55 copy 2017 Materials Research Society MRS BULLETIN bull VOLUME 42 bull JANUARY 2017 bull wwwmrsorgbulletin

Introduction From the 14th century until the end of the 18th century

at the dawn of the industrial revolution the organ was the

embodiment of scientifi c and artistic universality Tracing a

legacy back to antiquity the organ claimed a mythic status

as the oldest western instrument at the same time it was at

the forefront of technological and scientifi c advances In the

organ acoustics metallurgy fl uid dynamics mechanics

architecture sculpture theology painting music composi-

tion and performance come together to embody cultural col-

laborations and collisions Surviving historical instruments

document the social political scientifi c and artistic impulses

that yielded them

Organs are lasting cultural monumentsmdashthe oldest continu-

ously used organs date from the 15th centurymdashand because

of the expense of their construction they are often objects

of great civic pride treasured for centuries One celebrated

example is the instrument in the church of St Bavo in Haarlem

The Netherlands constructed from 1735 to 1738 by the German

builder C Muumlller This organ stands in an immensely grand and

highly decorated case that advertises the cityrsquos wealth civic

pride and cultural patronage Huge in scale (over 65 feet tall)

with 32-foot-long pedal pipes dominating the facade the organ

was designed by Muumlller in conjunction with the best architects

painters and sculptors of the day The young Mozart played

on this instrument and today it draws organists and audi-

ences from all around the world New organs inspired by

instruments like the Muumlller organ at the St Bavo church are

now being built in Europe the United States and Asia either

closely based on historical models or incorporating knowledge

learned from them about design construction and the choice

and treatment of materials 1 2

As multimedia artworks and models of interdisciplinarity

organs have long been a laboratory for experimentation and

research especially into the interaction of music and materi-

als Recently collaborative projects in organ restoration

preservation and construction conducted by researchers at

the Goumlteborg Organ Art Center (GOArt) at the University of

Gothenburg and the Chalmers University of Technology in

Sweden and at Cornell University and Oberlin College in the

United States have employed materials research to understand

the physical environment of vulnerable historical organs and

to make modern copies of surviving antiques that convey the

aesthetic and material qualities of the originals

We will describe the ways builders in the past understood the

relationship between the materials from which an instrument

Music and materials Art and science of organ pipe metal Catherine M Oertel and Annette Richards

The following article is based on a Symposium X (Frontiers of Materials Research) presentation given at the 2016 MRS Spring Meeting in Phoenix Ariz

Historical pipe organs offer rich insights into the relationships between materials and music in

the past and they represent a laboratory for contemporary materials science Recent cross-

disciplinary research has explored problems of conservation and corrosion in old organ

pipes The ability of some notable European Baroque organs to produce sound is threatened

by atmospheric corrosion of their lead-tin alloy pipes Organic acids emitted from the wood

of organ cases are corrosive agents for lead-rich pipes Laboratory exposure experiments

were used to study the roles of humidity and alloy composition in the susceptibility to organic

acid attack The rates of growth as well as the compositions and morphologies of the

corrosion products were studied using gravimetry x-ray diffraction and scanning electron

microscopy of surfaces and cross sections This interdisciplinary project provides one model

for the interplay of scientifi c and humanities research in addressing materials problems

in cultural heritage

Catherine M Oertel Oberlin College USA catherineoerteloberlinedu Annette Richards Cornell University USA annetterichardscornelledu doi101557mrs2016294

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MUSIC AND MATERIALS ART AND SCIENCE OF ORGAN PIPE METAL

56 MRS BULLETIN bull VOLUME 42 bull JANUARY 2017 bull wwwmrsorgbulletin

is built especially the metal for the pipes and the sounds

it produces We will then discuss recent scientifi c research

initiated by efforts in preservation and restoration of these

priceless monuments that opens up new insights into the

behavior of organ pipe metal

A complex materials environment Basic organ construction has changed little over the centuries

The essential elements remain the same as does the complex-

ity of the materials environment An organ may contain thou-

sands of pipes mostly hidden behind its facade but it is at its

simplest a box of whistles An array of pipes of different sizes

and designs sit on a wind chest bellows or a blower provide

air to the chest Each stop knob at the organ console represents

a set of pipes of a particular timbre with a different pipe for

every note on the keyboard Pulling the stop activates a slider

under that specifi c set of pipes making them available as a

sound source The wind chest also contains a series of valves

connected to the keyboard by a mechanical linkage When a

key is depressed the valve is opened and air fl ows into the

pipe for that note to create sound 3 Each pipersquos unique sound is

roughly determined by its length and diameter and is honed by

the pipe voicer a craftsman who manipulates the area around

the mouth of the pipe where small changes to the airfl ow and

to patterns of turbulence have a large acoustical impact

Organ pipes may be made of nearly any materialmdashcopper

paper ivory glassmdasheven bamboo or plastic Most commonly

organs contain both wood and metal pipes with the majority

made of metal In a traditionally built organ the pipes are

situated in a complex environment of inorganic and organic

materials Figure 1 shows a new 18th century style organ at

Cornell University built at GOArt and installed in Ithaca NY

under the direction of Japanese organ-builder M Yokota

As far as possible it uses only materials and construction tech-

niques available to early 18th century craftsmen The wind

chests and action parts are made of wood largely oak The

organ case is a mixture of hard and soft woods Wind channels

are made airtight with leather seals Iron and brass are used for

parts of the actionmdashthe mechanical linkages that connect the

keys on the keyboard to the valves that let air into the pipesmdash

and various kinds of glue are used throughout These diverse

materials can affect one another since they change over time

presenting a challenge to organ curators and conservators

Since the Middle Ages the most common organ pipe mate-

rial other than wood has been an amalgam of tin and leadmdash

metals that have been associated with varying degrees of sonic

harshness and sweetness The medieval theorist Adalbold of

Utrecht (970ndash1027) ascribed particular qualities to the sounds

of various metals based on their relative fl exibility writing

that ldquothe less fl exible metal makes the more violent sound so

tin is louder than lead and silver and gold louder than tin

But aes is the most violent of all and red aes (copper) more

violent than white (brass)rdquo 4 Aes was a term used to describe

copper and its alloys Since the 14th century organ builders

have understood lead to lend a softness and vocality to the

sound and tin to create a brighter more resonant sound

Such views were not confi ned to builders from hundreds

of years ago The infl uential 20th century organ builder

C Fisk trained as a physicist and a pioneer in the redis-

covery of historical organ-making techniques maintained

that a high proportion of lead gave the sound ldquoa darkness

a hollowness an astonishing agility an ability to move as

the music moves to fl it about like a freshly hatched insect

a tone with a softness about it Yet a chorus of lead pipes has

great carrying power That bravura that all-out quality is the

sound of leadrdquo 5 Tin-rich pipes by comparison ldquolove to pro-

duce overtones and there is something about

the metal that lends itself to the production of

pleasing overtones particularly when the voic-

ing is done in the old wayrdquo

Lead-tin alloys continue to be the favored

materials for organ pipes The empirical sense

of musicians and early acousticians that it

was a metalrsquos fl exibility that made it desirable

in organ pipe construction can now be quan-

tifi ed with Youngrsquos modulus Both lead and

tin are metals with low stiffness high internal

friction and large damping capacities The

lead-tin phase diagram has limited regions of

solid solubility on both ends Microstructures

in the intermediate compositional regions

contain areas of tin enrichment and of lead

enrichment and are affected by casting condi-

tions Organ pipes are manufactured as sheets

by pouring molten metal mixtures onto sur-

faces where solidifi cation occurs quickly The

sheets are rolled into cylinders and shaped into

cones to form the body and foot of the pipe

Figure 1 Interior of the Anabel Taylor Chapel Baroque Organ Cornell University by M Yokota

GOArt and Parsons Pipe Organs

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MUSIC AND MATERIALS ART AND SCIENCE OF ORGAN PIPE METAL

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Historically the melt was poured onto a sand-fi lled bench

leading to more rapid solidifi cation than on a modern surface

of stone covered with fi reproof fabric Microscopy of lead-

tin alloys following solidifi cation at different rates has shown

that faster cooling leads to a microstructure with smaller grain

sizes for tin-rich and lead-rich areas 6 In recent historically

informed organ construction projects the sand-casting method

has been reproduced to manufacture alloys with microstruc-

tures as similar as possible to those of historic metals used in

organ pipes 2

Another detail that emerges from close study of historical

organ pipes is the complex mixture of trace elements in the

alloys For example elemental analysis of a 1650 Swedish

organ pipe showed that while the material is primarily a

lead-tin mixture bismuth silver arsenic copper indium and

antimony are present at levels of one part per thousand or

less 6 The most abundant of these bismuth may have been

added intentionally because early metallurgists had found that

it improved the fl ow of the melt during casting 7 The other

trace elements may have been added but more likely were part

of the lead and tin ores used and remained in the alloy because

of incomplete refi ning in early metallurgy

The presence of trace elements is essential to the mechani-

cal properties of an organ pipe and particularly its ability

to resist sagging under its own considerable weight Fisk

observed ldquoBy adding some of the impurities that come natu-

rally in the old lsquopurersquo lead of the 17th century the metal can

be made sturdy enough to stand for many years Antimony

(075) copper (006) bismuth (005) and tin (10)

when added all together will produce the desired stiffen-

ing This explains why the lead front pipes from the Gothic

and Renaissance stand without any sign of collapsing while

American common metal front pipes of the early 19th century

always saggedrdquo 5 In the historic pipes trace elements pre-

vent creep through solid-solution hardening Complex alloy

compositions have been employed in recent historically

informed instruments frequently based upon analyses of pipes

in European model instruments

Organ pipe corrosion and conservation Multidisciplinary collaborative materials research on pres-

ervation of historic organs has been motivated by the plight

of organs such as that in Luumlbeck Germany completed by

F Stellwagen in 1637 ( Figure 2 ) Like many organs of its time

it incorporated pipes from an even earlier instrument with its

core dating from the 15th century An organ of this sortmdashfrom

the Baroque era but with pipes and case still intactmdashis unusual

many other Baroque organs have been lost because of renova-

tions and changes in aesthetics and especially in Northern

Europe due to wartime bombings Organ conservators were

alarmed more than a decade ago to fi nd signifi cant cor-

rosion damage in some of the Stellwagen organrsquos oldest

pipes Holes rendered some pipes unable to produce sound

and earlier stages of deterioration had begun more subtly to

alter the details of the sound of others These small changes

compromised the ability to access the way this instrument

was meant to be heard when multiplied across the hundreds

of notes in a piece

Observations of corrosion damage in the Luumlbeck organ

and in other European organs inspired a research project with

the goals of determining what was causing this corrosion why

it had been observed only recently in very old instruments

and how it could be prevented The European Commission-

funded COLLAPSE (Corrosion of Lead and Lead-Tin Alloys

of Organ Pipes in Europe) Project involved organ builders and

musicologists at GOArt corrosion scientists at the Chalmers

University of Technology and metallurgists at the University

of Bologna Italy 8

Several possible causes of corrosion were initially con-

sidered Attack by pollutants from the combustion of fos-

sil fuels was one candidate particularly because corrosion

had only recently been observed Local to the organ case

itself were organic acidsmdashwood acids that are released

when cellulose in wood breaks down over time It was also

necessary to consider the synergistic effects of pollutants

temperature and humidity The placement of organs in

large spaces often without climate control means that they

are deeply affected by seasonal changes in temperature and

humidity

Another factor in deterioration of tin-rich pipes is ldquotin

pestrdquo a phase transition below 13degC from the shiny metallic

beta form of tin to the powdery nonmetallic lower-density

alpha form Conversion to the alpha phase can cause blistering

and fl aking in tin-rich alloys 9 For lead-rich pipes such as those

in the Stellwagen organ initial work within the COLLAPSE

Figure 2 Organ completed by F Stellwagen in 1637 in Luumlbeck

Germany Inset Severely corrosion-damaged organ pipe Photos

by Ibo Ortgies GOArt

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MUSIC AND MATERIALS ART AND SCIENCE OF ORGAN PIPE METAL

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for Sn showed tin-rich inclusions in compositions above the

limit of solid solubility More subtly an enrichment of tin at

the oxidendashmetal interface was observed for samples contain-

ing 34 and 15 at Sn The mass gain data for these samples

showed an enhancement of corrosion with increasing tin con-

tent ( Figure 3 ) Under these conditions tin participated in the

oxidation process and the images refl ect its incorporation into

the corrosion product layer

The behavior at 95 RH was compared with that at the

same level of acetic acid but at 60 RH ( Figure 5 ) In cross

sections of samples exposed at the lower humidity level the

oxide layer growth was less extensive The corrosion crusts

were again diluted in lead content and enhanced in oxygen

content in comparison with the bulk metal In contrast with

the observation at 95 RH there was no visible enhancement

of tin around the crusts This was consistent with the obser-

vation that a low level of tin provided a protective effect at

60 RH At this moderate humidity tin is suggested to reduce

corrosion through formation of a nanometer-scale protective

layer which would not be visible through the cross-sectioning

and SEMWDX experiments

Structure determination of corrosion products Grazing incidence angle x-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to

identify corrosion products on the exposed samples as well

as on a historic pipe sample The lead-based corrosion prod-

ucts PbO plumbonacrite [Pb 10 O(OH) 6 (CO 3 ) 6 ] lead oxide

acetate [Pb 3 O 2 (CH 3 COO) 2 bull 05H 2 O] and lead oxide formate

[Pb 2 O(HCOO) 2 ] were identifi ed following laboratory exposures

Hydrocerussite [Pb 3 (CO 3 ) 2 (OH) 2 ] which was found on the

historic pipe sample was not identifi ed on samples exposed

to corrosive conditions (humidity plus acetic or formic acid)

over a short period of time While the identifi ed inorganic

products were crystallographically well characterized the

structures of lead oxide acetate and lead oxide formate were

unknown 14 We used mild hydrothermal reactions just above

Project showed that organic acids released from wood are the

primary cause of corrosion 10

Laboratory exposure experiments Collaborative work between researchers at the Chalmers

University of Technology Cornell University and Oberlin

College addressed questions remaining after the COLLAPSE

Project about the roles of humidity and alloy composition

in susceptibility to acid attack In laboratory exposure experi-

ments metal coupons with compositions modeling organ pipes

were exposed to atmospheres of controlled pollutant content

humidity and temperature These exposures typically lasted

a few weeks the strength of this method was not in modeling

centuries of behavior but instead in focusing on the initial

stages of corrosion attack In our studies coupons containing

between 12 at and 15 at Sn were exposed for comparison to

previous work on pure lead samples 11 12 These experiments were

informed by fi eld studies on organs at a variety of geographic

sites throughout Europe The environment inside each organ case

was monitored over a one-year period to measure humidity tem-

perature and organic acid concentrations Acetic acid concentra-

tions were found in the range of 200ndash1500 ppb and maximum

relative humidities (RHs) in the range of 74ndash85 13

In exposure experiments mass gains due to accumulation

of corrosion products were measured over four-week time

periods At 60 RH the presence of 34 at Sn drastically

reduced the accumulation of corrosion products compared

with the behavior of pure lead At 95 RH the extent of cor-

rosion was greater overall and the protective effect of tin was

lost Moreover the extent of corrosion was enhanced with

greater tin content at the higher humidity level ( Figure 3 ) 11

The outcomes of these exposure experiments suggested

strategies for reduction of organ pipe corrosion In the design

of new organs incorporation of alloys that have a small per-

centage of tin provide a protective effect under the humidities

that are normally found in organ cases The much-enhanced

corrosion observed at 95 RH also has a practical implica-

tion although that level of humidity does not occur naturally

in organ environments The experimental outcome shows the

importance of avoiding even local over-humidifi cation when

a humidifi er is used in an organ case to protect the wood and

leather

Phase identification and elemental mapping of corrosion products Microscale characterization of exposed lead-tin alloys was

conducted to elucidate the role of each metal in the corrosion

process Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images were

obtained for cross sections prepared through corrosion sites

using focused ion beam milling Wavelength-dispersive x-ray

(WDX) detection was used to map the abundance of Pb Sn

and O in the cross sections In samples exposed to 1100 ppb

acetic acid at 95 RH lead was diluted in the corrosion crust

as compared to its abundance in the bulk metal and oxygen

was more abundant in the oxide layer ( Figure 4 ) WDX maps

Figure 3 Wet mass gain curves of pure lead and 34 and 15 at

Sn alloys exposed to 1100 ppb acetic acid (HAc) under 95 and

60 relative humidity (RH) Traces for 34 Sn and 15 Sn at

60 RH are nearly overlapping 11

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MUSIC AND MATERIALS ART AND SCIENCE OF ORGAN PIPE METAL

59 MRS BULLETIN bull VOLUME 42 bull JANUARY 2017 bull wwwmrsorgbulletin

100degC for ex situ synthesis and growth of diffraction-quality

crystals of these materials 15

Structure determination by single-crystal XRD showed that

both lead oxide carboxylates contain oxygen-centered lead

tetrahedra that share edges to make one-dimensional infi nite

chainsmdashsingle Pb 2 O 2+ chains in the formate case and double

Pb 3 O 2 2+ chains in the acetate compound ( Figure 6 ) Linkage

by the deprotonated acids leads to a three-dimensional network

in the formate compound and a layered structure in the acetate

compound

The ex situ synthesis of corrosion products enabled experi-

ments to determine how they change upon further exposure

When exposed to a fl owing atmosphere containing CO 2 and

water vapor lead oxide acetate completely converted to

Figure 4 Secondary electron images and wavelength-

dispersive x-ray elemental maps for Pb O and Sn for cross

sections through corrosion crusts in samples exposed to

1100 ppb acetic acid95 relative humidities (a) Alloy containing

34 Sn exposed for one week (b) Alloy containing 34 Sn

exposed for four weeks (c) Alloy containing 15 Sn exposed

for four weeks 11

Figure 5 Secondary-electron images and energy-dispersive

x-ray elemental maps for Pb O and Sn for cross sections

in samples exposed to 1100 ppb acetic acid60 relative

humidities for four weeks (a) Alloy containing 34 Sn and

(b) alloy containing 15 Sn Platinum was deposited to

protect the sample surfaces and appears as a dark area at

the top of each map Small corrosion crusts are located at

(andashb) the upper left and at (b) the upper right 11

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MUSIC AND MATERIALS ART AND SCIENCE OF ORGAN PIPE METAL

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The reactions of lead and tin with organic acids

have been elucidated on the micrometer scale

at corrosion interfaces and at the angstrom scale

in corrosion product crystal structures moti-

vating further questions on the mechanism by

which high humidity leads to differential behav-

ior of tin

Collaborative research among scientists

musicologists builders and conservators

brings challenges beyond those of research

on new materials This interplay of science

and the humanities has advanced fundamen-

tal materials understanding while producing

outcomes that preserve culturally valued his-

toric organs and inform construction of new

instruments allowing contemporary listen-

ers to access the sonic world of the 17th and

18th centuries

Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the contributions

of J-E Svensson and A Niklasson Zieseniss

(Chalmers University of Technology) and

S Baker (Cornell University) CMO acknowl-

edges a National Science Foundation Discovery Corps Program

Grant (CHE-0412181 and CHE-0631552)

References 1 K Snyder Ed The Organ As a Mirror of Its Time North European Refl ections 1610ndash2000 ( Oxford University Press Oxford UK 2002 ) 2 J Speerstra Ed The North German Organ Research Project at Goumlteborg University ( GOArt Publications Goumlteborg Sweden 2003 ) 3 N Thistlethwhaite G Webber Eds The Cambridge Companion to the Organ ( Cambridge University Press New York 1999 ) 4 P Barbieri Organ Yearb 30 7 ( 2001 ) 5 CB Fisk ldquoSome Thoughts on Pipe Metalrdquo in American Organist 21 73 ( 1978 ) 6 M Friesel B Karlsson GOArt Res Rep 1 51 ( 1999 ) 7 P Barbieri Organ Yearb 32 7 ( 2003 ) 8 J Speerstra Ed The COLLAPSE Project Corrosion of Organ PipesmdashCauses and Recommendations ( GOArt Publications Goumlteborg Sweden 2011 ) 9 C Chiavari C Martini G Poli D Prandstraller J Mater Sci 41 1819 ( 2006 ) 10 A Niklasson L-G Johansson J-E Svensson J Electrochem Soc 152 B519 ( 2005 ) 11 CM Oertel SP Baker A Niklasson L-G Johansson J-E Svensson J Electrochem Soc 156 C414 ( 2009 ) 12 CM Oertel SP Baker A Niklasson L-G Johansson J-E Svensson ldquoFocused-Ion Beam and Electron Microscopy Analysis of Corrosion of Lead-Tin Alloys Applications to Conservation of Organ Pipesrdquo Mater Res Soc Symp Proc 1047 P Vandiver F Casadio B McCarthy RH Tykot JLR Sil Eds ( Materials Research Society Warrendale PA 2008 ) pp Y05 ndash01 13 A Niklasson S Langer K Arrhenius L Rosell CJ Bergsten L-G Johansson J-E Svensson Stud Conserv 53 24 ( 2008 ) 14 W Kwestroo C Langereis J Inorg Nucl Chem 27 2533 ( 1963 ) 15 CM Mauck TWP van den Heuvel MM Hull M Zeller CM Oertel Inorg Chem 49 10736 ( 2010 ) 16 A Niklasson L-G Johansson J-E Svensson Corros Sci 50 3031 ( 2008 ) 17 R Giorgi D Chelazzi E Fratini S Langer A Niklasson M Rademar J-E Svensson P Baglioni J Cult Herit 10 206 ( 2009 ) 18 CJ Bergsten M Odlyha S Jakiela J Slater A Cavicchioli DLA de Faria A Niklasson J-E Svensson L Bratasz D Camuffo A della Valle F Baldini I Falciai A Mencaglia F Senesi C Theodorakopoulous e-Preserv Sci 7 116 ( 2010 )

hydrocerussite the long-term corrosion product found on

a historic organ pipe sample 16 Thus synthetic chemistry

provided a bridge between what was observed in four-week

laboratory exposures and what eventually occurs on an organ

pipe exposed to similar conditions over a much longer period

of time

Conclusions An organ is a complex functioning object that is integral to

the cultural space in which it is situated Understanding the

behavior of any of its individual elements requires a multidis-

ciplinary awareness of the larger context Questions addressed

during recent research on organ pipe corrosion included how

to model the organ environment in the laboratory based on fi eld

data how to reconcile outcomes from short-term exposure

experiments with materials behavior over an organrsquos lifetime

and how information from experiments could lead to strate-

gies to mitigate organ pipe corrosion

To return to the example of the Stellwagen organ in

Luumlbeck Germany which introduced the problem of organ pipe

corrosion one of the sources of organic acids was new wood

that had been installed as part of a relatively recent restora-

tion campaign This wood has now been replaced with less

acid-emitting wood and a ventilation system has been added

Other emerging strategies include coating organ wood with

CaO and MgO nanoparticles that act as sinks for acid 17 and

using sensing devices to alert curators when humidity or acid

concentrations become too high 18

This project demonstrates how applied research on a cultural

object can lead to discoveries in fundamental materials chemistry

Figure 6 Structures of the corrosion products lead oxide formate and lead oxide acetate

(a) Pb 2 O 2+ single chain of edge-sharing Pb 4 O tetrahedra (b) 3D network in lead oxide formate

with Pb 2 O 2+ chains viewed end on (c) Pb 3 O 2 2+ double chain of edge-sharing tetrahedra

(d) Layered structure in lead oxide acetate with Pb 3 O 2 2+ chains viewed end on 15

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MUSIC AND MATERIALS ART AND SCIENCE OF ORGAN PIPE METAL

61 MRS BULLETIN bull VOLUME 42 bull JANUARY 2017 bull wwwmrsorgbulletin

Catherine M Oertel is associate professor of Chemistry at Oberlin College She received a BA degree in chemistry from Oberlin College and a PhD degree in inorganic chemistry from Cornell University She was a National Science Foundation Discovery Corps Postdoctoral Fellow at the Cornell Center for Materials Research and the Chalmers University of Technology in Goumlteborg Sweden Her current research focuses on hydro-thermal synthesis and crystal chemistry of com-plex oxides and is supported by a National Science Foundation CAREER Award and by the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation Oertel can be reached by email at catherineoerteloberlinedu

Annette Richards is a professor of music and uni-versity organist at Cornell University She is a per-former and scholar with specialty in 18th century music and she conducts interdisciplinary research into music literature and visual culture She obtained a BA degree from the University of Oxford UK a PhD degree from Stanford Univer-sity and the Performerrsquos Diploma from the Sweelinck Conservatorium Amsterdam Richards has been awarded prizes and fellowships from the Mellon and Alexander von Humboldt Foundations and at the Dublin and Bruges international organ competitions She is Executive Director of the Westfi eld Center for Historical Keyboard Studies

Richards can be reached by email at annetterichardscornelledu

EX

PER

T

R E V I E W S

wwwmrsorgenergy-sustainability-journal reg

MRS Energy amp Sustainability mdashA Review Journal publishes reviews on key topics in materials

research and development as they relate to energy and sustainability Review topics include new

RampD of both established and new areas systems integration and objective application of economic

sociological and governmental models enabling research and technological developments The

reviews are set in an integrated context of scientific technological and sociological complexities

relating to environment and sustainability

David S GinleyNational Renewable Energy Laboratory USA

David Cahen

Weizmann Institute of Science Israel

Elizabeth A Koacutecs

University of Illinois at Chicago USA ED

ITO

RS

-IN

-CH

IEF

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