MTAT.03.243 Software Engineering Management - ut · Single-loop learning 2 2 2 Double-loop learning...

MTAT.03.243 / Lecture 18 / © Dietmar Pfahl 2015

MTAT.03.243

Software Engineering Management

Lecture 18:

SPI and Human Factors

Dietmar Pfahl

email: [email protected] Spring 2015


Structure of Lecture 14

• The “People Framework”

• Working in Groups

• Motivation


The Purpose of Structure

• Structure aims to

balance between:

– supporting

preferred working

manners

– reducing the

damaging effects

of preferred

working manners

Come, I will show you

something interesting ...

I don’t have time,

I have to work!


The Purpose of Structure

Come, I will show you

something interesting ...

I don’t have time,

I have to work!

Individual flexibility high Organizational chaos

ML 1

ML2

ML3

ML4

ML5

Organizational flexibility high Goal-driven continuing change

Lower flexibility Less chaos


The Importance of Structure [Hohmann]

• Structure defines the form

and content of outcomes

and

supports the processes we

use to create them

Process

Outcome

Structure

tangible

not tangible

tangible


The Importance of Feedback

Process

Outcome

Structure

Processes adapt

to (previously

produced) Outcomes

- partly due to

convenience, partly

to optimize

As (planned) Processes are carried

out, one might notice that

adjustments have to

be made

As (planned)

Outcomes are

Implemented, one

might notice that adjustments

have to be made 1

1

Single-loop learning

2

2

2

Double-loop learning


Structure – How much and what?

• Depends on problem and person(s):

– Bigger and more complex problems typically need more structure

– Experienced people need other types of structure than inexperienced

– …

• The more structure, the more standardization:

– Standardization facilitates reuse of experience (e.g., “design pattern”)


Structure – How to introduce it?

• Direct supervision and monitoring

– by someone who knows the processes and products

• Using prescriptive standards

– of the processes (process handbooks)

– of the outcomes (product specifications)

• Standardizing skills ( training)

• Mutual adoption, e.g.

– structures facilitating collaboration are introduced and agreed upon ad-hoc

• when and how to communicate in a virtual team working geographically

distributed in different time zones

• continuing interchange with the customer to define the product structure

• …


Expanding the SPO-Framework

• People = key element in

software/systems development

• Therefore, expand SPO-

framework to include several

”softer” factors that govern

human behavior:

– Goals

– Values

– Personality

Values

Personality

Process

Outcome

Structure

Goal


Goals

• Personal goals have long-term influence on people’s behaviour

• An organization works best when there is “a match” between

personal and organizational goals

– High(er) salary is not the only (and possibly neither the

most important) goal for a software engineer

– Equally important:

• recognition

• professional pride / identification

• team experience

• job security

• etc.


Values

• Values are:

– Concepts or principles that are

• deemed worthy or important

for concrete choices (e.g., of

work methods/rules)

• not (necessarily) supported

by arguments or perhaps

not even articulated

– What takes over when rational

decisions cannot be made

(e.g., two methods seem to be

equally good)

Example values:

”high product quality”

”satisfied customers”

”fair bidding”

”family-friendly workplace”

”work-life balance”

...


Values – Examples

• “Buy-in of everybody is more important than quick decisions”-value:

– Often present in companies with consensus-culture ( e.g.,

Japan, Sweden/Finland)

– Disadvantage: Might make a good improvement proposal fail,

because it wasn’t possible to get everyone to agree

– Advantage: ?

• “Good leaders make quick decisions”-value:

– Disadvantage: Often, managers with this value start too many

improvement activities at once and/or face (hidden) resistance

– Advantage: If decision was good, opportunities can be taken


Personality

• “A personality is a complex

set of relatively stable

behavioral and emotional

characteristics that can be

used to uniquely identify a

person.” (Hohmann)

• “Personality represents those

characteristics of the person

that account for consistent

patterns of behavior.” (Pervin,

“Personality”).

Elements:

• Cognitive style/preference

• Mental set

• Self-efficacy

• Assertive/Passive

• Tolerance of anxiety

• Tolerance for ambiguity

• etc…


Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

16 Personality Types: http://www.myersbriggs.org

• Attitudes: Extraversion vs. Introversion (E – I)

• Information-gathering function: Sensing vs. Intuition (S – N)

• Decision-making function: Thinking vs. Feeling (T – F)

• Lifestyle: Judging vs. Perceiving (J – P)








Originally introduced by

Carl Gustav Jung

(1875 – 1961)

… addition made by

Catherine Cook Briggs

(her daughter, Isabel Briggs

Myers, continued this work)

Personality type tests use these dimensions to uncover “personality profiles”

(see, e.g., http://www.humanmetrics.com/)

See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator

http://www.humanmetrics.com/








• Characterisation:

– Extraversion relates to the external world of behavior, action, people and things

– Introversion relates to the internal world of ideas and reflection

• Implications:

– E-types draw energy from action: they tend to act, then reflect, then act further. If they are inactive, their level of energy and motivation tends to decline

– I-types become less energized as they act: they prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again

Important: Test results indicate PREFERENCE not APTITUDE!









– These functions describe how new information is understood and interpreted.

• Implications:

– S-types prefer to trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete

– N-types tend to trust information that is more abstract or theoretical, that can be associated with other information (-> holistic)










– Both Thinking and Feeling types strive to make rational choices, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions

• Implications:

– T-types prefer to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules

– F-types prefer to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved










– Individuals seem to have a preference to show either their Decision-making function (T or F) or their Information-gathering function (S or N) when relating to the outside world. Myers and Briggs called this a person's "ambassador," that is, the one sent forth to deal with the world.

• Implications:

– J-types (Judging) show the world their Decision-making function - T or F. TJ-types tend to appear to the world as logical, and FJ-types as empathetic. J-types prefer to have matters settled (-> results-oriented)

– P-types (Perceiving) show the world their Information-gathering function - S or N. SP types tend to appear to the world as concrete, and NP types as abstract. P-types prefer to keep matters open (-> process-oriented)



Personality Types based on MBTI – Example

THINKING JUDGEMENTlogic

FEELING JUDGEMENTvalues

SENSING

PERCEPTIONfacts

INTUITIVE

PERCEPTIONpossibilities

NTVisionary

NFCatalyst

STStabilizer

SFCooperator

Information-gathering (S-N) combined with Decision-making (T-F) ISTJ:

• Quiet, serious, earn success by thoroughness and dependability.

• Practical, matter-of-fact, realistic, and responsible.

• Decide logically what should be done and work toward it steadily, regardless of distractions.

• Take pleasure in making everything orderly and organized – their work, their home, their life.

• Value traditions and loyalty.

ISTJ

http://www.humanmetrics.com/personality/istj




Five-Factor Model (Big Five)

• Openness to experience: (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious). – Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Openness reflects

the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has. It is also

described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent, and depicts a personal preference for a

variety of activities over a strict routine. Some disagreement remains about how to interpret the openness factor,

which is sometimes called "intellect" rather than openness to experience.

• Conscientiousness: (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). – A tendency to be organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement, and prefer

planned rather than spontaneous behavior.

• Extraversion: (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved). – Energy, positive emotions, surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the

company of others, and talkativeness.

• Agreeableness: (friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached). – A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. It is

also a measure of one's trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well tempered or not.

• Neuroticism: (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident). – The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability.

Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse control and is sometimes referred to by

its low pole, "emotional stability".

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits


Conclusions

People are not equally comfortable with certain degrees of structure.

• New and innovative organizations, attract a special type of people (creative

innovators who thrive in little structure). These people may have adaptation

problems in a bigger and older organization with greater need for structure.

– For example, a company founder is often not the best choice to lead the

company after it has grown big (often, however, the founder himself/herself

has difficulties to realize this).

• Bigger, older IT-organizations (typically government administration,

bank/insurance, defense sector etc..) are often more plan-driven and

documentation-heavy and want to attract confidence-seeking persons who

thrive best with predictability.

Not everybody is like you !


The “People Framework”

• Structure – Process – Outcome (SPO):

– It is these elements that sw/system

development methods focus on.

– Focus on control, support and

standardisation.

• Values – Personality – Goals:

– Represent the “human side” of SPO.

– These elements are rarely (explicitly)

considered in sw/system development

methods and little research about their

effects on sw/system development has

been conducted.

Values

Personality

Process

Outcome

Structure

Goal


Corporate knowledge

Strategy Outcome (product)

Values

The “People Framework” for Organisations

Goal

Process

Structure Culture


Different Company Cultures expressed in Songs

• Fujitsu company song: Verse 1:

Let's run out now, to greener fields, where shines a splendid Sun. We have a dream, a wondrous dream, that gets the best things done. A wide blue sky is in our heart now, Open-ness in our soul, We'll run together going onwards now, On towards our goal. Chorus: Ahhhh Fujitsuuuuu, oh tomorrow is our goal. . Verse 2: Lets join our hands, with everyone, and smile at each new hour. We have a dream, an endless dream, of youthful love and power. We want to use all our skill now, All the strengths unfurled, We plan uniting all our new techniques, Over all the world.

Chorus: Ahhhhh Fujitsuuuuu, forges links all over the world. …

• "Ever Onward," written in 1931 by

IBM'er Frederick Tappe:

"There's a thrill in store for all

For we're about to toast

The corporation that we represent.

We're here to cheer each pioneer

And also proudly boast,

Of that man of men

Our friend and guiding hand

The name of T.J. Watson means

A courage none can stem

And we feel honored to be

Here to toast the IBM."





• Motivation


Going the Same Direction? Visions &

Goals


What is a Group?

• Definitions:

– "two or more interdependent

individuals who influence one

another through social

interaction" (Cartwright &

Zander, 1968)

– "a group exists when two or

more people define

themselves as members of it

and when its existence is

recognized by at least one

other" (Brown, 1988)

• Group characteristics:

– Interaction

– Structure

– Size

– Common objectives

– Cohesion • proximity between group

members

– Dynamics • internal and towards other

groups (mutual influence)

– Change (Stability)


Question: Your Group Experience?

• Describe what happens when you are forced to work in a

group with one or several students you have never worked

with before and maybe you even didn’t know before

or ?


Evolution of a Group

Five basic stages:

• Forming – members of the group get to know one another and try to set up some ground rules about behaviour

• Storming – conflicts arise as various members of the group try to exert leadership and the group’s methods of working are established

• Norming – conflicts are largely settled and a feeling of group identity emerges

• Performing – the group has settled its relationships and expectations and works efficiently and effectively; the emphasis is now on the tasks at hand

• Adjourning – the group dissolves and shares their experience with others

TUCKMAN B (1965) "Developmental

Sequence in Small Groups"

Psychological Bulletin 63 pp. 384-399


The Evolution of a Group – Long-term View

• Group evolution will

continue when tasks

change.


Remarks on Group Evolution

• ALL stages are important and should be performed

• The storming stage is particularly critical

– The “level of conflict” is an indicator for future success

• Low conflict level in the group is often a signal for little involvement

• Conflicts are often useful to create solidarity (if conflicts are managed reasonably and not intensified)

– “The threshold theory of conflict” (pp. 80-82 in Group Dynamic, Forsyth)

– Management plays a crucial role during storming


Group Evolution and Process Improvement

• Introduction or change of processes often follows the five

stages of group evolution

– forming storming norming performing adjourning

• The conflict level (when introducing/changing processes) can

be a good indicator for future success.

– Experienced consultants in process improvement become

suspicious when there is lack of conflict!

– However: if the conflict level is too high, the group may

never reach the Norming phase

– What is the right level of conflict might be culture-specific!


The Ideal Group

• An ideal group (a team) consists of

– “A small number of people

– with complementary skills

– who are committed to

• a common purpose,

• common performance goals,

• and a common approach

for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.”

[Katzenbach, J.R., and Smith, D.K., The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-

Performance Organization, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 1993.]

Agile ?


Balanced Teams

• Meredith Belbin studied the performance of top executives

carrying out group work at the Hendon Management Centre

– Tried putting the ‘best’ people together in ‘Apollo’ teams –

almost invariably did badly

– Identified the need for a balance of skills and management

roles in a successful team

Company Worker

Resources Investigator

Co-Ordinator (Chairperson)

Monitor Evaluator

Shaper

TeamWorker

Plant

Completer Finisher

The Successful

Team

www.belbin.com


Management team roles (Belbin)

• The co-ordinator – good at

chairing meetings and resolving

conflicts

• The ‘plant’ – an idea generator

• The monitor-evaluator – good at

evaluating ideas

• The shaper – helps direct team’s

efforts

• The team worker – skilled at

creating a good working

environment

• The resource investigator –

adept at finding resources,

including information

• The completer-finisher –

concerned with getting tasks

completed

• The implementer – a good team

player who is willing to undertake

less attractive tasks if they are

needed for team success

• The specialist (added in 1996) –

the ‘techie’ who likes to acquire

knowledge for its own sake


Group Work and Task Complexity

Some results from studies ( survey of 241 studies including

24000 persons by [Bond & Titus, 1983]):

• Solving simple tasks in

groups (even with passive

listeners) increases

performance (efficiency).

– This is called “social

facilitation”.

– However, groups do not

increase quality

(effectiveness).

• Solving complex tasks in

groups decreases

performance (and quality).

– This is due to the fact

that groups “bind

cognitive resources”,

thus impairing the

primary task.


Group Work and Creativity

• Studies show that it is not

optimal to have

“brainstorming” in (large)

groups

• Creative work should be

prepared “offline” and then

discussed jointly


How to avoid resistance in SPI programmes?

• Important learning from (Coch & French, 1948) experiment:

– Increased degree of participation in change program

reduces degree of resistance and stimulates increased

output.

– Question: Not everyone can always actively participate in

defining/designing a change program. How to still avoid

high degree of opposition/resistance?


Obstacles to good group decisions (1)

• Lack of well-defined decision-making process

– Groups using some of their time on defining (and agreeing

on) the decision-making process come up with better

decisions (Hirokawa 1980)

– Unfortunately, often groups use very little or no time for

clarifying/discussing the decision-making process.

• Development of “group thinking”

– i.e., lack of real discussion of alternatives and a strong

motivation to agreeing (with dominant person) and being

loyal (esprit de corps).


Obstacles to good group decisions (2)

• Risky shift – people in groups are more likely to make

risky decisions than they would as individuals

– One explanation for this dynamic is that there has been a

diffusion of responsibility that otherwise may fall on one

individual

• Inter-personal conflicts – see earlier slide on team

formation

– Conflicts tend to be dampened by emergence of group norms –

shared group opinions and attitudes


How to avoid bad decisions due to dominant

persons in a group

Delphi approach:

1. Enlist co-operation of experts

2. Moderator presents experts with problem

3. Experts send in their recommendations to the

moderator

4. Recommendations are collated and circulated to all

experts

5. Experts comment on ideas of others and modify their

own recommendation if so moved

6. If moderator detects a consensus, stop; else back to 4


Positive Group Dynamics: Team ‘mindfulness’

• Impression of a ‘collective mind’

– Group members are aware of the activities of other

members that contribute to overall group success

• Some attempts to promote this:

– Egoless programming

– Chief programmer teams

– XP / Scrum (agile manifesto)


Trust / Confidence

• Confidence in colleagues and managers appeared to be most

important factor in support of job satisfaction (Driscoll, 1973).

• Groups with high degree of trust are more effective than those

with less confidence.

– E.g., the reaction to well-justified criticism will usually be

different in trustful relations than where you suspect

someone could have used or plans to use the criticism

against you.

– It is difficult to imagine successful improvement work in total

absence of criticism.


Research on Teams, Personality, ... In SE

• Silvia Acuna, Natalia Juristo (Madrid, Spain)

• Robert Feldt (Gothenburg, Sweden)

• David Bell, Tracy Hall (Brunel, UK)

• Luiz Fernando Capretz (Western Ontario, Canad)

• …


Example Study: Research Questions

Team Climate Preference within Team

Team Climate Perception within Team

Team Climate Preference-Perception Fit within Team

Software Quality

?

?

Team Climate

?


Team Climate – 4 Factors (Anderson & West, 1998)

• Participative Safety

– Team members feel comfortable about actively contributing, taking more risks, opening themselves up and putting forward new ideas to the team.

• Support for Innovation

– Articulated support = supporting new ideas both verbally and in writing.

– Enacted support = providing resources to put new ideas into practice.

• Team Vision

– Clear objectives are set (and shared) and their achievement can be determined

• Task Orientation

– The team is committed to achieving its objectives applying high quality standards


Hypotheses (refined)

Null-Hypotheses H01-1 to H01-4:

• Team climate preference for [Participative Safety | Support for Innovation | Team Vision | Task Orientation] is unrelated to the quality of the software produced


• Team climate perception for [Participative Safety | Support for Innovation | Team Vision | Task Orientation] is unrelated to the quality of the software produced


• [Participative Safety | Support for Innovation | Team Vision | Task Orientation] preferences-perceptions fit is unrelated to the quality of the software produced

Alternative hypotheses:

• At the end of the project, the teams with better than or equal to preferred [Participative Safety | Support for Innovation | Team Vision | Task Orientation] produce a software product of the same quality as teams with worse than preferred [Participative Safety | Support for Innovation | Team Vision | Task Orientation]


Measurement Instruments

• Preferred Team Climate:

– Team Selection Inventory (TSI) – Questionnaire (Anderson & Burch, 2003; Burch & Anderson, 2004)

– 36 questions / 5 point Likert-style scale

• Perceived Team Climate:

– Team Climate Inventory (TCI) – Questionnaire (Anderson & West, 1994; Anderson & West, 1998; Anderson & West, 1999)

– 36 questions / 5 point Likert-style scale

• Software Quality:

– Course marks given by Instructor

Not desirable A little desirable Somewhat desirable Desirable Very desirable

1 2 3 4 5


Design – simple prospective ex post facto – quasi-experimental


Treatment

• All teams design and implement the same software system

– distributed software system for university library

• Starting point: hand-outs with user stories (software requirements).

• Development takes place throughout the whole semester and instructors act as users.

• Students have to use an adapted XP agile process. Process guidance is provided in the form of written documentation.

• Partial deliverables allow for giving feedback to the teams and help prevent errors.


Data Collection – Independent Variables


Data Collection – Dependent Variables


Result – Regression Analysis

Team Climate Preference (PRE) vs. SW Quality • Team Vision Preference SW Quality:

– r2 = 0.134, F = 5.125 (p = 0.030).

– Ratio is statistically significant at a confidence level of 95%. [ reject H013]

• No statistically significant results for other team climate factor preferences [ H011, H012, H014 not rejected]

Team Climate Perception (POST) vs. SW Quality • Participatory Safety Perception SW Quality:

– r2 = 0.115, F = 4.295 (p = 0.046)

– Ratio is statistically significant at a confidence level of 95 %. [ reject H015]

• No statistically significant results for other team climate factor perceptions [ H016, H017, H018 not rejected]


Results – Analysis of Mean Differences

Preferences/Perceptions

Differences

n Mean Minimum Maximum Percentile (34) Percentile (67) Climate Fit

Participative Safety 35 2.11 -6.00 14.67 0.00 3.33 Better: up to 0

As preferred: from 0.01 to 3.33

Worse: >3.333

Support for Innovation 35 3.271 -4.33 11.50 1.66 3.67 Better: up to 1.67 As preferred: from 1.68 to 3.67

Worse: >3.68

Team Vision 35 1.824 -4.33 9.00 -0.33 4.00 Better: up to -0.33 As preferred: from -0.34 to 4.00

Worse: >4.00

Task Orientation 35 0.510 -5.00 6.67 -1.00 1.33 Better: up to -1.00

As preferred: from -1.01 to 1.33

Worse: >1.33

• Statistics of the differences between the preferences and the perceptions for each

team climate factor


Results – Analysis of Fit vs SW Quality


Results – Summary

• H11-3: Higher Team Vision Preference is related to Better SW Quality

• H01-5: Higher Participative Safety Perception is related to Better SW Quality

• H12-1: Better than preferred or as preferred Participative Safety Fit is related to Better SW Quality

• H12-3: Better than preferred or as preferred Team Vision Fit is related to Better SW Quality

Team Climate: - Participative Safety - Support for Innovation - Team Vision - Task Orientation

SW Quality


Research Questions

Team Climate Preference within Team

Team Climate Perception within Team

Team Climate Preference-Perception Fit within Team

Software Quality

?

?

Team Climate

?

Team Vision

Participatory Safety


Practical Implications / Recommendations

• Identify the climate preferences of your developers.

– The TSI test is useful for this purpose.

• Collect data during development to find out what the development team

climate is (the perceived climate).

– The TCI test can be used to do this.

• The team climate should meet (or be better than) the Participative

Safety and Team Vision preferences of the team members. This

reduces the chances for producing low quality software.

– Take actions to prevent Participative Safety and Team Vision from

dropping below the team members’ preferences.


Threats to Internal Validity

• Team size

• Team member personality, motivation and competencies

• Knowledge of XP and development experience

• Participant attendance

• Process conformance

• Potential impact of XP on climate

• Software project to be developed

• Feedback to students during the experiment

• Questions about the problem


Threats to External Validity

• Generalizability of results:

– 3 person teams

– Agile type of development (XP variant)

– Academic environment (students)





• Motivation


Why is motivating developers important?

• Human rather than technical problems known to impact most on project outcomes

– What human factors are important?

• Motivation reported as a key human factor in developer performance

• Human factors and motivation in software projects difficult to manage

– Why?


What studies report …

McConnell (1998) points out:

“Motivation is a soft factor: It is difficult to quantify, and it often takes a back seat to other factors that might be less important but are easier to measure. Every organisation knows that motivation is important, but only a few organizations do anything about it. Many common management practices are pennywise and pound-foolish, trading huge losses in motivation and morale for minor methodology improvements or dubious budget savings.”


What studies report ...

• DeMarco and Lister’s (1999) survey:

– motivation was found to be one of the most frequently cited causes of software development project failure.

• The Standish report (1995)

– having access to competent, hard working and focused staff is one of ten success criteria for software projects.


What does developer motivation have

an impact on?

• What do you think??


Motivation impacts on…

External signs

Retention

Project delivery time

Productivity

Budgets

Absenteeism

Project Success

Signs of poor motivation reported in previous studies

Motivation can often make up for shortcomings

in resources and skills


Motivation Theories …

• Taylor’s approach financial incentives

– Higher wages for the best workers

• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

– Motivations vary from individual to individual

– Hierarchy of needs – as lower ones fulfilled, higher ones

emerge

• Lowest level – food, shelter

• Highest level – self-actualization


Needs theory (Maslow 1954)

Self

actualisation

Personal esteem

Social acceptance

Security

Physical comfort


Herzberg – Dissatisfiers vs. Motivators

• Herzberg suggested two sets of factors affected job

satisfaction

– Hygiene or maintenance factors

• Make you dissatisfied if they are not right, e.g., pay,

working conditions, …

– Motivators

• Make you feel the job is worthwhile, e.g., by giving a

sense of achievement


Motivation-Hygiene Theory

(Herzberg et al. 1959)

Extrinsic factors

Intrinsic factors

Pay Achievement

Interpersonal relations, subordinate Recognition

Status The work itself

Interpersonal relations with superior Responsibility

Interpersonal relation with peers Possibility of growth

Technical supervision Advancement

Company policy and administration

Work conditions

Personal life

Job security


Vroom – Expectations / Beliefs / Perceptions

• Vroom and colleagues identified three influences on

motivation

– Expectancy

• The belief that working harder leads to better

performance

– Instrumentality

• The belief that better performance will be rewarded

– Perceived value of the reward


Oldham-Hackman – 5 Job Characteristics

• Identified the following characteristics of a job which

make it more ‘meaningful’

– Skill variety

– Task identity

– Task significance

• Two other factors contribute to satisfaction:

– Autonomy

– Feedback


Job Characteristics Theory

Job characteristics

Psychological states

Personal and work outcomes

Skill variety

Task identity Influence Meaningfulness of work High internal work motivation

Task significance High quality work

Autonomy Influences Responsibility of outcomes

High satisfaction with work

Feedback Influences Knowledge of actual results

Low absenteeism and turnover

└──

Growth Need Strength ───┘

JCT model of motivation (Couger and Zawacki 1980)


Absence of (Undue) Stress

• Stress can be reduced by good processes

• Good processes should yield:

– Reasonable estimates of effort

– Good project control leading to fewer unexpected crises

– Clarity about what is expected of each team member –

reduces role ambiguity

– Reduced role conflict where a person is torn between

conflicting responsibilities


Are software developers different to other

professionals?

YES

54%

NO

24%

YES&NO (depending

on context)

22%

Figure 1. Results from 92 published studies

What do you think?


Software developer characteristics Software Engineer Characteristics

Need for stability

Technically competent

Achievement orientated (e.g. seeks promotion)

Growth orientated (e.g. challenge, learn new skills)

Need for competent supervising (e.g. needs respect and appreciation, given a clear job to do and goals)

Introverted (low need for social interaction)

Need for involvement in personal goal setting

Need for feedback (needs recognition)

Need to make a contribution (needs worthwhile/ meaningful job)

Autonomous (need for independence)

Need for variety

Marketable

Need for challenge

Creative

Need to be sociable/identify with group/organisation/supportive relationships


Software developer motivators

• Motivators come from three different sources:

– the organisational context,

– the specific job being undertaken (intrinsic motivators),

– a sub-set of intrinsic motivators which are inherent to

software engineering as a profession.


Software developer de-motivators

De-Motivators

Risk

Stress

Inequity (e.g. recognition based on management intuition or personal preference)

Interesting work going to other parties (e.g. outsourcing)

Unfair reward system (e.g. Management rewarded for organisational performance; company benefits based

on company rank not merit)

Lack of promotion opportunities/stagnation/career plateau/boring work/poor job fit

Poor communication (Feedback deficiency/loss of direct contact with all levels of management)

Uncompetitive pay/poor pay/unpaid overtime

Unrealistic goals/ phoney deadlines

Bad relationship with users and colleagues

Poor working environment (e.g., wrong staffing levels/unstable/insecure/lacking in investment and

resources; being physically separated from team)

Poor management (e.g. poorly conducted meetings that are a waste of time)

Producing poor quality software (no sense of accomplishment)

Poor cultural fit/stereotyping/role ambiguity

Lack of influence/not involved in decision making/no voice


A model of software developer motivation

Source: Tracy Hall (Brunel, UK)


Towards a contemporary understanding of

software developer motivation

• The job of software development has moved on – Globally distributed teams

– Agile approaches

– More demanding users

– etc

• The role of the developer has evolved – The stereotypical ‘introverted solitary programmer’ is no

longer viable

– Old paradigms of motivation increasingly outdated


Next Lecture

• Topic:

– Organisational Learning / Global Software

Development

• For you to do:

– Submit Homework 4 – deadline is today, Apr 29,

at 20:00

– Continue working on project – deadline May 7

– Book consulting time on May 6 (optional)

MTAT.03.243 Software Engineering Management - ut · Single-loop learning 2 2 2 Double-loop learning...

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Transcript of MTAT.03.243 Software Engineering Management - ut · Single-loop learning 2 2 2 Double-loop learning...