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Duringthepast50years,considerableresearchhasfocusedontheeffectsofgoalsonmo;va;on.Withintheschoolachievementliterature,threelevelsofanalysishavebeenespeciallyemphasized.Attheindividuallevel,researchhascontrastedmo;va;onalpaAernsassociatedwithvariousdimensionsofstudents’individualgoals,includinggoalorienta;ons,expecta;ons,origins,andcontent.Attheclassroomlevel,researchonclassroomgoalstructureshasexaminedhowfeaturesofthelearningenvironmentcansignificantlyinfluencestudents’personalgoalorienta;onsandassociatedmo;va;onalpaAerns.Finally,researchershavealsoexaminedhowschool‐levelgoalstructuresinfluencestudents’personalgoalsandmo;va;oninthoseseIngs.

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Lesswellunderstoodishowtherela%onaldimensionofstudents’goalsaffectsmo;va;on.Therela;onaldimensionfocusesonhowstudent’sindividualgoalsmaybedifferen;alylinkedtopeers’goals.Thus,therela;onaldimensionofstudents’goalsexistsbetweenstudentsratherthanwithin(e.g.,goalorienta;ons)orinthelargerclassroomorschoolcontexts.

Accordingtosocialinterdependencetheory,therela;onaldimensionofstudents’goalsmaybedifferen;atedintermsofhoweachindividual’sgoalaAainmentisaffectedbytheac;onsofothers.Specifically,students’goalsmaybepos%velyinterdependent(i.e.,linkedbycoopera;vegoalstructures),suchthatindividual’sperceivethattheycanreachtheirgoalsifandonlyiftheotherindividualswithwhomtheyarecoopera;velylinkedalsoreachtheirgoals.Students’goalsmayalsobenega%velyinterdependent(i.e.,linkedbycompe;;vegoalstructures),suchthatindividualsperceivethattheycanobtaintheirgoalsifandonlyiftheotherindividualswithwhomtheyarecompe;;velylinkedfailtoobtaintheirgoals.Finally,students’goalsmayalsobeindependent(i.e.,nointerdependenceorlinkedbyindividualis;cgoalstructures),suchthatindividualsperceivethattheycanreachtheirgoalregardlessofwhetherotherindividualsaAainordonotaAaintheirgoals.

Thebasicpremiseofsocialinterdependencetheoryisthatthewayinwhichinterdependenceisstructureddetermineshowindividualsinteractwhich,inturn,determinesoutcomes.Thus,whenindividuals’goalsarestructuredcoopera;vely(posi;veinterdependence),individualswilltendtopromotethesuccessofothers(e.g.,mutualhelpandassistance,sharingresourcesandinforma;on,andac;ngintrustworthyandtrus;ngways).Compe;;vegoalstructuresincontrastresultinopposi;onalinterac;onpaAerns(e.g.,obstruc;ngothers’goalachievementefforts,hidingresourcesandinforma;onfromeachother,andac;ngindistrusRulanddistrus;ngways).Finally,theabsenceofgoalstructures(nointerdependence)resultsintheabsenceofinterac;on.

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Thebasicpremiseofthisstudyisthattheextenttowhichmo;va;onisposi;velyornega;velyassociatedwithachievementdependsonthewaypeers’achievementgoalsarelinked(orstructured).Followingsocialinterdependencetheory,theargumentismadethatcoopera;veandcompe;;vegoalstructuresdifferen;allyaffecttherela;onbetweenmo;va;onand,theformercrea;ngthecondi;onsunderwhichoneenhancestheother,thelaAercrea;ngthecondi;onsunderwhichoneobstructstheother.

Socialinterdependencetheorypredictsthatcoopera;vegoalstructureswillresultinhigherachievementthanwillcompe;;veorindividualis;cgoalstructures.Becausecoopera;vegoalstructurestendtoresultinpromo;veinterac;on(thusprovidingtheassistance,informa;on,andresourcesneededtoachievetheirmutualgoals),whereascompe;;veandindividualis;cgoalstructuresresultinopposi;onalornointerac;on,respec;vely,itmaybeexpectedthatcoopera;vegoalstructureswillresultinhigherachievementthanwillcompe;;veorindividualis;c.

Socialinterdependencetheoryalsopredictsthatcoopera;vegoalstructureswillpromotegreatermo;va;onthancompe;;veorindividualis;cgoalstructures.AccordingtoDeutsch’soriginaltheorizing,whenindividualgoalsarestructuredcoopera;vely,successinachievingone’sgoalswillresultinaposi;vecathexis(i.e.,emo;onalinvestment)towardotherdimensionsofthepsychologicalfield.Thus,coopera;vegoalstructureswillbeassociatedwithmoreposi;veaItudestowardtheachievementobjec;ve(e.g.,subjectmaAerineduca;onalseIngs)andanincreaseinself‐efficacy.Contras;ngtheseoutcomes,whenindividualgoalsarestructuredcompe;;vely,failuretoachieveone’sgoalswillresultinanega;vecathexistowardotherdimensionsofthepsychologicalfieldsuchasdislikeforsubjectmaAerandmorenega;vefeelingsofself‐efficacy.Finally,whengoalsarestructuresindividualis;cally,thefeelingsgeneratedbysuccessorfailuretoachieveone’sgoalstendnottotransfertootherpsychologicaldimensions. 4

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HedgesgUprovideslessbiasedESes;matesbycorrec;ngfortheslightoveres;ma;onofthepopula;onESforsmallsamples.

ModelsfiAedinHLMhavethegeneralform

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