Motivation and Emotion

Motivation

• Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel, energize, and direct people toward goal-directed behavior.

• Factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior.

Diversity of human motives

Early Theory of motivation

• Motivation is based on our instincts:• A behavior that is patterned throughout a

species and is UNLEARNED.• Cannot be directly observed, must be inferred.• Thought of as an intervening variable.

Motives as Intervening Variables

Sources of Motivation

• Biological Factors– Need for food, water, sex, temp. regulation

• Emotional Factors– Panic, fear, anger, love, hatred

• Cognitive Factors– Perceptions, beliefs, expectations…

• Social Factors– Reactions from others ie: parents, family, co-

workers, peers, friends…

Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Drive theories – seeking homeostasis• Incentive theories – regulation by external

stimuli• Evolutionary theories – maximizing

reproductive success

Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Drive theories – seeking homeostasis• motivation is based in an internal state of

tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension…organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability.

Main Theories of Motivation

• Drive Reduction Theory• Instinct Theory• Arousal Theory• Incentive Theory• Cognitive Theory• Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Drive-Reduction Theory• Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS • Physiological needs create an aroused tension state

(drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

• The need is to maintain homeostasis-- to keep physiological systems in equilibrium– Glucose levels, – leptin– regulation of set point in weight– not too cold, not to hot– not too wet, not too dry

Primary versus Secondary drives

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive-Reduction Theory

• We are pushed by our needs• We are pulled by our incentives

incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Main Theories of Motivation

• Drive Reduction Theory• Instinct Theory• Arousal Theory• Incentive Theory• Cognitive Theory• Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Instinct Theory

• Sucking • Smiling • Mate

selection

We are motivated by our inborn unlearned automated involuntary behaviors triggered by a specific stimulus

Instinct Theory

• Explains some animal behaviors

• Explains some human behaviors

• Does not explain other human behaviors

Main Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory• Drive Reduction Theory• Arousal Theory• Incentive Theory• Cognitive Theory• Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Optimum Arousal Theory

• Organisms are motivated to seek and behave in ways that maintain an optimal level of arousal

– Motivation is tied to regulation of arousal.– Performance is best when arousal is moderate.

The Arousal-Performance Relationship

Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Drive theories – seeking homeostasis• Incentive theories – regulation by external

stimuli• Evolutionary theories – maximizing

reproductive success

Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Incentive theories – regulation by external stimuli

• motivation is regulated by external stimuli…ice cream, an A, money, etc.

Main Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory• Drive Reduction Theory• Arousal Theory• Incentive Theory• Cognitive Theory• Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Incentive Theory

• Behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.

• Emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli that motivate behavior

• Two Incentive-Related Systems:• Wanting: being attracted to a stimulus.• Liking: evaluating how pleasurable a

stimulus is.

Main Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory• Drive Reduction Theory• Arousal Theory• Incentive Theory• Cognitive Theory• Hierarchy of Motives (Maslow)

Intrinsic Motivators

• Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction.

• engaging in activities or behaviors because they themselves are personally rewarding or they fulfill our beliefs or expectations

• A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivators

• Reward we get externally, such as grades or money

• engaging in activities or behaviors that help us obtain incentives or external rewards

• A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Cognitive Theory

Achievement Motivation

• Achievement motive = need to excel– Work harder and more persistently– Delay gratification– Pursue competitive careers– Situational influences on achievement

motives– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Management TheoryManagement & Teaching styles relate closely to

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.

Theory X

• Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.

• Think employees are Extrinsically Motivated.

• Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs.

Theory Y• Managers believe that

employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.

• Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Drive theories – seeking homeostasis• Incentive theories – regulation by external

stimuli• Evolutionary theories – maximizing

reproductive success

Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Evolutionary theories – maximizing reproductive success

• natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success…explains affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value.

Main Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory• Drive Reduction Theory• Arousal Theory• Incentive Theory• Cognitive Theory• Hierarchy of Motives (Abraham Maslow)

We are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal.We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.

Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of Motives• Satisfying needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ascending order, or hierarchy, in

which biological needs are placed at the bottom and social needs at the top

• Biological needs physiological requirements that

are critical to our survival and physical well-being

• Social needs needs that are acquired through

learning and experience

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Motivation for Hunger & Eating

Biological FactorsHunger does NOT come from our stomach. It comes from our hypothalamus

• Brain regulation– Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus– Paraventricular nucleus

• Glucose and digestive regulation– Glucostatic theory

• Hormonal regulation– Insulin and leptin

The hypothalamus

• In the early 1900’s, Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn hypothesized that there is an association between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger

• Cannon hypothesized a causal relationship, yet people who have their stomachs removed still experience hunger. This realization led to more complicated theories focusing on the brain, blood sugar, and hormones.

• Research in the 40’s and 50’s showed that the hypothalamus is important in hunger

– lateral hypothalamus (LH) was thought to be the hunger center

– ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) thought to be satiety center

– research showed this to be an oversimplification

– the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit, but not the key elements.

HypothalamusLateral Hypothalamus

• When stimulated it makes you hungry.

• When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

• When stimulated you feel full.

• When lesioned you will never feel full again.

• The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently been implicated as another influential part of the hunger circuit.

• Blood glucose has a role: when blood sugar goes down, hunger goes up. – Glucostatic theory proposed that fluctuations in blood glucose level

are monitored in the brain by glucostats – neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid.

• Hormones appear to be related to hunger: Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. – Increases in insulin increase hunger, and the mere sight and smell of

food has been shown to increase insulin.

• Recently, a new hormone, leptin, has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. – Leptin is believed to signal the hypothalamus about fat stores in the

body, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high.

Set Point Theory

• The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat.

• Wants to maintain a stable weight.

• Activate the lateral when you diet and activate the ventromedial when you start to gain weight.

• Leptin theory

Body Chemistry

• Glucose• The hormone insulin converts glucose to

fat.• When glucose levels drop- hunger

increases.• Psychological Aspects of Hunger– Internals versus Externals– The Garcia Effect

Environmental Factors

• Learned preferences and habits– Exposure– When, as well as what

• Food-related cues– Appearance, odor, effort required

• Stress – Link between heightened arousal/negative

emotion and overeating

Dog

Fried Frog Legs

Culture and Hunger

Criadillas- bull testicles.

Mice WineCulture and Hunger

Eating and Weight: The Roots of Obesity

• Evolutionary explanations• Genetic predisposition

–Body Mass Index and adoption study• The concept of set point/settling point• Dietary restraint

Figure 10.5 The heritability of weight

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa• Starvation to below

85% of normal body weight.

• Body Dismorphia - See oneself as fat.

• Bulimia Nervosa• Binging and purging

Anorexia Nervosa• Vast majority are woman.

Obesity

• Severely overweight to the point where it causes health issues.

• Mostly eating habits but some people are predisposed towards obesity.

Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome

• Describes our response to a stressful event.

• Three stages1. Alarm2. Resistance3. Exhaustion

Basic EmotionsPrimaryemotion

Secondary emotion Tertiary emotions

Love

Affection Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking, attraction, caring, tenderness, compassion, sentimentality

Lust Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation

Longing Longing

Joy

Cheerfulness

Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee, jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment, gladness, happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy, euphoria

Zest Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration

Contentment Contentment, pleasure

Pride Pride, triumph

Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism

Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture

Relief Relief

More Basic Emotions

Surprise Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment

Anger

Irritation Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance, grouchiness, grumpiness

Exasperation Exasperation, frustration

RageAnger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility,

ferocity, bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite, vengefulness, dislike, resentment

Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contempt

Envy Envy, jealousy

Torment Torment

More Basic Emotions

Sadness

Suffering Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish

SadnessDepression, despair, hopelessness, gloom, glumness, sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe, misery, melancholy

Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure

Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse

NeglectAlienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection, homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity, embarrassment, humiliation, insult

Sympathy Pity, sympathy

FearHorror Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic,

hysteria, mortification

Nervousness Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, distress, dread