoni:  Cantate  Domino       A.  Scarlatti:  Exultate  Deo       Vivaldi:  Gloria    The  English  School     Selected  Composers:  Blow,  Handel  (who  became  an  English  citizen),  and  Purcell     Selected  Compositions:       Blow:  Sing,  sing  ye  muses       Handel:  Chandos  Anthem  No.  9:  “O  praise  the  Lord  with  one  consent”       Handel:  Alexander’s  Feast         Handel:  Coronation  Anthem  #2:  “The  King  shall  rejoice”       Handel:  Dixit  Dominus,  HWV  232       Handel:  Joy  to  the  World       Handel:  Messiah         Purcell:  Dido  and  Aeneas       Purcell:  Jehovah,  quam  multi  sunt  hostes  mei       Purcell:  O  sing  unto  the  Lord       Purcell:  Thou  knowest  Lord,  the  secrets  of  our  hearts  

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The  French  School       Selected  Composers:  Charpentier  and  Lully     Selected  Compositions:       Charpentier:  Magnificat       Charpentier:  Messe  de  Minuit  pour  Noël       Lully:  Salve  Regina  (Petit  motet)    

Checklist  of  General  Baroque  Era  Performance  Practice  Guidelines    Melody.     •  Encourage,  develop  and  use  a  solid  vocal  technique  that  allows  flexibility,  buoyancy,  energy,  strength,  well-­‐balanced  breath  flow/pressure,  consistency  of  sound  through  the  entire  range,  clarity,  and  pitch  accuracy.  Baroque  melodies  require  strong  technique  to  negotiate  pitches  and  rhythm,  especially  the  regular  and  abundant  use  of  melismas.     •  Explore  a  variety  of  articulation  (legato,  non-­‐legato,  martellato,  staccato,  marcato,  etc.)  to  sing  parts  -­‐-­‐  perhaps  even  within  a  single  melodic  figure  -­‐-­‐  in  order  to  reflect  (or  sometimes  contrast)  accompanying  instrumental  articulation.  In  contrast  to  the  previous  period,  vocal  forces  may  be  more  instrumentally  conceived  and  should  be  performed  appropriately  for  consistency  within  the  entire  ensemble.  Simularly,  the  sophistication,  skills  and  abilities  of  vocal  soloists  evolved  in  this  period,  hence  a  variety  of  vocal  techniques  are  necessary  for  effective  expression  in  solo  passages,  arias,  etc.     •  See  notes  below  under  “Texture”  that  pertain  to  the  melodic  nature  and  realization  of  various  parts.     •  Utilize  vibrato  as  a  vocal  ornament  (similar  to  what  pop  singers  do  today),  with  generally  less  vibrato  elsewhere.    Harmony.     •  Use  solfege  to  increase  performers’  awareness  of  harmonic  progressions,  both  vertically  and  horizontally.     •  Analyze  all  harmonies  from  the  bottom  up,  yet  be  aware  of  how  each  individual  part  contributes  to  the  total  harmonic  picture.       •  Become  familiar  with  the  role  of  the  continuo  group  and  be  able  to  realize  a  figured  bass.  This  aspect  of  the  Baroque  ensemble  is  the  harmonic  foundation  of  the  majority  of  compositions.     •  Analyze  all  chorales  according  to  common  practice  procedures,  which  were  codified  in  this  period,  but  also  be  aware  of  the  melodic  nature  of  each  part  and  the  role  of  nonharmonic  tones  in  enhancing  expression  horizontally.    Tonality.     •  Use  solfege  to  increase  ensemble’s  understanding  of  tonality.  As  major  and  minor  became  firmly  established  in  this  period,  and  the  use  of  equal  temperament  made  performance  in  all  keys  possible,  performers  need  to  be  aware  of  how  these  keys  are  specifically  applied.  Remember  the  church  modes,  however,  which  are  still  employed.      

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 Rhythm.     •  Highlight  this  important  and  most  identifiable  feature  of  the  style  (along  with  the  use  of  basso  continuo)  and  encourage  singing  that  is  delightfully  rhythmic,  buoyant  and  energized.       •  While  the  “tyranny  of  the  bar  line  is  established,”  the  music  is  not  square.  The  ability  of  performers  to  understand  the  Schwung  (“swing”)  inherent  in  the  rhythm  and  to  “find  the  groove”  is  necessary  for  the  music  to  dance.       •  To  this  end,  Weston  Noble  cites  four  basic  practices:  (1)  weak  beats  must  lead  to  strong  beats  (the  emphasis  on  beat  one  must  be  overcome);  (2)  shorter  time  values  serve  as  “springboards”  to  longer  time  values;  (3)  repeated  notes  are  often  separated  thus  maintaining  the  individuality  of  each  note;  (4)  when  a  melodic  line  changes  direction,  the  note  preceding  the  turn  is  stressed  to  push  the  following  (weaker)  notes  along  with  greater  energy  (2005,  pp.  79-­‐83).  For  a  fuller  explanation  of  these  practices,  read  Lecture  9,  “Stylisic  Awareness  in  Music  of  the  Baroque”  in  Noble’s  book,  Creating  the  Special  World.        Texture.     •  Conceptualize  Soprano  and  Bass  parts  as  a  melodic  duet.  Melodic  function  in  homophonic  structures  is  often  given  to  the  soprano  voice,  but  the  lowest  part  (basso  continuo)  is  most  musical  when  interpreted  melodically,  even  though  it  serves  such  a  strong  harmonic  function.     •  Interpret  each  line/part  in  polyphonic/fugal  structures  melodically  –-­‐  with  shape,  clarity,  distinctness,  rhythmicity,  and  articulation  –  and  notice  how  these  melodies  interact  (bring  out  “subject,”  “head  motive,”  “fugato  figure,”  etc.).    Timbre.     •  Utilize  a  strong  and  effective  vocal  technique  to  balance  the  regular  use  of  instrumental  accompaniments.  Performers  need  to  produce  the  volume  and  body  necessary  for  projection,  yet  remain  free,  flexible,  clear,  rhythmic  and  dance-­‐like  in  style.       •  Listen  to  performances  of  this  repertoire  by  groups  that  specialize  in  Baroque  performance  practice.  Get  these  sounds  in  your  ears,  let  them  “inform”  your  own  “aural  image,”  and  strive  to  duplicate  this  style  and  timbre  in  your  own  performances  for  utmost  authenticity  (what’s  truest  to  the  music).    [My  favorite  recordings  are  by  the  Monteverdi  Choir  and  the  English  Baroque  Soloists  under  the  direction  of  John  Eliot  Gardiner.  You’ll  notice  immediately  the  contrast  with  more  “modern”  performances,  especially:  ensemble  size  (smaller);  nature  of  the  instruments  (softer  and  more  subtle);  nature  of  choir  voicing  (Alto  part  sung  by  combination  of  men  and  women);  and  the  brisk  tempos  and  impressive  virtuosity.]    Dynamics.     •  Employ  dynamic  expression  to  balance  rhythmic  articulation;  retain  musicality  in  a  style  that  is  so  rhythmically  oriented.      •  Perform  terraced  dynamics  designated  for  larger  sections,  but  also  include  micro-­‐dynamics  within  note/phrase  levels  for  added  expression  and  musiciality,  including  arch-­‐shaped  melodic  lines,  messa  di  voce  on  long  notes,  other  dynamics  to  accompany  the  dance-­‐like  nature  of  the  rhythm.  

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Tempo.     •  Know  and  follow  all  tempo  markings,  with  a  realization  that  m.m.  numbers  listed  today  are  usually  slower  than  what  current  research  has  found  for  Baroque  repertoire.  Consider  faster  tempos  and  lighter  articulation  than  what  was  common  standard  performance  in  the  mid/early-­‐20th  century.  (See  “Timbre”  above.)     •  Use  a  metronome  in  your  score  preparation  to  reinforce  your  own  feeling  of  internal  pulse.  Notate  m.m.  values  on  your  scores  and  share  these  with  your  instrumentalists  before  the  first  rehearsal  with  them  so  that  performers  are  ready  for  your  tempos.  For  best  preparation,  consider  rehearsing  at  a  variety  of  tempos  –  especially  faster  ones  –  to  encourage  utmost  flexibility  and  freedom.  Most  importantly,  keep  your  tempos  steady.     •  Focus  on  your  own  conducting  technique  (use  a  baton  and  hold  it  comfortably)  and  make  sure  it  is  clear  to  instrumentalists!  Strong  ictus  points,  clear  patterns,  and  consistent  “travel”  is  crucial  for  instrumentalists  to  follow  you.  Have  a  firm  idea  of  what  you  want  to  hear  from  them  on  all  levels  (tempo,  rhythm,  articulation,  dynamics,  etc.)  and  be  able  to  explain  (or  better  yet:  sing!!)  precisely  what  you’d  like.  Be  ready  to  rehearse  the  instrumentalists  to  realize  your  interpretation.  Listen  carefully  to  all  performers  and  use  your  eyes  to  communicate  in  order  to  achieve  success:  remember  to  give  instrumentalists  equal  attention!    Text.     •  Emphasize  clear  declamation  of  text  and  be  sure  it  is  well  projected.  To  improve  diction,  consonant  articulation  must  be  crisp  and  clear,  with  an  effort  to  place  consonants  in  front  of  the  beat  with  energy  and  air  flow.  If  consonants  are  lazy,  the  choir  will  sound  sluggish  and  slow.  Tempos  between  choir  and  orchestra  will  not  align;  total  ensemble  will  suffer.     •  Convey  heightened  expression  vocally  in  compositions  that  reflect  musica  poetica  (emphasis  on  expression  and  emotion).  Highlight  text  painting  and  reinforce  emotions  embedded  in  musical  material  composed  with  inspiration  of  the  period’s  belief  in  the  “doctrine  of  the  affections.”    

CLASSICAL  ERA  (c.  1750-­‐1825)          The  Classical  era  in  music  was  one  of  grace  and  elegance.  Formality  was  at  its  core  and  was  reflected  in  the  mannerisms  of  royal  courts  and  nobility.  The  highly  decorative  Baroque  manner  was  abandoned  for  a  simpler  style  of  musical  writing.  This  style,  first  known  as  the  stile  galant,  evolved  into  more  intricate  forms  such  as  sonata  allegro,  which  gave  birth  to  the  Classical  symphony.  Austria  and  Germany  were  the  centers  where  instrumental  music  came  to  dominate.  Composers  moved  from  working  under  the  patronage  system  (Haydn),  to  defying  the  system  (Mozart),  and  finally  to  breaking  loose  as  independent  musicians  (Beethoven).  Choral  music  continued  its  importance  in  the  sacred  rites  of  the  church,  but  instrumental  music  and  opera  advanced  greatly  as  concerts  for  the  public  were  made  available.  Continued  improvements  in  music  printing  made  the  dissemination  of  composers’  works  easier,  and  a  wider  audience  developed  for  art  music.  The  age  of  the  public  concert  took  root  in  this  era.  

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One  place  where  the  Classical  giants’  music  traveled  was  to  a  small  group  of  Moravians,  a  religious  sect  who  traveled  to  and  settled  in  the  areas  of  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  and  Winston-­‐Salem,  North  Carolina.  Most  American  colonists  had  little  schooling,  and  art  music  events  were  rare.  The  Moravians,  however,  were  a  well-­‐educated  group  who  brought  string  and  wind  instruments  with  them  to  the  New  World.  Choral  music  was  central  to  their  form  of  worship,  but  they  also  cultivated  the  use  of  strings  and  winds.  Children  were  expected  to  learn  an  instrument  and  read  music.  Some  of  the  earliest  renditions  of  Beethoven’s  symphonies  and  Haydn  oratorios  were  given  by  the  Moravians  in  the  new  colonies.      

Musical  Characteristics  and  Style  Elements  of  the  Classical  Era        Melody.  The  structure  of  the  melody  was  often  motivic,  characterized  by  short  melodic  fragments  and  little  embellishment.  Melodies  were  typically  scalewise,  with  occasional  chromatic  notes,  and  often  melismatic.  Lyricism  and  smooth  contours  dominated  the  melodic  outline.      Harmony.  A  simple,  functional  harmonic  vocabulary  was  employed,  with  use  of  seventh  chords  and  secondary  dominants.  Organized  key  relationships  were  formal  and  predictable  between  movements.  Continuo  writing  was  abandoned  for  full  part  writing  except  in  some  sacred  choral  music.    Tonality.  A  strong  and  conservative  tonal  system  of  major  and  minor  was  employed.  Key  changes  often  were  expressed  only  by  accidentals  in  the  parts.      Rhythm.  Music  was  metrically  conceived  and  moved  by  the  bar  rather  than  by  the  beat.  Simple  and  constant  rhythm  patterns  were  clearly  marked  with  strong  cadences  and  a  certain  liveliness.  Silence  (notated  rests)  became  an  important  part  of  the  rhythmic  structure.  The  standard  appoggiatura  was  performed  as  a  long-­‐short  figure.      Texture.  Both  homophony  and  polyphony  were  used  individually  and  in  combination.  Grand  fugues  and  double  fugues  were  written  in  polyphonic  texture.    Timbre.  Choral  forces  became  larger  and  sometimes  very  large.  A  richer  orchestral  sound  developed  as  instruments  improved  in  quality.  An  orchestra  of  eighteen  to  twenty  strings  and  winds  in  pairs  was  common.  The  following  adjectives  are  generally  characteristic  of  Classical  sound:  crystalline,  bright,  polished,  clear,  easy,  crisp,  and  elegant.      Dynamics.  Intensity  levels  were  regularly  marked  with  dynamic  markings,  and  crescendo  and  decrescendo  markings  were  gradually  developed.  Dynamic  contrasts  were  employed  within  movements  as  well  as  various  dynamic  accents.    Tempo.  Classical  tempos  were  generally  moderate,  and  extremes  were  avoided,  although  a  wide  range  of  tempos  was  employed,  including  tempo  rubato  (used  with  discretion)  and  occasional  changes  of  tempo  within  movements.  Beethoven  was  the  first  composer  to  use  metronome  markings  (the  metronome  was  invented  by  Mäzel).    

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 Text.  Literary  sources  were  used  as  well  as  that  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Words  showed  emotional  restraint  and  were  rather  objective.  Text  painting  continued  to  be  employed.      Form.  The  formal  structure  of  Classical  music  was  in  evidence  through  great  symmetry  (ABA)  and  balance  between  repetition  and  contrast.  Phrase  structure  was  mostly  regular  and  cadences  were  well  defined.  The  opera  chorus  was  more  effectively  used  than  in  the  Baroque  as  opera  became  more  realistic.  Larger  choral  forms  included  oratorio,  cantata,  mass,  Te  Deum,  Magnificat,  Stabat  Mater,  and  vespers.  Similar  works  included  offertories,  motets,  antiphons,  and  part-­‐songs.      

Selected  Composers  and  Choral  Exemplars  of  the  Classical  Era    The  Viennese  School     Selected  Composers:  L.  van  Beethoven,  F.  J.  Haydn,  and  W.  A.  Mozart           Selected  Compositions:       Beethoven:  Final  movement  from  Symphony  No.  9       Beethoven:  “Hallelujah”  from  Mount  of  Olives       Haydn:  Lord  Nelson  Mass  (Mass  No.  11  in  D  Minor)       Haydn:  “The  heaven’s  are  telling”  from  The  Creation       Mozart:  Ave  verum       Mozart:  Requiem       Mozart:  Choruses  from  Die  Zauberflöte  The  Italian  School     Selected  Composers:  Boccherini,  Cherubini,  Gasparini,  and  Zingarelli     Selected  Compositions:       Cherubini:  Veni  Jesu       Gasparini:  Adoramus  te  Christe       Zingarelli:  Go  not  far  from  me,  O  God  The  English  School     Selected  Composers:  Attwood,  Callcott,  and  Wesley.     Selected  Compositions:       Attwood:  Teach  me,  O  Lord       Attwood:  Turn  thy  face  from  my  sins  The  Early  American  School       Selected  Composers:  Billings,  Hopkinson,  Holyoke,  Ingalls,  Law,  Morgan,  and  Read     Selected  Compositions:       Billings:  Chester         Billings:  Connection       Billings:  I  am  the  rose  of  Sharon       Billings:  Lamentation  over  Boston       Billings:  Modern  Music       Billings:  O  praise  the  Lord  of  heaven       Billings:  Thus  saith  the  high  and  lofty  one       Billings:  When  Jesus  wept  

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    Read:  Hear  our  prayer,  O  Lord  my  God       Read:  O  praise  the  Lord,  O  my  soul      The  Moravian  School     Selected  Composers:  Antes,  Bechler,  Geisler,  Gregor,  Herbst,  and  Peter     Selected  Compositions:       Antes:  Go,  Congregation,  Go       Bechler:  O  the  blessedness  is  great       Gregor:  In  Slumber,  Peaceful  Slumber       Herbst:  Lobet  den  Herrn       Herbst:  They  made  a  crown  of  thorns  for  him       Peter:  It  is  a  precious  thing      

Checklist  of  General  Classical  Era  Performance  Practice  Guidelines    Melody.     •  Encourage,  develop  and  use  a  solid  vocal  technique  that  accounts  for  the  lyricism  and  smooth  contour  that  the  melodies  regularly  require.  In  addition,  the  choral  instrument  requires  flexibility,  buoyancy,  energy,  strength,  good  breath  management,  consistency  of  sound  through  the  entire  range,  clarity,  and  pitch  accuracy.  Classical  melodies  require  solid  technical  foundation  to  sing  well  and  with  expression  and  refinement.  Melodies  are  usually  stepwise  with  occasional  chromaticism  and  abundant  melismas,  and  the  soprano  part  often  lies  in  a  high  tessitura.       •  Explore  a  variety  of  articulations  in  a  more  measured  way  than  the  previous  period  (legato,  non-­‐legato,  martellato,  staccato,  marcato,  etc.)  to  sing  melodic  lines/parts  -­‐-­‐  perhaps  even  within  a  single  melodic  figure  -­‐-­‐  in  order  to  reflect  (or  sometimes  contrast)  accompanying  instrumental  articulations.  Vocal  forces  are  still  primarily  instrumentally  conceived  (seemingly,  at  times,  even  secondary),  and  this  reality  needs  to  be  understood  for  consistency  within  the  entire  ensemble.  Simultaneously,  the  greater  sophistication,  skills  and  abilities  of  vocal  soloists  reach  an  even  higher  level  in  this  period.       •  Realize  that  the  interpretation  of  this  repertoire  is  more  “standard”  and  “normal”  in  a  modern  sense.    Harmony.     •  Use  solfege  to  increase  performers’  awareness  of  harmony,  which  in  this  period  is  clear  and  functional,  organized  and  often  predictable.  Be  aware  of  any  music  that  expands  the  predictable  (“development”  sections),  especially  later  in  the  period,  and  notice  how  expression  is  increased  through  harmonic  development.       •  Analyze  all  harmonies  from  the  bottom  up  –  continuo  writing  is  still  used  in  much  sacred  music  –  yet  be  aware  of  how  each  individual  part  contributes  to  the  total  harmonic  picture.  Sacred  music  is  generally  more  conservative  and  less  adventurous  than  secular  music;  solo  vocal  repertoire  generally  exhibits  more  development  and  advancement  than  choral  music.    Tonality.  

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  •  Use  solfege  to  increase  ensemble’s  understanding  of  tonality.  Strong  and  conservative  tonal  system  was  employed,  with  key  changes  usually  signaled  only  by  accidentals  in  the  parts.  Make  singers  aware  these  adjustments  (highlight  accidentals)  and  emphasize  these  alterations  through  accurate  performance.      Rhythm.     •  Be  aware  that  music  of  this  period  was  conceived  by  the  bar  rather  than  the  beat,  and  this  influenced  phrase  structure,  which  became  a  critical  component  of  larger  overall  forms  (e.g.,  Sonata  Allegro,  Rondo,  etc.).  Form  and  structure  became  more  significant  in  this  period  concerned  with  organization,  balance,  and  symmetry.      •  Encourage  cleanliness,  refinement  and  clarity  in  performing  rhythms  that  are  simple  and  patterned,  clearly  marked,  with  strong  cadences,  and  performed  with  a  certain  liveliness  heard  best  using  a  sound  that  is  lean  and  clean.       •    Perform  rests  (silences)  with  the  same  care  and  attention  as  notes  (sounds)  to  enliven  the  rhythmic  structure.  Standard  appoggiatura  –  notated  as  an  eighth-­‐note  grace  note  –  was  performed  as  a  long-­‐short  gesture  (opposite  of  the  notation).      Texture.     •  Balance  all  four  parts,  even  though  the  soprano  part  usually  predominates.  In  general:  (1)  sopranos  often  carry  the  melody,  which  needs  to  be  sung  with  ease,    refinement,  clarity  and  sensitivity,  regardless  of  high  tessitura;  (2)  altos  need  to  treat  their  part  as  musically  as  possible  and  summon  their  best  artistry,  even  if  the  material  seemingly  lacks  melodic  interest;  (3)  tenors,  often  in  a  high  tessitura,  need  to  keep  their  singing  light,  rhythmic,  dynamically  controlled,  and  sensitive;  (4)  basses  need  to  keep  their  sound  forward,  bright,  rhythmic,  projected,  and  proactive  rhythmically,  especially  keeping  the  consonants  in  front  of  the  beat.       •  Interpret  each  line/part  in  polyphonic/fugal  structures  melodically  –-­‐  with  shape,  clarity,  distinctness,  rhythmicity,  and  articulation  –  and  notice  how  these  melodies  interact  (bring  out  “subject,”  “head  motive,”  “fugato  figure,”  etc.).    Timbre.     •  Utilize  a  strong  and  effective  vocal  technique  to  balance  the  regular  presence  of  instrumental  accompaniments.  Performers  need  to  produce  the  volume  and  body  necessary  for  projection  and  remain  free,  flexible,  clear,  rhythmic  and  graceful.       •  Remember  that  “loud  is  not  thrilling,  thrilling  is  thrilling,”  especially  as  performing  forces  become  larger  (sometimes  very  large)  and  orchestras  employ  a  richer  orchestral  sound  with  modern  instruments.  The  following  adjectives  are  generally  characteristic  of  Classical  sound:  crystalline,  bright,  polished,  clear,  easy,  crisp,  and  elegant.    Dynamics.     •  Employ  dynamics  that  are  regularly  marked,  including  crescendos  and  decrescendos,  but  also  include  micro-­‐dynamics  within  note/phrase  levels  for  added  expression  and  musiciality,  including  arch-­‐shaped  melodic  lines,  messa  di  voce  on  long  notes,  and  other  dynamics  to  accompany  the  refined  nature  of  the  rhythm.      

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Tempo.     •  Know  and  follow  all  tempo  markings,  with  understanding  that  tempos  in  this  period  were  generally  moderate  –  avoiding  extremes  –  and  consider  some  use  of  tempo  rubato  (with  discretion).       •  Use  a  metronome  in  your  score  preparation  to  reinforce  your  own  feeling  of  internal  pulse.  Notate  m.m.  values  on  your  scores  and  share  these  with  your  instrumentalists  before  the  first  rehearsal  so  that  performers  are  ready  for  your  tempos.  For  best  preparation,  consider  rehearsing  at  a  variety  of  tempos  –  including  faster  ones  –  to  encourage  utmost  flexibility  and  freedom.  Most  important,  keep  your  tempos  steady.     •  Focus  on  your  own  conducting  technique  (use  a  baton  and  hold  it  comfortably)  and  make  sure  it  is  clear  to  instrumentalists!  Strong  ictus  points,  clear  patterns,  and  consistent  “travel”  is  crucial  for  instrumentalists  to  follow  you.  Have  a  firm  idea  of  what  you  want  to  hear  from  them  on  all  levels  (tempo,  rhythm,  articulation,  dynamics,  etc.)  and  be  able  to  explain  (or  better  yet:  sing!!)  precisely  what  you’d  like.  Be  ready  to  rehearse  the  instrumentalists  to  realize  your  interpretation.  Listen  carefully  to  all  performers  and  use  your  eyes  to  communicate  in  order  to  achieve  success:  remember  to  give  instrumentalists  equal  attention!    Text.     •  Emphasize  clear  declamation  of  text  and  be  sure  it  is  well  projected  and  elegant.  To  improve  diction,  consonant  articulation  must  be  crisp  and  clear,  with  an  effort  to  place  consonants  in  front  of  the  beat  with  energy  and  airflow.  If  consonants  are  lazy,  the  choir  will  sound  sluggish  and  slow;  tempos  between  choir  and  orchestra  will  not  align  and  total  ensemble  will  suffer.        

ROMANTIC  ERA  (c.  1825-­‐1900)    

The  restraint  and  objectivity  of  the  Classical  era  dissolved  into  the  overt  emotion  and  great  subjectivity  in  the  Romantic  era.  This  movement  began  with  the  literature  of  the  eighteenth  century,  particularly  with  such  writers  as  Rousseau  and  Goethe,  and  climaxed  in  the  works  of  the  late  Romantic  composers  such  as  Brahms,  Wagner,  and  Strauss.  These  composers  wrote  to  communicate  depth  of  emotion,  and  formal  design  became  less  important  as  musical  composition  spilled  over  its  boundaries.  Choruses  grew  very  large,  and  orchestras  expanded  to  include  families  of  instruments:  strings,  woodwinds,  brass,  and  percussion.  Orchestral  color  was  enhanced  as  composers  wrote  for  these  families  and  individual  instruments.  Opera  took  on  enormous  proportions,  and  opera  choruses  became  operatic  in  nature  with  full-­‐throated,  soloistic  singing.  Nationalism  took  on  great  importance  as  schools  of  composition  reflected  nationalistic  flavor.      

Musical  Characteristics  and  Style  Elements  of  the  Romantic  Era    It  was  in  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  conductor,  as  we  know  the  role  today,  became  a  standard  part  of  the  music  ensemble.  Public  audiences  for  music  concerts  were  filled  with  middle-­‐class  citizens  who  came  to  view  the  conductor  as  a  celebrity.  Artists,  in  general,  now  made  the  world  of  music  making  a  public  arena;  the  concert  hall  took  the  place  of  the  

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church  for  many  composers,  singers,  players,  and  conductors.  Great  choral  works  such  as  the  Deutsches  Requiem  of  Brahms  were  composed  not  for  a  religious  service  but  for  a  concert-­‐going  audience.  Choral  music  transcended  the  chapel,  the  church,  the  drawing  room,  and  the  palace  to  assume  a  new  life  in  the  role  of  the  public  concert  hall.      Melody.  Melodic  variation,  from  flowing  and  smooth  to  fragmented  and  irregular,  was  dictated  by  personal  feeling,  with  dynamic  peaks  and  changes.  Melodies  tended  to  grow  out  of  harmonic  progressions,  becoming  less  independent  than  previously  written.  The  use  of  vocal  portamento  (a  slight  vocal  glide  between  pitches)  was  common.  Portamento  in  choral  singing  as  well  as  orchestral  string  playing  has  been  so  limited  in  musical  performance  for  so  many  years  that  to  modern  audiences  it  tends  to  sound  in  poor  taste.      Harmony.  Romantic  composers  made  great  use  of  chromaticism,  nonharmonic  tones,  altered  chords,  and  ninth  and  thirteenth  chords  to  build  harmonic  tension.  Strong,  formal  cadences  were  usually  avoided  in  favor  of  deceptive  cadences  used  to  give  a  sense  of  tension  and  movement.  Modal  harmonies  for  folk  songs,  especially  those  of  nationalistic  origin,  served  to  open  new  avenues  of  harmonic  expressivity.      Tonality.  Major-­‐minor  tonality  continued,  but  a  weaker  sense  of  key  center  developed,  leading  to  a  gradual  disintegration  of  the  major-­‐minor  system.  Tonality  was  further  weakened  by  the  fusion  of  major  and  minor  modes,  using  chords  typical  of  one  mode  in  the  other.  Key  relationships  became  less  formalized,  with  modulations  to  distant  keys;  sudden  moving  in  and  out  of  key  for  short  periods  of  time  added  to  the  weakening  of  a  strong  feeling  for  a  particular  key.      Rhythm.  In  the  early  Romantic  period,  rhythm  remained  much  as  it  had  in  the  Classical  period.  By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  rhythm  came  to  be  more  irregular  and    more  interesting,  with  changes  in  meter,  cross-­‐rhythms,  and  syncopations.  Later,  rhythm  was  often  complex  and  rhapsodic,  sometimes  avoiding  strong  stresses  to  increase  the  sense  of  tension,  especially  in  slower  movements.    Texture.  The  texture  was  largely  homophonic,  with  a  mixture  of  vertical  and  horizontal  elements.  Polyphonic  texture  became  more  of  a  device  than  a  style.  Thick  textures  often  resulted  in  divided  choral  parts.      Timbre.  Choruses  and  orchestras  were  often  large,  producing  a  big  sound  and  much  drama.    Choral  singing  was  more  soloistic,  operatic,  fuller,  and  heavy,  with  a  strong  but  balanced  bass  voice.  Small  choral  ensembles  also  existed,  mostly  of  amateurs,  who  gathered  together  in  homes  to  sing  part-­‐songs.  This  singing  was  lighter  and  more  folk-­‐like.      Dynamics.  A  full  range  of  intensity  was  explored  from  ppp  to  fff.  Wide  changes  were  frequent,  with  subtle  changes  and  minute  gradations.  Many  accents  added  to  the  dynamic  tension.      Tempo.  Metronome  markings  were  used  extensively,  but  served  only  as  a  guide  and  in  no  way  bound  a  performer  to  a  set  tempo.  Wide  variations  were  employed,  from  largo  to  

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presto.  “The  general  consensus  among  nineteenth-­‐century  musicians  was  that  various  performances  of  the  same  piece  could  have  a  range  of  suitable  tempos,  and  that  flexibility  within  a  given  tempo  was  implied.”  (Joseph,  2014,  p.  24).  There  was  much  use  of  tempo  rubato  as  an  expressive  device.    Text.  Composers  used  outstanding  literature  and  poetry  as  texts  for  choral  music.  These  were  often  highly  emotional  and  sensitive,  adding  to  the  musical  tension.  Folklore  also  was  used  as  a  textual  source,  especially  in  opera.    Form.  Formal  structure  was  often  unclear.  Sections  of  works  would  overlap  without  strong  cadences  and  lacked  symmetry.  Contrasting  theme  groups  were  employed,  but  sometimes  only  motives  were  pitted  against  each  other.  Larger  choral  forms  included  cantata,  oratorio,  mass,  Te  Deum,  and  choral  symphony.  Smaller  forms  were  part-­‐song,  motet,  opera  chorus,  sacred  piece,  and  anthem.      

Selected  Composers  and  Choral  Exemplars  of  the  Romantic  Era    The  German  School     Selected  Composers:  Brahms,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  and  Wagner     Selected  Compositions:       Brahms:  O  schöne  Nacht       Brahms:  “How  lovely  is  thy  dwelling  place”  from  A  German  Requiem       Mendelssohn:  He  watching  over  Israel       Mendelssohn:  “Lift  Thine  Eyes”  from  Elijah       Mendelssohn:  There  shall  a  star  from  Jacob  come  forth       Schumann:  Herbstlied    The  Italian  School     Selected  Composers:  Bellini,  Donizetti,  Puccini,  Rossini,  and  Verdi     Selected  Compositions:       Rossini:  Ave  Maria       Rossini:  Duetto  buffo  di  due  gatti       Rossini:  Toast  pur  le  nouvel  an       Verdi:  Pater  noster         Verdi:  “Sanctus”  from  Requiem    The  Austrian  School     Selected  Composers:  Bruckner,  Schubert,  Strauss,  and  Wolf     Selected  Compositions:       Bruckner:  Locus  iste  and  other  motets       Bruckner:  Mass  in  E  Minor,  especially  “Kyrie”       Schubert:  Mass  in  G  Major       Schubert:  Der  Tanz         Schubert:  Nachtelle    

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The  French  School       Selected  Composers:  Adam,  Berlioz,  Dubois,  Fauré,  Gounod,  Offenbach,  and         Saint-­‐Saëns  (Later  Impressionists  included  Debussy  and  Ravel.)     Selected  Compositions:       Berlioz:  “The  Shepherds’  Farewell”  from  ‘L’enfance  du  Christ       Debussy:  Trois  Chansons       Fauré:  Requiem       Gounod:  “Sanctus”  from  Messe  Solennelle       Ravel:  Trois  Chansons    The  Russian  School         Selected  Composers:  Bortniansky,  Gretchaninov,  Leontovich,  Mussorgsky,           Rachmaninoff,  Tchaikovsky,  and  Tschesnokov     Selected  Compositions:       Gretchaninov:  Cherubic  Hymn  in  D  Major,  Op.  29       Gretchaninov:  Nunc  dimttis       Rachmaninoff:  “Bogoroditse  Devo”  from  All-­‐Night  Vigil  (Vespers),  Op.  37       Rachmaninoff:  Liturgy  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  Op.  31       Tchaikovsky:  Holy,  Holy,  Holy  (Hymn  to  the  Trinity)    The  English  School     Selected  Composers:  de  Pearsall,  Elgar,  Noble,  Stainer,  Sullivan,  and  S.  S.  Wesley     Selected  Compositions:       Elgar:  Ave  verum  corpus       Elgar:  The  Snow       Stainer:  “God  so  loved  the  world”  from  The  Crucifixion       Sullivan:  Finale  from  Act  1  of  The  Mikado       Wesley:  Blessed  by  the  God  and  Father       Wesley:  Lead  me,  Lord          The  Czech-­‐Hungarian  School     Selected  Composers:  Dvorak  and  Janacek     Selected  Compositions:       Dvorak:  Mass  in  D  Major    The  American  School     Selected  Composers:  Beach,  Burleigh,  Buck,  De  Koven,  Foster,  Gaul,  MacDowell,         Mason,  and  Parker     Selected  Compositions:       Beach:  Let  this  mind  be  in  you       Beach:  Mass  in  E-­‐flat  Major       Burleigh:  My  Lord,  What  a  Morning       Burleigh:  Sometimes  I  Feel  Like  a  Motherless  Child       Foster:  Come  where  my  love  lies  dreaming         MacDowell:  The  Brook       Parker:  Lights  glittering  morn  bedecks  the  sky  

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Checklist  of  General  Romantic  Era  Performance  Practice  Guidelines    Melody.     •  Encourage,  develop  and  use  a  solid  vocal  technique  that  permits  singers  to  express  themselves  with  depth  of  personal  feeling  reflected  in  extremes  of  dynamic  intensity  and  constancy.  Melodies  are  expressed  with  richness  and  fullness  of  sound  with  abundant  use  of  color  and  emotion.     •  Use  of  portamento  is  permitted,  with  musical  emphasis  placed  on  the  line  and  sustained  sound/feeling  between  the  notes.          Harmony.     •  Understand  the  role  of  harmonic  tension  and  release  as  a  means  to  create  emotion  in  musical  expression.       •  Use  solfege  to  increase  performers’  awareness  of  harmony,  which  in  this  period  is  expanded  with  greater  use  of  chormaticism,  nonharmonic  tones,  altered  chords,  and  ninth  and  thirteenth  chords  to  build  harmonic  tension.  Draw  singers’  awareness  to  avoidance  of  cadences  through  use  of  the  deceptive  cadence  to  create  tension,  release,  and  movement.       •  Analyze  all  harmonies  and  be  aware  of  how  each  individual  part  contributes  to  the  total  harmonic  picture.  Notice  the  use  of  modal  harmonies  for  folks  songs  and  other  repertoire  to  open  new  avenues  to  harmonic  expressivity,  especially  for  those  pieces  of  nationalistic  origin.    Tonality.     •  Use  solfege  to  increase  ensemble’s  understanding  of  tonality,  especially  the  weaker  sense  of  key  center  and  the  gradual  disintegration  of  the  major-­‐minor  system.  Note  other  developing  aspects  of  tonality,  including  fusion  of  major  and  minor  modes,  less  formalized  key  relationships,  modulations  to  distant  keys,  and  sudden  transport  inside  and  outside  of  keys  to  create  a  sense  of  tonal  ambiguity.  These  efforts  serve  to  increase  musical  tension  and  heighten  emotion  through  the  creative  use  of  tonality.  Singers  need  to  open  their  artistic  sensitivities  to  these  influences  and  allow  the  musical  material  to  inspire  them  to  take  interpretive  risks  in  performance.      Rhythm.     •  Continue  rhythmic  performance  practice  of  previous  period  for  repertoire  composed  earlier  in  the  era,  but  be  ready  for  more  complex  and  irregular  rhythms  inherent  in  later  Romantic  music.  Notice  how  all  the  musical  elements  are  united  in  the  connection  of  musical  tension  and  release  as  related  to  strength  of  feeling.  Emotions  need  to  guide  musical  expression  and  are  the  basis  all  music-­‐making,  however,  accuracy  and  appropriate  control  is  still  critical  for  success.    Texture.     •  Retain  clarity  of  texture  and  sound  even  when  musical  material  becomes  thick  and  complex  through  a  mixture  of  vertical  and  horizontal  elements.  Singers  need  to  be  aware  of  

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their  role  in  the  texture  and  –  even  when  using  full,  resonant  sounds  –  remain  sensitive  to  how  their  part  interacts  with  others.      Timbre.     •  Utilize  a  strong  and  effective  vocal  technique  to  balance  the  regular  use  of  instrumental  accompaniments.  Performers  need  to  produce  a  sound  more  solisitic,  operatic,  fuller,  and  weighty,  yet  remain  free,  flexible,  sensitive,  rhythmic,  and  feelingful.       •  Remember  that  “loud  is  not  thrilling,  thrilling  is  thrilling,”  especially  as  performing  forces  become  larger  (sometimes  very,  very  large)  and  orchestras  employ  an  even  richer  orchestral  sound  than  the  previous  period.       •  Be  aware  that  this  was  a  period  of  dramatic  growth  for  amateur  singing  societies,  where  an  abundant  amount  of  secular  part-­‐songs  were  composed  for  use  in  homes,  schools,  other  public  spaces,  etc.  In  this  case,  ensembles  were  smaller  and  singing  was  lighter  and  more  folk-­‐like.      Dynamics.     •  Employ  a  wide  range  of  dynamics  that  are  regularly  marked  and  explored,  from  ppp  to  fff.  Singers  need  to  be  taught  good  vocal  technique  in  order  to  produce  such  contrasting  and  rapidly  changing  intensities,  as  well  as  the  subtle  changes  and  minute  gradations  that  music  requires.       •  Note  the  many  accents  and  other  dynamic/articulation  marks  that  add  to  musical  intensity.    Tempo.     •  Be  aware  of  and  contemplate  all  tempo  markings,  but  feel  free  to  adjust  them  by  consulting  with  your  own  sense  of  musicianship  and  let  your  feelings  guide  you.  Extremes  may  be  considered,  and  tempo  rubato  is  common  as  an  expressive  device.     •  Use  a  metronome  in  your  score  preparation  to  reinforce  your  own  feeling  of  internal  pulse.  Notate  m.m.  values  on  your  scores  and  share  these  with  your  instrumentalists  before  the  first  rehearsal  so  that  performers  are  ready  for  your  tempos.  For  best  preparation,  consider  rehearsing  at  a  variety  of  tempos  –  including  faster  ones  –  to  encourage  utmost  flexibility  and  freedom.  Most  importantly,  be  ready  to  justify  your  tempos  and  insist  on  any  unique  interpretative  decisions  that  you  may  have  devised.     •  Focus  on  your  own  conducting  technique  (use  a  baton  and  hold  it  comfortably),  make  sure  it  is  clear  to  instrumentalists  and  don’t  be  afraid  to  be  EMOTIONAL  and  EXPRESSIVE!  Your  conducting  should  reflect  the  style  period  and  the  importance  of  the  conductor-­‐as-­‐artist.  Strong  ictus  points,  clear  patterns,  and  consistent  “travel”  is  crucial  for  instrumentalists  to  follow  you,  especially  as  you  use  abundant  tempo  rubato.  Have  a  firm  idea  of  what  you  want  to  hear  from  performers  on  all  levels  (tempo,  rhythm,  articulation,  dynamics,  etc.)  and  be  able  to  explain  (or  better  yet:  sing!!)  precisely  what  you’d  like.  Rehearse  the  instrumentalists  to  realize  your  interpretation.  Listen  carefully  to  all  performers  and  use  your  eyes  to  communicate  in  order  to  achieve  success:  remember  to  give  instrumentalists  equal  attention!        

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Text.     •  Emphasize  the  emotional  nature  of  the  text,  practice  it  often  by  reading  it  expressively,  and  be  sure  it  is  well  projected  with  intense  feeling.  To  improve  diction,  consonant  articulation  must  be  crisp  and  clear,  with  an  effort  to  place  consonants  in  front  of  the  beat  with  energy  and  airflow.  If  consonants  are  lazy,  the  choir  will  sound  sluggish  and  slow;  tempos  between  choir  and  orchestra  will  not  align  and  total  ensemble  will  suffer.    

SOURCES    

Arnold,  F.T.  (1965)  The  Art  of  Accompaniment  from  a  Thorough-­‐Bass  as  Practised  in  the  XVIIth  and     XVIIIth  Centuries.  New  York:  Dover  Publications.      Brown  H.  M.,  &  Sadie,  S.  (eds.)  (1989)  Performance  Practice:  Music  after  1600.  New  York:  Norton.      Brown  H.  M.,  &  Sadie,  S.  (eds.)  (1990)  Performance  Practice:  Music  before  1600.  New  York:  Norton.      Brown  H.  M.,  &  Stein,  L.  K.,  (1999)  Music  in  the  Renaissance  (2nd  ed.)  Upper  Saddle  River,  NJ:       Prentice  Hall.    Dart,  T.  (1963)  The  Interpretation  of  Music.  New  York:  Harper  &  Row.      Donnington,  R.  (1982)  Baroque  Music:  Style  and  Performance.  New  York:  Norton.    Dreyfus,  Laurence.  (1987)  Bach’s  Continuo  Group:  Players  and  Practices  in  His  Vocal  Works.     Cambridge,  MA:  Harvard  University  Press.      Gardiner,  John  Eliot.  (2014)  Bach:  Music  in  the  Castle  of  Heaven.  New  York:  Knopf.    Garretson,  R.  L.  (1993  Choral  Music:  History,  Style,  and  Performance  Practice.  Upper  Saddle  River,  NJ:       Prentice  Hall.              Haberlen,  J.  B.  (1972)  Microrhythms:  The  Key  to  Vitalizing  Renaissance  Music.  Choral  Journal  8(3),     11-­‐14.      Larsen,  J.  P.  (1988)  Handel,  Haydn,  and  the  Viennese  Classical  Style  (trans.  Ulrich  Kramer).  Ann     Arbor,  MI:  UMI  Research  Press.    Neumann,  F.  (1978)  Performance  Practices  of  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries.  New  York:     Schirmer  Books.    Noble,  W.  H.  (1005)  Creating  the  Special  World.  Chicago:  GIA.    Philips,  Kenneth  H.  (2016)  Directing  the  Choral  Music  Program,  (2nd  ed.)  New  York:  Oxford.    Reese,  G.  (1940)  Music  in  the  Middle  Ages.  New  York:  Norton.    Robinson,  R.  &  Winold,  A.  (1976).  The  Choral  Experience:  Literature,  Materials,  and  Methods.  New     York:  Harper  &  Row.