by ang- Hie1 L,ee -

~~~~~~~~-- ------ -

====XfASEL>s l >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~U

X053X00=~~~~~~~~~~~O';0;0 :02

36 AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 2002

AUGU.ST/SEPTEMBER 200236

'-1 C '

"In recent years, researchers andpedagogues have recognized

performance arrxiety as a normalphenomenon that happens TO

most performing artists at sometime, and that it can be dealt Withduring the preparation phase of

the performance."

Sang-fie Lee, apianist and pianopedago9gy .*ecialist, is ian associate professorof mutsic at theUniversiiy ofSozahFlorida in Tampa. She has contributedarticles to musicjournalsand has-per-formed widely in the United States;Canada and ItalyProblems dealing with musician~s

performance anxiety have beenneglected in traditional musiccurricula. The reality is musicstudents and professionals alike

experience performance anxiety that canaffect the outcome, resulting in less thansatisfactory performance. Consequencesmay be feelings of guilt and shame. Inrecent years, researchers and pedagogueshave recognized performance anxiety as anormal phenomenon that happens to mostperforming artists at some time, and that itcan be dealt with during the preparation

phase of the performance. The last threedecades saw an influx of research reportsand publications on this subject. Empiricalresearch, scholadly writings, instructionalmaterials and more open discussion about

*the subjecct have illuminated sources ofperformance anxiety and coping strategies.

Music as a Social Art Form* K. D. Pruett, a clinical professor of psy-chiatry at the Yale Child Study Center,

*theorizes that musicians initially try toignore the painUl dilemma of performanczeanxiety, then realize the fear, and eventual-ly learn to accept it as an opportunity toembrace the audience.' He wrote about anintriguing case scenario of a gifted twelve-year-old musician. This young man playedpiano for a music school children's stringensemble at age 6. He was fearless duringthose years an'd reveled in the attention. Atage 8, he joined a boy choir and becamethe head chorister within three years. Hisclean tone and stable pitch gained him areputation and put him in high demand.Things began to change: Approaching ado-lescent years, perhaps triggered by his par-ents' divorce, whicITmight have forced him

to grow up sooner than he would haveotherwise, he began developing sensitivityto nervousness and fear. He now worriedabout maldng mistakes, missing entrancesand cracking his voice on important notes.He was envious of other kids playing out-side seemingly without a worry.Fortunately, further conversation with thisyoung man revealed that he had alreadybegun employing some complex copingstrategies, such as giving himself pep talkand imitating a model who seemed to havecontrol over nervousness on stage.

This scenario is an example of a feadless,gifted young child who goes through anarcissistic stage when he is confident, self-absorbed and even grandiose. Public exhi-bition is natural to a child at this phase. Ashe or she approaches adolescent yehrs, peeracceptance and criticism become moreimportant than self-acceptance. Thus, theconflict between the self and the other, oneof the core sources of stage fright, begins asa developmental process. We ask, "Is theother, for example, audience, enemy orfriend?" Perhaps separation between "meand the other" was the cause of Narcissus'sself-love and the eventual drowning of self

AMERICAN MUSIC TE-ACHER 5

1,1 " ,

37

in admiration of the mirror image of him-self in the water. The antidote to this prob-lem might be that as the young performerbegins to grasp the notion that the audi-ence is not necessarily the other, but I, andthe other, are all a part of "us," a differentperspective can emerge. Gradually, devel-oping an attitude of appreciating andembracing the audience, instead of ignor-ing or fearing it, becomes a realistic goal.

James Allen points out that while mostyoung performers take up their art foremotional pleasure and deeper self-satisfaction, the performing arts, inessence, is the most social of all art forms.2

It is quite contradictory to the usuallifestyle of the musician who practicesmany hours in a lone practice room andwho, for the most part, struggles to com-pete for self-improvement with the self Itis true that performers, more often thannot, perform together, and most perform-ances involve an audience. This socialaspect of musical life is not addressedenough in our music training programs.Further, because musicians jealously haveto guard their time and energy for practice,this social side of-music making is oftenleft unattended by individuals.

Let us think about the building struc-ture in a music school at a university. Thearchitect does his best to isolate every stu-dio and practice room in the buildingfrom possible interference. The musicianworks alone behind the closed door andwithin formidable soundproof walls. Incomparison, in typical offices of a historydepartment or journalism school or evenin science labs, the doors tend to be open,and people may talk across the hallbetween doors and in seminar rooms.Musicians get together to rehearse; this is atime to have fun making music together,time to improve and fine-tune for the finalperformance. Sometimes, rehearsals areinvigorating and fun, and sometimes theyare not. Often, the individual's lone prac-tice habits hinder accepting others' ideasand cooperating with one another. Notsurprisingly, one study identified perform-ance anxiety and the problems with standpartners as the two most serious problemsof musical life.' While use of group train-ing to alleviate performance anxiety hasbeen adopted by some researchers, thesocial aspect or the lack of it, has not beenfocused on as a factor of performanceanxiety.

Musicians' Performance AnxietyPaul G. Salmon distinguishes stage fright

from performance anxiety: Stage fright is

the heightened nervous state during a

performance; performance anxiety is thevulnerable state in anticipation of perform-ance. A musician's performance often ishindered by the anxiety set prior to theperformance, as many anxious thoughtssurface about things that may or may notdisrupt a person's peace of mind. Thisanticipatory anxiety produces a chain ofphysiological, behavioral and cognitivereactions. An awareness of some dangercauses fearful thoughts that trigger sweatypalms, dry mouth or trembling hands, that,

in turn, cause behavioral responses such as

missing notes and forgetting words.Charlotte Whitaker and Donald Tanner,

citing Matthew McKay's Thoughts and

Feelings, identified nine distorting thoughtpatterns that have damaging effects on theperformer's behavior: tunnel vision; polar-ized thinking; overgeneralization; mindreading; catastrophizing; personalization; -

fallacy of power and control; blaming; andshould.' Tunnel vision is when the individ-ual looks at only one element of a situationand forgets all other aspects. An example isa music student who views his or her

upcoming audition as the only thing that

matters in life. Polarized thinking refers to a

thought condition in which everything is

either superb or terrible. An anxious per-former tends to think either he or she isvery good or not good at all; thete is nomiddle ground. Overgeneralization is whenone bad performance or one bad spot ismade to represent his or her entire capabili-ty. A mind reader tends to make a snapjudgment about what others might think.A performer may quickly conclude that noone likes her performance, or the otherextreme version is when he thinks everyonemay be jealous of his performance.

Catastrophizing is the tendency to mag-

nify a small event to a degree that one

thinks everything has declined. It is analo-

gous to making a mountain out of a molehole. Personalization means takingeverything as related to one's personalwell-being, personal injury or personalglory instead of being able to separate theperson and the task. Fallacy of power andcontrol is a state when a person either feelsall-powerful and responsible for everythingor feels completely powerless and out ofcontrol. Shame and guilt are the outcomes

of such fallacy. Blaming is the opposite

pole of power and control. Rather thantaking charge and responsibiiity of the sit-

uation, one finds someone or something toblame. Finally, should describes a condi-

tion when one imposes upon oneself a listof inflexible expectations or rules that canparalyze an otherwise smooth performance.These types of thoughts are automatic and,unless recognized and interfered in somesystematic way, the performer can easilyput himself in the chain reaction modelthat sets up pre-performance anxiety.'-'

Musician's stress also can come from theuncertainty about employment, irregularhours, competition with colleagues, poorfinancial rewards 7 and restricted hours for

social and family life." Stuart Dunkel dis-cusses the myriad tribulations of real life in

the arts. Unlike the business world, musi-cians are forced constantly into conditionssuch as living between reality and fantasy,having to depend on others' approval ofone's excellence or worth, having to facefear and anxiety, having to deal with criti-cism, failure or jealousy, and often beingunable to separate self from the work.Dunkel concedes that in the midst of theseperilous conditions of making music,

musicians create ingenious and incrediblecoping strategies that make life in music

vital and worthwhile?

Anxiety as a Coping Strategy andOther Tactics

In the old school of pedagogy, the anti-dote to any performance weakness wascaptioned in three words: practice, practiceand practice. Heinrich Neuhaus citesHoffman's learning methods: Learn a pieceat the piano with the music, learn a pieceat the piano without the music, learn apiece with the music without the pianoand learn a piece without the piano andwithout the music. Neuhaus added a fifth

point: Learn the piece in one's sleep.' 0

Obviously, this kind of rigorous prepara-

tion is necessary to produce the desired

performance. The question is, "Can a per-

former ever be completely free of the nega-

tive influence of anxiety?"Clearly, some anxiety is helpful for suc-

cessful performance. Psychologists havelabeled a type of heightened state of arousalas a biologically based, motivating force.D. L. Hamman's studies showed that musi-

cians with the highest level of formal train-ing were able to use the anxiety factor forpositive performance effect."' 2 Wolfe simi-larly learned that professional musicians used

38AGS/EPEBR20

AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 200238

the positive anxiety components, such asarousal and intensity, to promote perform-ance rather than letting the negative ele-ments, like apprehension and distractability,diminish performance quality.'3 In anotherstudy, Salmon, Schrodt and Wright foundthat experienced musicians were able toreach an anxiety peak prior to performanceand attained calm control during perform-ance. The study recommended three strate-gies for coping with performance anxiety:systematic rehearsal and exposure toperformance-related situations; positiveand realistic self-statements to counteractunrealistic anticipatory fears; and the com-bined use of mental imagery and relaxationtraining to develop anticipatory copingresponses.'4 In a Kendrick, Craig andLawson study, participants were trained toreplace self-degrading, negative thoughtswith positive task-oriented self-talk.'5 Studiesfocusing on modification of performanceanxiety as a proactive measure found groupdiscussion therapy and systematic desensiti-zation to be effective."'l' 17 8 '9 Other behav-ioral techniques used by researchers weremeditation and muscle relaxation tech-niques;'0 attentional training;"2 electromyo-graphic biofeedback training to reducemusde tension;22 23' and musical analysisand improvisation techniques.25

Wolfe developed a comprehensiveseventy-six-item Performing MusicianCoping Inventory in a study using 162 per-forming musicians.' Coping strategies weredefined as either problem-focused or emo-tion-focused. Among the problem-focusedwere such performance factors as propereating and being well rested before the per-formance, lots of dress rehearsals, playingbefore a small audience and over-learningthe music. Wolfe covered social and emo-tional aspects of performance under emo-tion-focused factors, which induded itemslike talking to the audience, muscle relax-ation, concentration on the music, self-talk,prayer, medication and mental practice.Wolfe concluded that musicians reportinghigh levels of nervousness and apprehensionabout performing tended to avoid usingstrategies that might relieve those symp-toms; while musicians reporting high levelsof arousal, intensity, confidence and compe-tence used a wide variety of both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies.

In his instructional guidebook for audi-tioning musicians, Dunkel stresses a posi-tive outlook when dealing with internaland social aspects of performing. He

stresses the importance of self-reliance andself-realization when facing the audience.Most of all, he reminds us that trustingoneself in a publicly vulnerable situation isthe key to overcoming stage fright.7 Afterall, once on stage, one has total autonomy.It is too late to try to pretend to be some-one else. All she has, momentarily, is theself to offer and share with the audience.Whatever it is we are presenting is the actof giving of self for mutual benefit, enrich-ment and enjoyment. Only when self-trustis attained and expressed, does trust in oth-ers, and consequently mutual trust,become possible.

Timothy Gallwey offers the art of con-centration as the ultimate solution toanxiety-free performance in his book, TheJnner Game of Tennis. He explains concen-tration as the act of focusing one's atten-tion to a single object here and now.Gallwey's instruction begins with simplywatching the ball with intensely focusedattention while playing tennis. Throughthe simple method of watching the ballwith its exact pattern and movement withno other thoughts in mind, one learns theart of effective and deeper concentration.

One of the most practical ways toincrease concentration on the ball is tolearn to love it! Get to know the tennisball; appreciate its qualities.... Forgetfora moment that it is a tennis ball and lookfreshly at its shape, its texture, its feel....Allowyourself to know the ball both intel-lectzzally and through your senses. Makefriends; do anything to start a relationshipwith it. It will help concentrationimmeasurably."8

Musicians, while focusing on hearingevery tone, every phrase, every harmonicchange, every rhythmic nuance, and feel-ing every tactile sense and the emotionalresponse during practice, can train themind to concentrate on music rather thanletting other thoughts enter the mind. Letus think how much more there is to loveand behold and concentrate on musiccompared to a tennis ball: And yet, howoften we lose concentration while playingmusic and let the demonic thoughts enterthe mind. Recognizing performance anxi-ety as a problem, a will to change habitsand a step-by-step discipline can helpmaintain our concentration on the soundand the music making process; which canprevent extraneous thoughts from interfer-ing with the performance energy.

Modifying musicians' performance

AMERICAN MUSIC TEACHER

Ianxiety proactively at the preparation stagerather than attempting to cure sympto-matic manifestations is the best strategy toensure successful performance. Researchshows that performance anxiety can bemanaged from cognitive, pedagogical, psy-chodynamic, skills-based and biologicalperspectives. These management skills canbe taught effectively to individuals as wellas groups. By keeping performance anxietylevels in check, musicians can focus onconveying music as a form of social art,realizing the performing self and the audi-ence are a friendly community. They canset negative thoughts aside and fixate onthe simple joy of sharing music.Ultimately, musicians will transform anxi-ety into a motivating force for success,learn the art of self-reliance and concen-trate on their love of music.

AMTNOTES1. Pruett, K. D., "Young Narcissus at

the Music Stand: DevelopmentalPerspectives from Embarrassment toExhibitioriism." MedicalProblems ofPerformingArtists, 3 (2), June 1988):pp. 69-75.

2. Allen, J. S., "Educating Performers,"The KeyReporter (Spring 1992): pp. 5-9.Originally appeared in The AmericanScholar (Spring 1992).

3. Bayer, L. J., The Stress Process inProfessional Musicians: An Exploratory Stzudy(University of Cincinnati: UnpublishedDissertation, 1982).

4. Salmon, P. G., "A PsychologicalPerspective on Musical PerformanceAnxiety: A Review of the Literature,"Medical Problems ofPerformingArtists, 5(1), (March 1990): pp. 2-11.

5. Whitaker, C. S. and Tanner, D. R.,Butt I Played It Perfectly in the PracticeRoom! (Lanham, New York: UniversityPress of America, 1987).

6. Whitaker, C. S., Modification ofPsychophysiological Responses to Stress inPiano Performer (Texas Tech University:Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, 1984).

7. Steptoe, A., "Stress, Coping and StageFright in Professional Musicians,"Psychology of Music, 17 (1), (1989):pp. 2-11.

8. Cooper, C. L. and Wills, G. I. D.,"Popular Musicians Under Pressure,"Psychology ofMusic, 17 (1), (1989):pp. 22-36.

Continued on page 95

39

Multifaceted NationalismContinued from page 35

Still's that the communicative power ofmusic is uppermost in his creative think-ing. Each day was for him a new begin-ning, yet another opportunity to serve theCreator of all and through Him to servehumanity by doing what he did best andenjoyed most.

AMI

NOTES1. Jefferson, Thomas, Notes on the State

of Virginia. (Boston: Lilly and Wait, 1832),pp. 146-147.

2. Brockwell, Richard. Program notesfor John Powell's Rhapsodie Negre. BostonSymphony Orchestra Program Book(December 29-30, 1922), pp. 654, 656,658. The notes accompanied the first per-formance of the work on March 23, 1918,in New York, on which occasion Powellwas piano soloist, and Modest Altschulerconducted the Russian SymphonyOrchestra.

3. This anecdote was relayed by Still in "AComposer's Viewpoint," William Grant Stilland the Fusion of Culture in American Music,

edited by Robert B. Haas, (Los Angeles:Black Sparrow Press, 1972), p. 125.

4. Quoted from interviews of Still by R.Donald Brown on November 13, 1967,and December 4, 1967, transcript, "NegroSerious Music," edited by Judith AnneStill, California Blick Oral History Project(Fullerton: California State University),pp. 7-8, 29. Reprinted, in Carolyn L.Quin, "Biographical Sketch of WilliamGrant Still," in Judith Anne Still, MichaelJ. Dabrishus and Carolyn L. Quin,William Grant Still: A Bio-Bibliography(Westport, Connecticut, and London:Greenwood Press, 1996), p. 18.

5. Dvorak, Antonin, "Music in America,"Harpers New Monthly Magazine, Vol. xc(December 1894-May 1895), p. 432.

6. Perkins, Francis D., "Litde SymphonyProgram Varied in Second Recital," NewYork Herald-Tribune (March 21, 1927).

7. Saunders, Richard D., "New WorksOffered for Recital Fans," HollywoodCitizen-News (December 14, 1936).

8. Ibid.9. Downes, Olin, "Music," The New

York Times (November 29, 1926), p. 16.

10. Varese, Louise, Varese: A Looking-Glass Diary, Vol. 1: 1883-1928 (New York:W.W. Norton and Co., 1972), p. 227.

11. Sabin, Stewart B., "ComposersPresent As Works Given," RochesterDemocrat and Chronicle (May 2, 1930).

12. Saunders, Richard B., "Native MusicGains Favor of Audience," HollywoodCitizen-News (April 29, 1936).

13. "Philharmonic Orchestra," MusicalCourier 1 1l (November 30, 1935), p. 16.

14. Downes, Olin, "Two PremieresOffered by Lange," The New York Times(November 21, 1935).

15. Still, William Grant, "A Vital Factorin America's Racial Problem," The WilliamGrant Still Reader, Essays on AmericanMusic, edited by Jon Michael Spencer. Aspecial issue of Black Sacred Music: AJournal of Theomusicology, Vol. 6, No. 2(Fall 1992), p. 172. (Printed by DukeUniversity Press). Originally quoted inOberlin Alumni Magazine (March 1950).

16. Arvey, Verna, In One Lifetime(Fayetteville, Arkansas: University ofArkansas Press, 1984), p. 186.

17. Arvey, op. cit., p. xii.

Musician Performance AnxietyContinied from page 39

9. Dunkel, S. E., The Audition Process,(Stuvesant, New York: Pendragon Press,1990).

10. Neuhaus, H., Die Kunst DesKlavierspiels (1967). Translated by K. A.Leibovitch (New York. Praeger Publishers,1973).

11. Hamman, D. L., "An Assessment ofAnxiety in Instrumental and VocalPerformances," JRME, 30 (2), (1982):pp. 77-90

12. Hamman, D. L. and M. Sobaje,"Anxiety and the College Musician: AStudy of Performance Conditions andSubject Variables," Psychology ofMusic, 11,(1983): pp. 37-50.

,13. Wolfe, M. L,, "Correlates ofAdaptive and Maladaptive MusicalPerformance Anxiety," MedicalProblems ofPerformingArtists, 4 (1), (March 1989):pp. 49-56.

14. Salmon, P., R. Schrodt and J.Wright, "A Temporal Gradient of Anxietyin a Stressful Performance Context,"MedicalProblems ofPerformingArtists, 4(2), (une 1989): pp. 77-80.

15. Kendrick, M. J., K. D. Craig, D. M.Lawson and P. 0. Davidson, "Cognitiveand Behavioral Therapy for MusicalPerformance Anxiety, Journal of ConsultClinicalPsychology, 50, (1982):pp. 353-362.

16. Wardle, A., "BehavioralModification by Reciprocal Inhibition ofInstrumental Music Performance Anxiety,"Research in Music Behavior: Modi.fyingMusic Behavior in the Classroom (NewYork: Columbia University, Teacher'sCollege Press, 1979).

17. Appel, S., Modijying SoloPerformnance Anxiety in Adult Pianists(Dissertation Abstracts International, 35,1974): 3503A, 1074.

18. Norton, G. R., L. MacLean and E.Wachna, "The Use of CognitiveDesensitization and Self-Directed MasteryTraining for Treating Stage Fright,"Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2 (1),(1978): pp. 61-64.

19. McCune, B., Functional PerformanceAnxiety Modification in Adult Pianists(Columbia University: UnpublishedDissertation, 1982).

20. Whitaker (1984).21. Kendrick, et al.

22. Levee, J. R., M. J. Cohen and W. H.Rickles, "Electromyographic Biofeedbackfor Relief of Tension in the Facial andThroat Muscles of a Woodwind Musician,"Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 1, (1976):pp. 113-120.

23. Morasky, R. L., C. Reynolds and L.E. Sowell, "Generalization of LoweredEMG Levels During Musical PerformanceFollowing Biofeedback Training,"Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 8, (1983):pp. 207-216.

24. LeVine, W R. and J. K. Irvine, "InVivo EMG Biodfeedback in Violin andViola Pedagogy," Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 9, (1984): pp. 161-168.

25. McCune.26. Wolfe, M. L., "Relationships

Between Dimensions of MusicalPerformance Anxiety and BehavioralCoping Strategies," Medical Problems ofPerformingArtists, Vol. 5, No. 4,(December 1990): pp. 139-144.

27. Dunkel.28. Gallwey, Timothy, The Inner Game

of Tennis (New York: Bantam Books,1974): pp. 107-108.

AMERICAN MUSIC TEACHER95

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: Musician’s performance anxiety and coping strategiesSOURCE: The American Music Teacher 52 no1 Ag/S 2002

WN: 0221304603004

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and itis reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article inviolation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher:http://www.mtna.org/index1.htm.

Copyright 1982-2002 The H.W. Wilson Company. All rights reserved.