Motivation Motivation and Emotionand Emotion

6-8% of the AP Psychology ExamIncludes “stress”

MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES

WHAT MOTIVATES PEOPLE INTO ACTION?

MotivationMotivation What moves people into action? The pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain Promote survival Freud theorized that basic sexual and

aggressive instincts motivated behavior Rogers and Maslow suggested that a basic

tendency toward growth and mastery pervades our lives

Seligman emphasized the role of cognitive factors in motivation

THE INSTINCT / BIOLOGICAL THE INSTINCT / BIOLOGICAL THEORIESTHEORIES

INSTINCTSINSTINCTS Instincts are fixed,

unlearned, genetically programmed patterns of behavior such as migration and mating displays of birds

Examples in human behavior?

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin’’s evolutionary s evolutionary theorytheory Behavior

originates from instincts

Instincts are adaptive survival behaviors

Sociobiological viewSociobiological view All creatures respond

in a manner to preserve our genes As in herding

behaviors Aged or

nonproductive individuals leaving the group to increase the chance of survival of the family

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY (CLARK HULL)(CLARK HULL)

Drive Reduction TheoryDrive Reduction Theory• Behavior originates from physiological need

(drive state)– homeostasis

• Drives are internal conditions that relate to survival– Food, water, air

• Behavior is geared to reduce the need or deficit– Eating, drinking and breathing

• Drive reduction motivation DOES NOT deal with decision making

AROUSAL THEORYAROUSAL THEORY

Arousal TheoryArousal Theory Relates to differing individual preferences for

stimulation in their environment Motivation is to achieve and maintain preferred

levels of stimulation Yerkes-Dodson “Law” (more appropriately “curve”)

states the relationship between task performance and levels of arousal

INCENTIVE THEORYINCENTIVE THEORY

Incentive TheoryIncentive Theory Need for goal attainment or achievement

may be Intrinsic-reward comes from within Extrinsic- reward is external

Overjustification Effect Occurs when extrinsic rewards are

provided for a behavior that previously was motivated intrinsically, behavior decreases

COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY THEORYTHEORY(LEON FESTINGER)(LEON FESTINGER)

Cognitive Consistency Cognitive Consistency TheoryTheory Motivation is produced from internal conflict

Cognitive Dissonance Beliefs that are in opposition often produce

conflict (cognitive dissonance) Beliefs counter to some behavior produces

conflict The individual is motivated to reduce conflict

by modifying or changing beliefs or behavior Experiments in Lying

HUMANISTIC THEORYHUMANISTIC THEORY(ABRAHAM MASLOW)(ABRAHAM MASLOW)

MaslowMaslow’’s Hierarchy of s Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds Each successive level of the hierarchy is

addressed only after the preceding level’s needs have been met

Maslow’s theory DOES NOT explain altruistic behavior

Big Picture Picture I. Instinct/Biological

Theory II. Drive Reduction

Theory

III. Arousal Theory An optional activity would be to

have students draw a “Big Picture” (see Instructions in activities folder.)

Assign theories by this list.

IV. Incentive Theory

V. Cognitive Consistency Theory

VI. Humanistic Theory

Physiological Physiological NeedsNeeds

Hunger and Thirst

PHYSIOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF HUNGERDETERMINANTS OF HUNGER

• Homeostasis• Glucose

• Blood sugar• Hypothalamus

– Ventromedial hypothalamus- – Depresses hunger

– Lateral hypothalamus– Results in hunger

• SO. . .what if?• Set Point- “natural” body

weight• Metabolic Rate- resting rate

of energy expenditures

PSYCHOLOGY OF PSYCHOLOGY OF HUNGERHUNGER

Social Rules and Cultural Traditions

External Motives

OBESITYOBESITYGenetic ExplanationsGenetic Explanations1. Fat cells-1. Fat cells-once the number of fat once the number of fat cells increases, it cells increases, it seldom decreasesseldom decreases2. Set Point-the 2. Set Point-the particular level of particular level of weight the body strives weight the body strives to maintain (obese to maintain (obese individuals set points individuals set points are higher)are higher)3. Metabolism-rate at 3. Metabolism-rate at which the body burns which the body burns calories (people have calories (people have differing rates of differing rates of metabolism)metabolism)

Psychological Explanations

1. Media-advertisements describing food and restaurants

2. Eating for Emotional reasons- to get rid of unhappy feelings, rewards for good behavior, food as center of social interactions

A closer look at Leptin Leptin (from the Greek leptos, meaning thin) is a

protein hormone with important effects in regulating body weight, metabolism and reproductive functions.

Leptin is an important component in the long term regulation of body weight.

Leptin provides the body with an index of nutritional status.

Leptin appears to be an appetite suppressant. It stops you from eating too much. As well as makes you more active so you burn more energy.

EATING DISORDERSEATING DISORDERS

Anorexia Anorexia Nervosa-Nervosa-

person is person is significantly significantly underweight underweight yet feels “fat” yet feels “fat” and is obsessed and is obsessed with weight with weight lossloss

Bulimia Bulimia Nervosa-Nervosa-

marked by marked by repeated repeated binge-purge binge-purge episodes and episodes and weight weight fluctuationsfluctuations

THIRSTTHIRSTOsmotic Thirst-Osmotic Thirst-

Level of fluid Level of fluid inside cell bodyinside cell body

Volumetric Volumetric thirst-thirst-Level of fluid Level of fluid outside cell outside cell bodybody

Social Social MotivesMotivesAchievement, Affiliation, Power, Aggression and Conflict

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION- ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION- a learned motive that a learned motive that promotes the individual to promotes the individual to find challenging tasks at find challenging tasks at which to succeedwhich to succeed

Intrinsic v. Extrinsic Motivation Internal motivation-motivation giving an individual

satisfaction in and of itself External motivation-motivation coming from a source outside

oneself

Parenting Characteristics that enhance achievement motivation Encourage children to attempt difficult tasks Provide strategies for success Give praise and appropriate rewards for success

Cultural Influences Collectivist societies encourage group success Individualistic societies encourage individual success

People Vary in Need for Achievement (refer to motivation theories)

Management Styles Theory X/Theory Y

Theory X-Theory Y Management Style Theory X managers assume that workers are

lazy, error prone and extrinsically motivated by money.

Theory Y managers assume that people are intrinsically motivated, have pride in their work and fulfill their potential.

What type of manager might you be?

Reference: Michaelson, L. K. and Neuliep, J. W. Myers ancillary

How might we measure achievement?You can take a subjective test as some previous given.

OR. . .You might take a projective test.

Try this!

HENRY MURRAY – HENRY MURRAY – Thematic Apperception Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 1935Test (TAT) 1935

DAVID MCCLELLAND DAVID MCCLELLAND (1958)(1958)Modified TAT for measure Modified TAT for measure of motivesof motives

MATINA HORNER (1970)MATINA HORNER (1970)John is at the John is at the end of his end of his first year of first year of medical medical school. He is school. He is number one in number one in his class. his class. What will What will happen to him happen to him in the future?in the future?

What will happen to John in the future?

Joan is at the Joan is at the end of her end of her first year of first year of medical medical school. She school. She is number is number one in her one in her class. class.

. . What will What will happen to happen to her in the her in the future?future?

Matina Horner suggested that in the 70s, women feared success (achievement).

How do you think people would respond today?

AFFILIATION- need to be part AFFILIATION- need to be part of a groupof a groupIn times of

stress and fear, we tend to want to affiliate.

Too little affiliation (as in isolation) causes people to become anxious.

POWER- desire to have POWER- desire to have impact on other peopleimpact on other people

personalized power personalized power motivemotive

socialized power motivesocialized power motive

AGGRESSION-Presenting AGGRESSION-Presenting aversive stimulus to an aversive stimulus to an unwilling victim unwilling victim

What is aggression? A spider eats a fly. The juvenile gang attacks members of

another gang. A girl kicks a trash can. Mr. X is a notorious gossip and speaks

unpleasantly about another person. A farmer beheads a chicken and eats it for

dinner. A hunter kills an animal and mounts its head

as a trophy. A man is cleaning a window and accidently

knocks off a flower pot that fall and hits a pedestrian.

A Girl Scout tries to help an elderly person across the street but trips her by mistake.

Reference: Johnson (1972), Kaufman (1970)

AggressionAggression

Types of aggression-Types of aggression- Hostile aggression- Hostile aggression-

striking out against striking out against someone or something someone or something in anger or frustrationin anger or frustration

Instrumental Instrumental aggression- desired aggression- desired results obtained results obtained through hostile means through hostile means due to reinforced due to reinforced hostile behaviorhostile behavior

instrumental instrumental aggressionaggression

Factors affecting aggression (environmental)-crowding and temperature

Brain structures implicated in aggression- amygdala and hippocampus

Motives in Conflict (see Motives in Conflict (see reference)reference) Approach/Approach Conflict

Avoidance/Avoidance Conflict

Approach/Avoidance Conflict

Multiple Approach/Avoidance Conflicts

EmotionsEmotions

Emotions are a mix ofEmotions are a mix of

1) physiological arousal2) expressive behavior

3) conscious experience (cognitive appraisal of the experience)

The Biology of EmotionThe Biology of Emotion Brain

Mechanisms Limbic system Hemispheres

Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic

nervous system

THEORIES OF EMOTIONTHEORIES OF EMOTION

Evolutionary TheoryEvolutionary TheoryDarwin (1872) updated by Izard

(1977)Emotional expression is:

AdaptivePredictableInnateTriggered physiologicallyRecognized cross-culturallyWe learn display rules

James – Lange TheoryJames – Lange Theory Emotional stimulus causes physiological reactionOrder of events:

It happens in this sequence,(Not a the same time!)

See a bearRunAfraid

But, wait! What if. . . You cry or laugh, what Emotion is being felt?

Cannon-BardCannon-Bard Cannon’s Thalamic Theory (1927) Suggested the perceived stimulus

is SIMULTANEOUSLY(at the same time) relayed through the thalamus to the cortex and the ANS.

Further research has reassigned the role of the thalamus to the limbic system.

Schachter and SingerSchachter and Singer’’s s TheoryTheory

Schachter Two Factor Theory Schachter’s Cognitive-Physiological Theory

(1962) Three sources contributing to perception of

emotion: External stimulus inputs Physiological changes in the body These are filtered by a cognitive appraisal to

reach an emotional experience Memory of similar past experience (cognitive

schema) to label emotion Label of intensity of emotion

Debates regarding Debates regarding SchachterSchachter’’s Theorys Theory Zajonc (1980, 1984) suggests that

we experience some emotions before you think about them

Lazarus (1984) suggests that even the most quickly felt emotions require some quick cognitive appraisal

Opponent-Process Theory Opponent-Process Theory (Soloman, 1980)(Soloman, 1980) Every emotion triggers an opposing emotion

After repeated stimulation over time, original emotion grows weaker and opposing emotion grows stronger

This idea explains chemically addictive behavior

See chart

Expression of Expression of EmotionEmotion

Communicating EmotionCommunicating Emotion• Facial Expressions– Paul Ekman

– Universal occurrence– Amplify and regulate emotion

– video 12 mins• Culture and Emotion– Gestures vary with culture– Display rules

– Cultural norms tell us what to do– Learned during childhood– Expression depends on who is present

Basic Emotions Can you label the following sample

using these basic emotions? Happiness Sadness Surprise Fear Disgust Anger

Experiencing EmotionExperiencing Emotion• Seven recognized emotions:– Anger • Catharsis hypothesis

– Disgust– Fear

• Adaptive, acquired, predisposed – Happiness–What factors correlate to reported

happiness?• Adaptation-level principle• Relative-deprivation principle

– Sadness– Surprise– Contempt (Added to Ekman’s original list)

Can you catch an emotion? Facial Feedback Activity Activity Handbook for the Teaching of

Psychology Volume 4 #52 Shallhorn and Lunde

Measuring EmotionMeasuring Emotion Polygraph

Perspiration Galvanic Skin

Response(GSR) Pulse Blood pressure Breathing

Credibility varies considerably