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Music EducationInternational Journal of

http://ijm.sagepub.com/content/25/3/259Theonline version of this article can be found at:

DOI: 10.1177/0255761407087263

2007 25: 259International Journal of Music EducationAdena Portowitz and Pnina S. Klein

with learning difficultiesMISC-MUSIC: a music program to enhance cognitive processing among children

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MISC-MUSIC: a music program to enhancecognitive processing among childrenwith learning difficulties

ADENA PORTOWITZYehuda Amir Institute for Social Integration in the Schools, Bar-Ilan University, IsraelPNINA S. KLEINBar-Ilan University, Israel

Abstract

Research findings confirm positive links between music education, scholastic achievement,and social adaptability, especially among at-risk and special needs children. However, fewstudies explain how this process occurs. This article presents a didactic approach, whichsuggests practical ways of enhancing general learning skills while teaching music.Conducted with young children with severe learning difficulties aged 410, the MISC-MUSIC (More Intelligent and Sensitive, or Socially Compliant Children) program (Klein, 1996)interconnects the following three components: (1) the content of the music lessons; (2)

the creation of educational frameworks that nurture quality, active teacherchild inter-actions (mediated learning environments), and (3) the choice of relevant, general learn-ing skills (cognitive functions) to be fostered during the music lesson. The article explains thetheoretic premises of MISC-MUSIC, cites examples of how this approach was implemented,and reflects on the effectiveness of the program.

Key wordscognitive modifiability, mediation, MISC, music education

Introduction

One of the important long-term objectives of education is to help individuals adapt to

the changing conditions of life. Difficult for all children, and especially for young children

with special needs, this process requires a high degree of mental flexibility, facilitated by

well-developed thinking strategies. Educational programs designed to address such goals

emphasize meta-cognitive training within conventional learning contexts (such as math

and science). The current article joins with such educational programs and suggests that

children may also improve important thinking strategies through the process of studying

music. It opens with an overview of research findings that specify positive links between

music education and academic and social achievement. It then enumerates select learn-

ing skills that were targeted during the MISC-MUSIC (More Intelligent and Sensitive, or

Socially Compliant Children) program, and concludes with preliminary findings.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION Copyright 2007 International Society for Music Education

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260 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION 25(3)

The literature

Research has repeatedly confirmed that arts education contributes to academic achieve-

ment, motivation, and social skills, especially among students from underprivileged back-

grounds and children with special needs (Bamberger, 2000b; Bresler, 2002; Catterall, 2002;

Hodges & OConnell, 2005; Scripp, 2002; Winner & Hetland, 2000; Wolff, 1978). Thus,

for example, positive correlations have been found between the study of music and the

development of spatial-temporal reasoning (Hetland, 2000; Rauscher, 1999; Rauscher and

Zupan, 2000; Rauscher et al., 1997), achievement in math (Bamberger & DiSessa, 2003;

Graziano, Peterson, & Shaw, 1999; Vaughn, 2000), and achievement in reading (Atterbury,

1985; Nicholson, 1972). Within the domain of social well-being, music has been found

to contribute positively to school attendance (Hood, 1973), self-efficacy (Kennedy, 1998),

social activities (Aldridge, Gustorff, & Neugebauer, 1995; Frick, 2000), and self-regulation

(McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002).

Many explanations have been offered as to why music promotes learning. Children

with learning difficulties are often deterred from trying to cope with scholastic challenges.

Music is an alternative field where children can succeed, even if their verbal and mathe-

matical skills are comparatively weak. It has also been suggested that the innate joy

derived from music can motivate these children to participate in musical activities; their

active participation can then be used to promote learning.

More specifically, however, researchers have identified general cognitive skills that seem

to develop while studying music. Thus, for example, Ruggeri (2003) found that the con-

scious experience of enjoying music is often accompanied by a less conscious learning

process that involves perceptual, emotional, intuitive, and kinesthetic growth. While these

findings relate to adult education, it appears that they apply to children as well (Portowitz,

2004).

The current study the MISC-MUSIC program

Whereas in the above-mentioned studies associations were found between music educa-

tion and achievement after the training, the current study is unique in that it is specifi-

cally designed to promote thinking processes through the study of music.

MISC-MUSIC is part of an extended program sponsored by the Baker Center for

Research and Treatment of Children with Special Needs at Bar-Ilan University, Israel. Atthe Center, children with special needs study with trained teachers who help them acquire

skills in areas related to language, reading, writing, and music.1 Based on a series of

observations conducted over two academic years (October 2005June 2006)), this study

documented work with eight children, ranging in age between 4 and 10 years, who par-

ticipated in the MISC-MUSIC program. Six of the children had Down syndrome and two

had other severe learning difficulties. All the children received a weekly music lesson of

one hour, attended by the child and a parent. The sessions were videotaped for research

analysis by the authors.2

The MISC-MUSIC program is based on three components:

1. The didactic approach of Mediated Learning;2. The selection of specific learning skills, defined within the Theory of Structural

Cognitive Modification, to be advanced within music lessons;3. Activities that include listening to music, performance, and creativity.

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Portowitz & Klein MISC-MUSIC 261Portowitz & Klein MISC-MUSIC 261

Mediated Learning

Mediated Learning is a didactic approach aiming to establish teacherchild interaction

that is closely matched and synchronized. While such goals characterize quality teaching

in general, mediated learning environments, defined by specific criteria, are particularly

conducive to the development of specific thinking strategies.

3

The criteria of MediatedLearning, as applied to music education, include:

1. Focusing intentionality and reciprocity: promoting enhanced teacherstudentcommunication, the mediator engages the childs attention, while encouraginghim/her to actively respond, verbally or non-verbally. Application to music: listening to music is a particularly potent means of

developing a childs ability to focus, as it exercises the need to concentrateon auditory input and make sense of it.

2. Expanding going beyond the immediate: stimulating mental flexibility, theteacher directs the educational situation beyond the immediate, expanding the

learning situation to include additional experiences and situations. Application to music: the abstract nature of music leaves room for the teacher

to encourage imaginative and associative thinking, as, for example, whilelistening to such music as the childrens favorites Carnival of the AnimalsbySaint-Sans or Prokofievs Peter and the Wolf.

3. Mediating meaning and excitement: the teachers verbal or non-verbal expressionsof appreciation and excitement with regard to objects, concepts, or issues, mayenhance the childs interest in learning, and arouse his/her curiosity regarding therelevance of the material studied. Application to music: expressing enthusiasm for the musical material arouses

the childrens interest in matters that initially may seem far removed from

familiar experiences. Moreover, defining and naming musical conceptsenriches language and communication skills.

4. Rewarding mediating feelings of competence: the teacher expresses satisfactionwith a childs accomplishments, while identifying the specific components thatcontribute to his/her success. Application to music: encouraging a childs attempts to perform or create

musical patterns offers many opportunities for mediated feelings of competence,specifically with regard to the benefits of hard work and practice.

5. Mediating self-regulation (Klein, 1996): self-regulation is essential for the developmentboth of personal self-control and harmonious interactions with other people. Application to music: lessons devoted to performance, and especially group

ensembles, offer excellent opportunities for mediating self-regulation.

The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability as applied to music

The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability (Feuerstein, Rand, & Ryders, 1988) focuses

on the cultivation of thinking strategies commonly referred to as cognitive functions. These

skills effect the Input, Elaboration, and Output phases of the mental act: in the Input

phase, the individual gathers information; in the Elaboration phase, the individual

processes the information that has been gathered; and in the Output phase, the individ-

ual communicates his/her response. While listening to, defining, and comparing auditory

stimuli, children engaged in musical activities draw on the following learning skills:

1. The ability to differentiate between and coordinate multiple features of an experi-ence: a child exercises this cognitive function while listening to or performingmusic for example, by taking notice of pitch, rhythm, dynamics, and



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expression (Bamberger, 1991; Brand, 1997; Cohen, 1986; Serafine, 1988). In onesuch exercise, the children in the program were given a board with large andsmall magnets, and were asked to arrange the magnets so that they representedboth the pitch and the rhythm of a short musical piece. The piece consisted oftwo notes, one higher than the other, and two rhythmic values, one long and the

other short. One child, for example, chose to indicate the higher pitch by placingone magnet on top of the other, and the lower pitch by placing just one magnet.The larger magnets were chosen to represent the longer rhythmic values, whilethe smaller magnets indicated the shorter values. Thus, this child conceived a sym-bolic representation that related to multiple components of information.

2. Recognizing patterns or inconsistencies in some attributes and dimensions of anexperience, while change is taking place in others. This cognitive skill enhancesperceptual stability and accuracy. For example, recognizing a musical themedespite melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic variations would require the conservationof patterns. Joseph, for example, was having difficulties in learning to play a newpiece on the electric organ. One of the problems was that he was reading each

note separately rather than following complete musical ideas. In response to thisproblem we grouped notes together, forming a melodic pattern. Recognizing thepattern and noting its recurrence in various contexts helped him learn to play thepiece. Another instance that draws on this cognitive function would be recogni-tion of a given melody even when it is played on a variety of instruments, or incontrasting registers or dynamics. While certain performance elements change, thecore melody remains the same. One of the children responded to this example bysaying that when a child with long hair has a haircut, s/he still remains the samechild.

3. Understanding large-scale structural relations, as opposed to episodic perception,enables a child to construct connections between multiple parts, uniting them into

larger entities while recognizing the individuality of each of the parts. Holistic per-ception involves processes of analysis and synthesis basic to the understanding ofmusical structures (Bamberger, 1991, 2000a; Brand, 1997; Cohen, 1986;Portowitz, 2001; Serafine, 1988). Musical puzzles serve as excellent opportunitiesfor developing this cognitive function. Thus, for example, the squares presented inFigure 1 represent four different patterns heard in Dmitri Kabalevskys Marchfrom The Comedians (Wiggins, 2001).4 After listening to the piece several times,the teacher and child studied the puzzle pieces, noting how the dots and figuresrepresent different melodic and rhythmic events in the piece. This puzzle particu-larly illuminates issues of surface articulation (short, disconnected lines as opposedto more sweeping gestures), duration (larger and smaller circles), and melodic

direction. While listening to the music, the child chose the square that best repre-sented the musical content. A sequential timeline of the piece emerged, whichwas constructed by repeating or alternating between the four puzzle squares.

In another instance, Diane was asked to draw a picture while listening to a songthat described rain falling on flowers and plants. This exercise was intended to revealher understanding of how flowers grow. In her first picture, Diane drew sporadicpictures of raindrops, a flower, and a cloud, indicating an episodic perception(Figure 2a). Discussing the text and acting out the various verses while singing thesong enabled us to emphasize the connections between the clouds, raindrops,flowers, and the growth process. Dianes next attempt resulted in a moreintegrated picture, as the drops fell from the clouds on to the flower (Figure 2b).

Her final picture (Figure 2c) was the most holistic, and included additional detailsmentioned in the song (a tree and a wreath of wheat).

In another instance, while learning about ABA musical forms, the childrencame to recognize that when a musical theme originally heard at the openingof a piece returns to close the piece, it can be regarded as a recall of the

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Portowitz & Klein MISC-MUSIC 263

opening melody, and not as a new entity. This understanding emerged gradually,because it was initially thought that each section in a sequential progressionshould be labeled as new, thus creating an ABC musical form. This principlewas further explained by discussion of the school bell. There is only one bell

in school; however, the children interpret the meaning of its ring according tothe time when it is heard. In the morning, when the children hear the bell,they enter class. In the afternoon, when the children hear the same bell, theyleave class and go home. Thus, the same bell is used to open and close theschool day.

Figure 1 Four puzzle pieces, from which it is possible to create a symbolic representa-tion of Dmitri Kabalevskys March from The Comedians.

Figure 2a Dianes first drawing of the rain song, which seems to indicate an episodicperception.



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4. Precision and accuracy pertain both to gathering and conveying full and preciseinformation. The efforts involved in achieving precision and accuracy necessitateattention and concentration. In music, and especially in performance, thesefunctions are essential. Videos filmed during performance lessons reveal the

Figure 2b Dianes second drawing of the rain song. This attempt is more integrated, asthe rain falls on the flower.

Figure 2c Dianes third picture of the rain song. This is Dianes most integrated pic-ture, reflecting a holistic perception of the process of growth.



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immense effort the children make to play the notes, rhythms, and dynamicsprecisely and accurately. Indeed, the quality of a performance often depends onthe split-second coordinated entrances of the players.

5. Promoting self-regulation: encouraging thinking before doing trains children tostop, think things through and plan before acting. Replacing random responses with

clear plans of action fosters self-discipline, and builds childrens confidence in theirability to complete tasks. Self-regulation is one of the most central skills developedwhile studying music. Learning to play an instrument alone or in a group fostersself-discipline and develops strategies that assist in promoting self-regulation (Kirk,Gallagher, & Anastasiow, 1993; McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002; Oreck, Baum, &McCartney, 1999). Numerous musical activities in which children take turns exerciseself-regulation and self-control: following graphic representations of musical pieces,jointly creating their own pieces, or practicing contrasting levels of musical sounds.

6. The ability to engage in multiple representations offers children who are not fluentin verbal communication an opportunity to convey their ideas using an alternativemodality, such as singing, playing, improvisation, drawing, graphic notation, or

moving to music (Brand, 1997, 2000; Cohen, 1980, 1997; Mualem-Paleov, 2000).Such alternative modes of expression also enhance memory (Balch, Bowman, &Mohler, 1992; Wallace, 1994). Multiple representations can be used to helpteachers assess the childrens musical understanding, especially when their speechis limited (Bamberger, 1991; Cohen, 1997; Gruhn & Rauscher, 2002). Yonahs picturesof Saint-Sans Donkey and Turtle, for example, clearly reflect her grasp of thedifferent rhythms and melodic contours used in describing the motions of the twoanimals (Figure 3).

At times, however, children may use symbols that are not based on conventional adult

musical understanding, obscuring their true intent. In such cases, the drawings may seem

disassociated from the musical content, leading the teacher to suspect that the child didnot understand the musical content. This is not necessarily the case. Josephs drawing of

the Russian Dance from Tchaikovskys Nutcracker Suite, for example, included pictures

totally unrelated to the program of the piece (a house, flowers, grass). Having observed

Figure 3 Yonahs picture represents the Turtle and the Donkey from Saint-SansCarnival of the Animals.



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the drawing process, however, it became clear that his picture indicated a keen

understanding of musical articulation, as he synchronized the completion of each

component in his picture with points of musical closure. Moreover, he chose short, straight

lines to represent staccato musical figures, and rounded lines to indicate legato passages

(Figure 4). In such cases, it is essential that the child be asked to explain his/her work.

Multiple representations also nurture associations that assist children in the organizationof abstract sounds. Movements are particularly helpful. Walking on tiptoe, for example, may

create associations of soft music, while wide, open gestures and foot stepping may become

equated with loud, emphatic musical gestures. Finally, multiple representations may offer a

glimpse into the emotional world of a child. Noa, whose father is blind and whose mother

is mentally retarded, drew a picture while listening to the Fish in Saint-Sans Carnival of

the Animals. She drew a very large number of fish in her picture, explaining that she wanted

the fish to have lots of friends, so that they wouldnt feel lonely.

Reflections

Data collected over a two-year period revealed meaningful findings. First and foremost, the

children who participated in the study became music lovers. Singing, listening, drumming,

and moving to the music became an integral part of their lives, as they gradually evolved

from hesitant bystanders to active learners. Most rewarding, parents reported that children

continued to develop their musical interests at home, singing the songs they had learned

with their siblings and listening to the musical selections that had been recorded for their

personal use. It was satisfying to realize that, even when the focus of a program promotes

art as a tool, the end result also includes the benefits of art for arts sake.

Significant progress was observed in the development of the targeted cognitive func-tions. The childrens world of associations expanded as they connected between, for exam-

ple, the sounds of music and the sounds of nature or animals. They engaged in reading

and designing graphic representations as they translated melodic contour, surface

articulations, and other musical elements into graphic symbols. Such graphic representations

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were the basis for moving on to an understanding of concepts of sequencing, repetition,

variation, and contrast prerequisites to establishing connections between the flow of

events in time and space. Grappling with rhythmic and melodic notation, tempo consid-

erations, and dynamics, the children learned how to deal with the necessity of consider-

ing several sources of information at the same time, especially when considering the

emotional content of the music (Why is this piece so exciting? What happens when themusic gets softer?). Through improvisation, the children internalized the defining features

of patterns as they transposed short melodic motives on different degrees of a scale, or

performed short rhythmic patterns on a variety of instruments. While learning to look after

the musical instruments and the audio equipment carefully, they came to value and respect

their studies and the equipment that enabled them to learn. Social skills developed

markedly within group activities that included the child, parent, sibling, and teacher,

enabling the children to maintain longer chains of communication. As the music provided

for focused stimulation, the children asked more questions, and shared their feelings, pref-

erences, and ideas, all reflecting a growing curiosity and interest in connecting with the

people and events around them. Performing ensembles demonstrated the contribution ofall the participants to the group effort. Inviting siblings to partake in the lessons proved

to be especially beneficial. Such activities supported two-way communication, including

opportunities for modeling of normative behavior as well as recognizing and respecting

the abilities of a weaker sibling, who successfully sang all the words of a song and exhib-

ited proficiency in fulfilling many of the musical exercises.5

In conclusion, although music always exists as a source of human enjoyment and emo-

tional release, our research supports its additional function as a promoter of cognitive

processes. While still in the early stages of development, the growing corpus of positive

findings could encourage researchers to apply this approach in multiple situations,

thereby expanding the long-term effects of their music programs. Of particular interest,studies of mediated musical environments could provide important insights into the learn-

ing potential of other groups of children with special needs, such as at-risk children and

children growing up in multicultural environments.

Notes

This study has been supported in part by the MACHADO chair for research on cognitive modifiability and

the development of intelligence.

1. For more information about the MISC programs, see http://www.biu.ac.il/Community/barbaker.shtml2. The analysis monitored the quality of the teaching behavior, as well as the development of the chil-

drens learning skills. The childrens progress was monitored in comparison with a baseline, grounded

on initial interviews with the parents, school reports, professional referrals, select tests of the childs

cognitive and social functioning, and language proficiency.

3. Numerous empirical studies testify to the contribution of mediated learning to cognitive and social

development. See, for example, Feuerstein et al., 1988; Kang and Tan, 2003; Klein, 1988, 1991,

1996, 2003; Klein, Weider, and Greenspan, 1987; Sobelman-Rosenthal, 1999; Tzuriel, 1999; Tzuriel

and Ernst, 1990; Zambrana-Ortiz and Lidz, 1995.

4. The Norwegian music educator Magne Espeland conceived of the idea of music puzzles. This exam-

ple appears in Jackie Wiggins (2001) Teaching for Musical Understanding, p. 172.

5. Readers interested in learning more about the MISC program can contact the author at

[email protected]

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Adena Portowitz is a musicologist with special interests in Music and Cognition andClassical Music (especially the music of Mozart). She is Head of Research at the Music

http://www.newhorizons.org/artshttp://www.aep-arts.org/http://ijm.sagepub.com/http://ijm.sagepub.com/http://ijm.sagepub.com/http://ijm.sagepub.com/http://www.aep-arts.org/http://www.newhorizons.org/arts


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Division of the Yehuda Amir Institute for Social Integration in the Schools, Bar-IlanUniversity, and directs the Musical-Minds Jaffa program, dedicated to promotingcognitive, social, and emotional skills among at-risk children through the study ofmusic. She is Israels national coordinator for the activities of the International YehudiMenuhin Foundation, Brussels, and the Israeli representative to the international

research team headed by Professor Gary McPherson, studying Factors affecting primaryand secondary school childrens motivation to study the visual arts and music. Shelectures at the Interdisciplinary BA Department of the Humanities, Bar-Ilan University,is the author of many articles in the fields mentioned, and currently serves as editorof Min-Ad: Israel Studies in Musicology Online.Address: Music Division of the Yehuda Amir Institute for the Advancement of Teaching,Learning, and Social Integration in the Schools, Department of Education, Bar-IlanUniversity, Ramat-Gan, Israel. [email: [email protected]]

Pnina S. Klein is Head of the Baker Center for Research and Treatment of Children withSpecial Needs, and Professor of Education and Early Childhood Development atBar-Ilan University, Israel. She has developed the MISC approach for early interventionon which this research is based. She has been Head of the Learning Disabilities Clinicat Adelphi University. She has published her research in many international scientific jour-nals and books. She has served as a consultant for international organizations such asthe World Health Organization, UNICEF, and Save the Children in Africa, Asia, and theUnited States. She has received many distinguished national and international awards,including the Most Distinguished Woman in Israeli Education and the Israel-CanadaFoundation Award, and she is an I. B. Harris grantee (USA).Address: Baker Center for Research and Treatment of Children with Special Needs, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel. [email: [email protected]]

Abstracts

Un programme de musique pour augmenter des comptences dapprentis-sage parmi des enfants en difficults scolaires

Les rsultats de recherches confirment les liens positifs entre lducation musicale, la

russite scolaire et ladaptation sociale, particulirement parmi les enfants -risque et aux

besoins spciaux. Cependant, peu dtudes expliquent le droulement du processus.

Cette tude prsente une approche didactique qui propose des manires concrtesdaugmenter des comptences dapprentissage gnrales tout en enseignant la musique.

Conduit avec des enfants en bas ge en difficults scolaires graves, gs de 4 10 ans,

le MISC-MUSIC (More Intelligent and Socially Compliant Children [Klein, 1996]) lie en-

semble les trois lments suivants: (1) le contenu des leons de musique; (2) la cration

de structures ducatives, qui consolident la qualit des interactions actives entre lenseignant

et lenfant (environnements dapprentissage mdiatiss); et (3) le choix de comptences

dapprentissage adquates et gnrales (fonctions cognitives) stimuler pendant la leon

de musique. Larticle explique les prmices thoriques de MISC-MUSIC, cite des exemples

de la faon dont cette approche a t appliqu, et rend compte de lefficacit du pro-

gramme.



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Ein Musikprogramm zur Steigerung kognitiver Verarbeitung bei Kindern mitLernschwierigkeiten

Forschungsresultate besttigen positive Verbindungen zwischen Musikerziehung, schulis-

cher Leistung und sozialer Anpassung, speziell bei gefhrdeten Kindern und solchen mit

speziellen Bedrfnissen. Jedoch gibt es nur wenige Studien die erklren, wie dieser Prozessverluft. Diese Studie beschreibt einen didaktischen Zugang, der praktische Wege vorschlgt,

wie im Laufe des Musikunterrichtes allgemeine Lernfertigkeiten verbessert werden knnen.

Durchgefhrt mit kleinen Kindern mit ernsthaften Lernschwierigkeiten im Alter von 410

Jahren, schafft das MISC-MUSIC (More Intelligent and Socially Compliant Children; Klein,

1996) Programm Verbindungen zwischen den drei folgenden Komponenten: (1) dem Inhalt

der Musiklektionen; (2) dem Gestalten eines erzieherischen Aufbaus mit frdernden

Qualitten, einer aktiven LehrerSchler Interaktion (vermittelndes Lernumfeld); und (3)

der Wahl relevanter, allgemeiner Lernfertigkeiten (kognitive Funktionen) um whrend der

Musiklektionen gefrdert zu werden. Der Artikel beschreibt die theoretischen

Voraussetzungen, von MISC-Music zitiert Beispiele wie dieser Zugang eingefhrt wurde;und reflektiert ber die Wirksamkeit des Programmes.

Un programa de musica para mejorar el progresamiento cognitivo en losninos con dificultdades de aprendizaje

La investigacin confirma vnculos positivos entre la educacin musical, los logros esco-

lares y la adaptabilidad social, especialmente entre nios en situacin de riesgo y con

necesidades educativas especiales. Sin embargo, pocos estudios explican cmo sucede ese

proceso. Este trabajo presenta un enfoque didctico en el que se sugieren formas prc-

ticas para desarrollar las destrezas de aprendizaje general en la enseanza de la msica.

El programa MISC-MUSIC (acrnimo ingls para Nios ms Inteligentes y SocialmenteObedientes [Klein, 1996]), llevado a cabo con nios de 4 a 10 aos con graves dificul-

tades de aprendizaje, conecta tres componentes: (1) el contenido de las clases de msica;

(2) la creacin de marcos educativos que nutren interacciones profesor-nio activas y de

calidad (contextos de aprendizaje mediado); y (3) la eleccin de destrezas de aprendizaje

general relevantes (funciones cognitivas) que se fomentarn durante la clase de msica.

Este artculo explica las premisas tericas de MISC-MUSIC, cita ejemplos de cmo se

implement el enfoque y reflexiona sobre la efectividad del programa.

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