Mother Earth Mother Board

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Mother Earth Mother Board The hacker tourist ventures forth across the wide and wondrous meatspace of three continents, chronicling the laying of the longest wire on Earth. By Neal Stephenson In which the hacker tourist ventures forth across the wide and wondrous meatspace of three continents, acquainting himself with the customs and dialects of the exotic Manhole Villagers of Thailand, the UTurn Tunnelers of the Nile Delta, the Cable Nomads of Lan tao Island, the Slack Control Wizards of Chelmsford, the Subterranean ExTelegraphers of Cornwall, and other previously unknown and unchronicled folk; also, biographical sketches of the two long dead Supreme Ninja Hacker Mage Lords of global telecommunications, and other material pertaining to the business and technology of Undersea FiberOptic Cables, as well as an account of the laying of the longest wire on Earth, which should not be without interest to the readers of Wired. Information moves, or we move to it. Moving to it has rarely been popular and is growing unfashionable; nowadays we demand that the information come to us. This can be accomplished in three basic ways: moving physical media around, broadcasting radiation through space, and sending signals through wires. This article is about what will, for a short time anyway, be the biggest and best wire ever made. Wires warp cyberspace in the same way wormholes warp physical space: the two points at opposite ends of a wire are, for informational purposes, the same point, even if they are on opposite sides of the planet. The cyberspacewarping power of wires, therefore, changes the geometry of the world of commerce and politics and ideas that we live in. The financial districts of New York, London, and Tokyo, linked by thousands of wires, are much closer to each other than, say, the Bronx is to Manhattan. Today this is all quite familiar, but in the 19th century, when the first feeble bits struggled down the first undersea cable joining the Old World to the New, it must have made people's hair stand up on end in more than just the purely electrical sense it must have seemed supernatural. Perhaps this sort of feeling explains why when Samuel Morse stretched a wire between Washington and Baltimore in 1844, the first message he sent with his code was "What hath God wrought!" almost as if he needed to reassure himself and others that God, and not the Devil, was behind it. During the decades after Morse's "What hath God wrought!" a plethora of different codes, signalling techniques, and sending and receiving machines were patented. A web of wires was spun across every modern city on the globe, and longer wires were strung between cities. Some of the early technologies were, in retrospect, flaky: one early inventor wanted to use 26wire cables, one wire for each letter of the alphabet. But it quickly became evident that it was best to keep the number of individual wires as low as possible and find clever ways to fit more information onto them.

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Transcript of Mother Earth Mother Board

  • MotherEarthMotherBoard

    Thehackertouristventuresforthacrossthewideandwondrousmeatspaceofthreecontinents,chroniclingthelayingofthelongestwireonEarth.

    ByNealStephenson

    Inwhichthehackertouristventuresforthacrossthewideandwondrousmeatspaceofthreecontinents,acquaintinghimselfwiththecustomsanddialectsoftheexoticManholeVillagersofThailand,theUTurnTunnelersoftheNileDelta,theCableNomadsofLantaoIsland,theSlackControlWizardsofChelmsford,theSubterraneanExTelegraphersofCornwall,andotherpreviouslyunknownandunchronicledfolkalso,biographicalsketchesofthetwolongdeadSupremeNinjaHackerMageLordsofglobaltelecommunications,andothermaterialpertainingtothebusinessandtechnologyofUnderseaFiberOpticCables,aswellasanaccountofthelayingofthelongestwireonEarth,whichshouldnotbewithoutinteresttothereadersofWired.

    Informationmoves,orwemovetoit.Movingtoithasrarelybeenpopularandisgrowingunfashionablenowadayswedemandthattheinformationcometous.Thiscanbeaccomplishedinthreebasicways:movingphysicalmediaaround,broadcastingradiationthroughspace,andsendingsignalsthroughwires.Thisarticleisaboutwhatwill,forashorttimeanyway,bethebiggestandbestwireevermade.

    Wireswarpcyberspaceinthesamewaywormholeswarpphysicalspace:thetwopointsatoppositeendsofawireare,forinformationalpurposes,thesamepoint,eveniftheyareonoppositesidesoftheplanet.Thecyberspacewarpingpowerofwires,therefore,changesthegeometryoftheworldofcommerceandpoliticsandideasthatwelivein.ThefinancialdistrictsofNewYork,London,andTokyo,linkedbythousandsofwires,aremuchclosertoeachotherthan,say,theBronxistoManhattan.

    Todaythisisallquitefamiliar,butinthe19thcentury,whenthefirstfeeblebitsstruggleddownthefirstunderseacablejoiningtheOldWorldtotheNew,itmusthavemadepeople'shairstanduponendinmorethanjustthepurelyelectricalsenseitmusthaveseemedsupernatural.PerhapsthissortoffeelingexplainswhywhenSamuelMorsestretchedawirebetweenWashingtonandBaltimorein1844,thefirstmessagehesentwithhiscodewas"WhathathGodwrought!"almostasifheneededtoreassurehimselfandothersthatGod,andnottheDevil,wasbehindit.

    DuringthedecadesafterMorse's"WhathathGodwrought!"aplethoraofdifferentcodes,signallingtechniques,andsendingandreceivingmachineswerepatented.Awebofwireswasspunacrosseverymoderncityontheglobe,andlongerwireswerestrungbetweencities.Someoftheearlytechnologieswere,inretrospect,flaky:oneearlyinventorwantedtouse26wirecables,onewireforeachletterofthealphabet.Butitquicklybecameevidentthatitwasbesttokeepthenumberofindividualwiresaslowaspossibleandfindcleverwaystofitmoreinformationontothem.

    http://archive.wired.com/

  • Thisrequiresmoreingenuitythanyoumightthinkwireshaveneverbeenperfectlytransparentcarriersofdatatheyhavealwaysdegradedtheinformationputintothem.Ingeneral,thisgetsworseasthewiregetslonger,andsoastheearlytelegraphnetworksspannedgreaterdistances,thepeoplebuildingthemhadtoedgeawayfromtheseatofthepantsengineeringpracticesthat,appliedinanotherfield,gaveussomanyboilerexplosions,andtowardthemorescientificapproachthatisthestandardofpracticetoday.

    Still,telegraphy,likemanyotherformsofengineering,retainedacertainbarnyard,improvisedqualityuntiltheYearofOurLord1858,whentheterrifyinglyhighfinancialstakesandshockinglyformidabletechnicalchallengesofthefirsttransatlanticsubmarinecablebroughtcertainlongsimmeringconflictstoarollingboil,incarnatedtheoldandnewapproachesinthepersonsofDr.WildmanWhitehouseandProfessorWilliamThomson,respectively,andbroughttheconflictbetweenthemintothehighestpossiblereliefintheformofaninquiryandascandalthatrockedtheVictorianworld.Thomsoncameoutontop,withanewtitleandnameLordKelvin.

    EverythingthathasoccurredinSiliconValleyinthelastcoupleofdecadesalsooccurredinthe1850s.Anyonewhothinksthatwildasshightechventurecapitalismisalate20thcenturyCaliforniaphenomenonneedstoreadaboutthemaniacswhobuiltthefirsttransatlanticcableprojects(IrecommendArthurC.Clarke'sbookHowtheWorldWasOne).Theonlythingsthathavechangedsincethenarethatthestakeshavegottensmaller,theprocessmorebureaucratized,andthepersonalitieslessinteresting.

    Thoseearlycableswereeventuallymadetowork,albeitnotwithoutfoundingwholenewfieldsofscientificinquiryandgeneratingmanylucrativepatents.Underseacables,andlongdistancecommunicationsingeneral,becamethehighestofhightech,withmanyofthesameconnotationsasrocketscienceornuclearphysicsorbrainsurgerywouldacquireinlaterdecades.Somecountriesandcompanies(thedistinctionbetweencountriesandcompaniesishazyinthetelcoworld)becameverygoodatit,andsomedidn't.AT&TacquiredadominanceofthefieldthatlargelycontinuestothisdayandisonlynowbeingseriouslychallengedbyaprojectcalledFLAG:theFiberopticLinkAroundtheGlobe.

    InwhichtheHackerTouristencounters:Penang,amicrocosmoftheInternet.Rubber,Penang'schiefcommodity,anditsmanyuses:protectingwiresfromtheelementsandconcupiscentwanderersfromharmfulDNA.Advantagesofchastity,bothforhackertouristsandforcablelayers.BizarreSpectaclesinthejunglesofsouthernThailand.FLAG,itsoriginsanditsenemies.

    524124.932'N,10024119.748'ECityofGeorgeTown,IslandofPenang,Malaysia

    FLAG,afiberopticcablenowbeingbuiltfromEnglandtoJapan,isaskinnylittlecuss(aboutaninchindiameter),butitis28,000kilometerslong,whichislongevencomparedtoreallybigthingsliketheplanetEarth.WhenitisfinishedinSeptember1997,itarguablywillbethelongestengineeringprojectinhistory.Writingaboutitnecessitatesalotofbangingaroundthroughmeatspace.Overthecourseoftwomonths,photographerAlexTehraniandIhitsixcountriesandfourcontinentstryingtogetagriponthislongest,fastest,motherofallwires.ItookaGPSreceiverwithmesothatIcouldhaveatleastageneralideaofwherethehellwewere.ItgavemetheabovereadinginfrontofaChinesetemplearoundthecornerfromtheShangriLaHotelinPenang,Malaysia,whichwasonlyoneof100peculiarspotsaroundtheglobewhereIsuddenlypulledupshortandaskedmyself,"WhatthehellamIdoinghere?"

    Youmightwellaskyourselfthesamequestionbeforedivingintoanarticleaslongasthisone.Theansweristhatwealldependheavilyonwires,butwehardlyeverthinkaboutthem.BeforelearningaboutFLAG,IknewthatdatapacketscouldgetfromAmericatoAsiaortheMiddleEast,butIhadnoideahow.Iknewthatithadsomethingtodowithwiresacrossthebottomoftheocean,butIdidn'tknowhowmanyofthosewiresexisted,howtheygotthere,whocontrolledthem,orhowmanybitstheycouldcarry.

  • Accordingtolegend,in1876thefirstsoundstransmitteddownawirewereAlexanderGrahamBellsaying"Mr.Watson,comehere.Iwantyou."ComparedwithMorse's"WhathathGodwrought!''thisisdisappointinglybanalasifNeilArmstrong,settingfootonthemoon,hadutteredthewords:"Buzz,couldyoutossmethatrockhammer?''It'sasthoughduringthe32yearsfollowingMorse'smessage,peoplehadbecomeinuredtotheamazingpowersofwire.

    Today,another120yearslater,wetakewirescompletelyforgranted.Thisismostunwise.PeoplewhousetheInternet(orforthatmatter,whomakelongdistancephonecalls)butwhodon'tknowaboutwiresarejustlikethemillionsofcomplacentmotoristswhopumpgasolineintotheircarswithouteverconsideringwhereitcamefromorhowitfounditswaytothecornergasstation.ThatworksonlyuntilthepoliticalsituationintheMiddleEastgetsallscrewedup,oranoiltankerrunsagroundonawildliferefuge.Inthesameway,itbehooveswiredpeopletoknowafewthingsaboutwireshowtheywork,wheretheylie,whoownsthem,andwhatsortsofbusinessdealsandpoliticalmachinationsbringthemintobeing.

    Inthehopesoflearningmoreaboutthemodernbusinessofreally,reallylongwires,wespentmuchofthesummerof1996inpursuitssuchas:beingarrestedbytoothless,shotguntotingEgyptiancopsgettingpushedaroundbyadrunkensmugglerqueenonaThaitrainvaultingoverrusticgatestotakeemergencyshitsinisolatedfieldsbeingkeptawakebygroovyEurotrashbackpackerssingingsongsblowingSaharandustoutofcamerasscrapingequatorialmoldoutoffountainpensstuffingfadedbanknotesintothepalmsofEgyptianserviceindustryprofessionalstryingtopersuadenonEnglishspeakingtaxidriversthatwereallydidwanttovisitthebeacheventhoughitwaspouringrainandlaunderingclothesbyshoweringinthem.WestillmissedmorethanhalfthecountriesFLAGtouches.

    Ourmethodwasnotexactlyjournalismnortourisminthenormalsensebutwhatmightbethoughtofasanewfieldofhumanendeavorcalledhackertourism:traveltoexoticlocationsinsearchofsightsandsensationsthatonlywouldbeofinteresttoageek.

    IwillintroducesectionswithreadingsfrommytrustyGPSincaseotherhackertouristswouldliketoleapoverthesamerusticgatesorgetrainedonatthesamebeaches

    526.325'N,10017.417'EPenangBotanicalGardens

    Penang,oneofthefirstsitesvisitedbythishackertouristpartlybecauseofitslittleknownhistoricalimportancetowires,liesjustoffthewestcoastoftheMalayPeninsula.TheBritishacquireditfromthelocalsultaninthelate1700s,builtapatheticfortabovetheharbor,andnamedit,appropriately,afterthehaplessGeneralCornwallis.Theysetupacoupleofchurchesandestablishedthekernelofajudicialsystem.Avigorousmarketgrewuparoundthem.Afewkilometersaway,theybuiltabotanicalgarden.

    Thisseemslikeanoddsetofprioritiestoustoday.ButgardenswerenotmeredecorationstotheBritishtheywerestrategicinstallations.

    TheheadquarterswasKewGardensoutsideofLondon.Penangwasoneoftheforwardoutposts,anditbecameincomparablymoreimportantthanthenearbyfort.In1876,70,000seedsoftherubbertree,painstakinglycollectedbybotanistsintheAmazonrainforest,werebroughttoKewGardensandplantedinagreenhouse.About2,800ofthemgerminatedandwereshippedtothebotanicalgardensinSriLankaandPenang,wheretheypropagatedexplosivelyandwereusedtoestablishrubberplantations.

    MostoftheseplantationswereontheneighboringMalayPeninsula,alumpy,bonytentacleoflandthatstretchesfor1,000milesfromBangkokinthenorthtoSingaporeinthesouth,whereitgrazestheequator.Thelandscapeisastalematebetween,ononehand,thedevastatinglypowerfulerosiveforcesofcontinualtropicalrainstormsanddenseplantlife,and,ontheotherhand,somereally,reallyhardrocks.Anythingwiththeleastpropensitytobeerodeddidsoalongtimeagoandturnedintoapaddy.What'sleftareridgesofstonethatrisealmostverticallyfromthelandscapeandarestillmostlycoveredwithrainforest,notwithstandingeffortsbythelocalstocutitalldown.Theflatstuffisallusedforsomethingcoconuts,datepalms,bananatrees,andaboveall,rubber.

  • UntilartificialrubberwasinventedbythecolonyimpairedGermans,nomoderneconomycouldexistwithoutthenaturalstuff.Alloftheimportantpowershadtropicalcolonieswhererubberwasproduced.FortheNetherlands,itwasIndonesiaforFrance,itwasIndochinafortheBritish,itwaswhattheythencalledMalaya,aswellasmanyotherplaces.

    Withoutrubberandanotherkindoftreeresincalledguttapercha,itwouldnothavebeenpossibletowiretheworld.Earlytelegraphlineswerejustnakedconductorsstrungfrompoletopole,butthisworkedpoorly,especiallyinwetconditions,sosomekindofflexiblebutdurableinsulationwasneeded.Aftermuchtrialanderror,rubberbecamethestandardforterrestrialandaerialwireswhileguttapercha(anaturalgumalsoderivedfromatreegrowninMalaya)wasusedforsubmarinecables.Guttaperchaishumblelookingstuff,anondescriptbrowncrudthatsurroundstheinnercoreofoldsubmarinecablestoathicknessofperhaps1centimeter,butitwasawondermaterialbackinthosedays,andthelongeritremainedimmersedinsaltwater,thebetteritgot.

    Sofar,itwasallaccordingtothegeneralplanthattheBritishhadinmind:findsomeusefulDNAintheAmericas,stockpileitatKewGardens,propagateittootherbotanicalgardensaroundtheworld,makemoneyofftheproceeds,andgrowtheeconomy.ModerndayPenang,however,isagoodexampleofthenotionofunintendedconsequences.

    AssoonastheBritishhadestablishedtheruleoflawinPenang,variouskindsofChinesepeoplebegantomoveinandestablishbusinesses.MostofthemwereHokkienChinesefromnorthofHongKong,thoughCantonese,Hakka,andothergroupsalsosettledthere.Likewise,TamilsandSikhscamefromacrosstheBayofBengal.Asrubbertreesbegantotakeoverthecountryside,acommonarrangementwasforChineseimmigrantstoestablishrubberplantationsandhireIndianimmigrants(aswellasMalays)aslaborers.

    TheBritishinvolvement,then,wasmorecatalyticthananythingelse.Theydidn'towntherubberplantations.TheymerelyboughttherubberonanopenmarketfromChinesebrokerswhointurnboughtitfromproducersofvariousethnicities.ThemarketwasjustafewsquareblocksofGeorgeTownwhereBritishlawwasenforced,i.e.wherebusinessmencouldrelyonafewbasicslikepropertyrights,contracts,andacurrency.

    DuringandafterWorldWarII,theBritishlostwhatpresencetheyhadhere.PenangfelltotheJapaneseandbecameabaseforGermanUBoatspatrollingtheIndianOcean.Later,therewasasomewhatmessytransitiontoindependenceinvolvingacommunistinsurrectionandawarwithIndonesia.Today,MalaysiaisoneofAsia'seconomicsupernovasandevidentlyhasdecidedthatitwillbesecondtononewhenitcomestotheInternet.TheyarefuriouslywiringuptheplaceandhaveestablishedJARING,whichistheMalaysianInternet(thiswordisasomewhattorturedEnglishacronymthathappenstospellouttheMalaywordfortheNet).

    IfyouhavealookatJARING'shomepage(www.jaring.my/jaring),youwillbeconfrontedbyalinkthatwilltakeyoutoapagerecitingMalaysia'scensorshiplaws,which,likemostcensorshiplaws,areridiculouslyvagueandhencesortofcreepyandyet,inthecontextoftheInternet,totallyunworkable.

    Inaway,thearchitectsofJARINGaretryingtoruntheKewGardensexperimentalloveragain.ByadoptingtheInternetprotocolfortheirnationalinformationinfrastructure,theyhavecopiedthesameDNAthat,plantedinthederegulatedtelecomenvironmentoftheUnitedStates,hasgrownlikesomeunstoppableexoticweed.Nowtheyaretryingtoraisethesameplantinsideahothouse(becausetheywantittoflourish)butinapot(becausetheydon'twantittoescapeintothewild).

    TheyseemtohavemisunderstoodboththeirownhistoryandthatoftheInternet,whichrunstrangelyparallel.TodaythestreetsofGeorgeTown,Penang'smaincity,aresovivid,crowded,andintenselymulticulturalthatbycomparisontheymakeNewYorkCitylooklikeColonialWilliamsburg.EveryblockhasamosqueorHindutempleorBuddhistshrineorChristianchurch.Youcangetanykindoffood,hearanylanguage.Theplaceisthronged,butit'saffluent,anditworks.It'salotliketheInternet.

  • BothPenangandtheInternetwereestablishedbasicallyforstrategicmilitaryreasons.Inbothcases,whatwasbuiltbythemilitarywasmerelyakernelforamuchvasterphenomenonthatcamealonglater.Thiskernelwasreallynothingmorethanaprotocol,asetofrules.Ifyouwantedtofollowthoserules,youcouldparticipate,otherwiseyouwerefreetogoelsewhere.Becausetheprotocollaiddownastandardwayforpeopletointeract,whichwasclearlysetoutandcouldbeunderstoodbyanyone,itattractedsmart,adaptable,ambitiouspeoplefromallovertheplace,andatacertainpointitflewcompletelyoutofcontrolandturnedintosomethingthatnoonehadeverenvisioned:somethingthriving,colorful,wildlydiverse,essentiallypeaceful,andplaguedonlybythecongestionofitsownsuccess.

    JARING'slinktotheglobalInternetisoveranunderseacablethatconnectsittotheUnitedStates.ThisistypicalofmanySoutheastAsiancountries,whicharefarbetterconnectedtotheUSthantheyaretooneanother.ButinlateJuneof1996,abargecalledtheElbeappearedoffthecoastofPenang.Diversandboatscameashore,bravinganinfestationofseasnakes,andfloatedinasegmentofarmoredcablethatwillbecomeMalaysia'slinktoFLAG.Thecapacityofthatcableistheoreticallysome5.3Gbps.MuchofthiswillbeusedfortelephoneandothernonInternetpurposes,butitcan'thelpbutserveasamajorfloodgatebetweenJARING,thecensoredpseudoInternetofMalaysia,andtherestoftheNet.Afterthat,itwillbeinterestingtoseehowlongJARINGremainsconfinedtoitspot.

    FLAGfacts

    TheFLAGsystem,thatmotherofallwires,startsatPorthcurno,England,andproceedstoEstepona,SpainthroughtheStraitofGibraltartoPalermo,SicilyacrosstheMediterraneantoAlexandriaandPortSaid,EgyptoverlandfromthosetwocitiestoSuez,EgyptdowntheGulfofSuezandtheRedSea,withapotentialbranchingunittoJedda,SaudiaArabiaaroundtheArabianPeninsulatoDubai,siteoftheFLAGNetworkOperationsCenteracrosstheIndianOceantoBombayaroundthetipofIndiaandacrosstheBayofBengalandtheAndamanSeatoBanPakBara,Thailand,withabranchdowntoPenang,MalaysiaoverlandacrossThailandtoSongkhlaupthroughtheSouthChinaSeatoLanTaoIslandinHongKongupthecoastofChinatoabranchintheEastChinaSeawhereoneforkgoestoShanghaiandtheothertoKojedoIslandinKorea,andfinallytotwoseparatelandingsinJapanNinomiyaandMiura,whichareownedbyrivalcarriers.

    Phonecompanypeopletendtothink(anddobusiness)intermsofcircuits.Hackertourists,bycontrast,tendtothinkintermsofbitspersecond.Convertingbetweenthesetwounitsofmeasurementsissimple:onanymodernphonesystem,theconversationsaretransmitteddigitally,andthestandardbitratethatisusedforthispurposeis64kbps.Acircuit,then,intelephonyjargon,amountstoadatastreamof64kbps.

    Coppersubmarinecablesofonlyafewdecadesagocouldcarryonlyafewdozencircuitssay,about2,500kbpstotal.Thefirstgenerationofopticalfibercables,bycontrast,carriesmorethan1,000timesasmuchdata280Mbpsofdataperfiberpair.(Fibersalwayscomeinpairs.Thispracticeseemsobvioustoatelephonyperson,whoisinthebusinessofsettingupsymmetricaltwowaycircuits,butmakesnoparticularsensetoahackertouristwhotendstothinkintermsofonewaypackettransmission.Thesplitbetweenthesetwowaysofthinkingrunsverydeepandaccountsformuchtumultinthetelecomworld,aswillbeexplainedlater.)Thesecondgenerationofopticalfibercablescarries560Mbpsperfiberpair.FLAGandotherthirdgenerationsystemswillcarry5.3Gbpsperpair.Or,inthesystemofunitstypicallyusedbyphonecompanypeople,theywillcarry60,000circuitsoneachfiberpair.

    Ifyoumultiply60,000circuitstimes64kbpspercircuit,yougetabitrateofonly3.84Gbps,whichleaves1.46Gbpsunaccountedfor.Thisbandwidthisdevotedtovariouskindsofoverhead,suchasframeheadersanderrorcorrection.TheFLAGcablecontainstwosetsoffiberpairs,andsoitstheoreticalmaximumcapacityis120,000circuits,or(notcountingtheoverhead)justunder8Gbpsofactualthroughput.

    Thesenumbersreallyknock'emdeadinthephoneindustry.Tothehackertourist,oranyonewhospendsmuchtimemessingaroundwithcomputernetworks,theyseemdistinctlyunderwhelming.

  • Allthistroubleandexpenseforameasly8Gbps?You'vegottobekidding!Again,itcomesdowntoaradicaldifferenceinperspectivebetweentelephonypeopleandinternetpeople.

    Indefenseoftelephonypeople,itmustbepointedoutthattheyaretheoneswhoreallyknowthescorewhenitcomestosendingbitsacrossoceans.NetheadshaveheardsomuchpufferyabouttherobustnatureoftheInternetanditsamazingabilitytoroutearoundobstaclesthattheyfrequentlyhaveagrosslyinflatedconceptionofhowmanyroutespacketscantakebetweencontinentsandhowmuchbandwidththoseroutescancarry.Asofthiswriting,IhavelearnedthatnearlytheentirestateofMinnesotawasrecentlycutofffromtheInternetfor13hoursbecauseithadonlyoneprimaryconnectiontotheglobalNet,andthatlinkwentdown.IfMinnesota,ofallplaces,issovulnerable,onecanimaginehowtenuousmanyinternationallinksmustbe.

    DouglasBarnes,anOaklandbasedhackerandcypherpunk,lookedintothisissueacoupleofyearsagowhen,inspiredbyBruceSterling'sIslandsintheNet,hewasdoingbackgroundresearchonaprojecttosetupadatahavenintheCaribbean."IfoundoutthattheideaoftheInternetasahighlydistributed,redundantglobalcommunicationssystemisamyth,''hediscovered."Virtuallyallcommunicationsbetweencountriestakeplacethroughaverysmallnumberofbottlenecks,andtheavailablebandwidthsimplyisn'tthatgreat.''Andhecautions:"EvenoutfitslikeFLAGdon'treallygroktheInternet.Theundersizedcablestheyarerunningreflecttheirmyopicoutlook.''

    SothebadnewsisthatthecapacityofmodernunderseacableslikeFLAGisn'tveryimpressivebyInternetstandards,buttheslightlybetternewsisthatsuchcablesaremuchbetterthanwhatwehavenow.Here'showtheywork:Signalsaretransmitteddownthefiberasmodulatedlaserlightwithawavelengthof1,558nanometers(nm),whichisintheinfraredrange.Thesesignalsbegintofadeaftertheyhavetraveledacertaindistance,soit'snecessarytobuildamplifiersintothecableeverysooften.InthecaseofFLAG,thespacingoftheseamplifiersrangesfrom45to85kilometers.Theyworkonastrikinglysimpleandelegantprinciple.Eachamplifiercontainsanapproximately10meterlongpieceofspecialfiberthathasbeendopedwitherbiumions,makingitcapableoffunctioningasalasermedium.Aseparatesemiconductorlaserbuiltintotheamplifiergeneratespowerfullightat1,480nmclosetothesamefrequencyasthesignalbeam,butnotcloseenoughtointerferewithit.Thislight,directedintothedopedfiber,pumpstheelectronsorbitingaroundthoseerbiumionsuptoahigherenergylevel.

    ThesignalcomingdowntheFLAGcablepassesthroughthedopedfiberandcausesittolase,i.e.,theexcitedelectronsdropbackdowntoalowerenergylevel,emittinglightthatiscoherentwiththeincomingsignalwhichistosaythatitisanexactcopyoftheincomingsignal,exceptmorepowerful.

    Theamplifiersneedpowerupto10,000voltsDC,at0.9amperes.Sincepublic10,000voltoutletsarefewandfarbetweenonthebottomoftheocean,thispowermustbedelivereddownthesamecablethatcarriesthefibers.Thecable,therefore,consistsofaninnercoreoffouropticalfibers,coatedwithplasticjacketsofdifferentcolorssothatthepeopleatoppositeendscantellwhichiswhich,plusathincopperwirethatisusedfortestpurposes.Thetotalthicknessoftheseelementstakentogetheriscomparabletoapencilleadtheyarecontainedwithinatransparentplastictube.Surroundingthistubeisasheathconsistingofthreesteelsegmentsdesignedsothattheyinterlockandformacircularjacket.Aroundthatisalayerofabout20steel"strengthwires"eachperhaps2mmindiameterthatwraparoundthecoreinasteephelix.Aroundthestrengthwiresgoesacoppertubethatservesastheconductorforthe10,000voltpowerfeed.Onlyoneconductorisneededbecausetheoceanservesasthegroundwire.Thistubealsoiswatertightandsoperformstheadditionalfunctionofprotectingthecable'sinnards.Itthenissurroundedbypolyethyleneinsulationtoatotalthicknessofaboutaninch.Toprotectitfromtherigorsofshipmentandlaying,theentirecableisclothedingoodoldfashionedtarredjute,althoughjutenowadaysismadefromplastic,nothemp.

    Thissufficesforthedeepseaportionsofthecable.Inshallowerwaters,additionallayersofprotectionarelaidon,beginningwithasteelantisharkjacket.Astheshoreisapproached,variousotherlayersofsteelarmoringwiresareadded.

  • Thismoreorlessdescribeshowallsubmarinecablesarebeingmadeasof1996.Onlyafewcompaniesintheworldknowhowtomakecableslikethis:AT&TSubmarineSystemsInternational(AT&TSSI)intheUS,AlcatelinFrance,andKDDSubmarineCableSystems(KDDSCS)inJapan,amongothers.AT&TSSIandKDDSCSfrequentlyworktogetheronlargeprojectsandareresponsibleforFLAG.Alcatel,inclassicFrenchfasion,likestogoitalone.

    Thisbasictechnologywill,bytheendofthecentury,becarryingmostoftheinformationbetweencontinents.Copperbasedcoaxialcablesystemsarestillinoperationinmanyplacesaroundtheworld,butallofthemwillhavereachedtheendoftheirpracticallifetimeswithinafewyears.Eveniftheystillfunction,theyarenotworththetroubleittakestooperatethem.TPC1(TransPacificCable#1),whichconnectedJapantoGuamandhencetotheUnitedStatesin1964,isstillinperfectworkingorder,butsocommerciallyworthlessthatithasbeenturnedovertoateamatTokyoUniversity,whichisusingittocarryoutseismicresearch.Thecapacityofsuchcablesissotinythatmodernfibercablescouldabsorballoftheirtrafficwithbarelyahiccupiftherightswitchesandrouterswereinplace.Likewise,satelliteshavefailedtomatchsomeofthelatestleapsinfibercapacityandcannolongercompetewithsubmarinecables,atleastuntilsuchtimeaslowflyingconstellationssuchasIridiumandTeledesicbeginoperating.

    Withinthenextfewyears,severalhugethirdgenerationalopticalfibersystemswillbecomingonline:notonlyFLAGbutaFLAGcompetitorcalledSEAMEWE3(SoutheastAsiaMiddleEastWesternEurope#3)TPC5(TransPacificCable#5)APCN(AsiaPacificCableNetwork),whichisawebofcablesinterconnectingJapan,Korea,HongKong,Taiwan,Malaysia,Thailand,Indonesia,Singapore,Australia,andthePhilippinesandthelatestTAT(Transatlantic)cable.SoFLAGispartofatrendthatwillsoonbringaboutavastincreaseinintercontinentalbandwidth.

    WhatisunusualaboutFLAGisnotitslength(althoughitwillbethelongestcableeverconstructed)oritstechnology(whichissharedbyothercables)buthowitcameintoexistence.Butthat'sabusinessquestionwhichwillbedealtwithlater.First,thehackertouristisgoingtotravelashortdistanceuptheMalayPeninsulatosouthernThailand,oneofthetwoplaceswhereFLAGpassesoverland.Onaworldmapthislooksaboutasdifficultasthrowinganextensioncordoverasandbar,butwhenyouactuallygetthere,itturnsouttobeacolossalproject

    73.467'N,10022.489'EFLAGmanholeproductionsite,southernThailand

    LargeportionsofthissectionwerewritteninahotelinBanHatYai,Thailand,whichisoneoftheinformationtransfercapitalsoftheplanetregardlessofwhetheryouthinkofinformationtransferasbitspropagatingdownanopticalfiber,profoundandcomplexreligiousfaithsbeingtransmitteddownthroughcountlessgenerations,orgeneticmaterialbeinginterchangedbetweenconsentingadults.MaletravelersapproachingBanHatYaiwillhaveadifficulttimeconvincingtravelagents,railwayconductors,andtaxidriversthattheyarecomingonlytolookatabigfatwire,butthehackertouristmustgetusedtobeingmisunderstood.

    WestayedinahotelwithalltheglossyaccoutrementsofanAsianbusinesscenterplusafewperkssuchaspartiallyusedjumbocondompackagessquirreledawayonclosetshelves,disconcertinglyhugelovemarksonthesofas,andextraordinarilylong,fine,blackhairsalloverthebathroom.Whilewriting,Isatbeforeapicturewindowlookingoutoverafineviewof:awellmaintainedbutcompletelyemptyswimmingpool,agreenCarlsbergBeerbillboardwritteninThaiscript,anindustrialscalewhorehousecateringtoJapanese"businessmen,"aratherfineBuddhisttemplecomplex,and,behindthat,adistrictofbrandnewhighrisehotelsbuilttocatertotheburgeoninginformationtransferindustry,almostnoneofwhichhasanythingtodowithbitsandbytes.Tropicalstormsrolledthrough,lightningflashed,IsuckeddownEuropeanbeersfromtheminibarandtriedtocopewithabadcaseofinformationoverload.FLAGisahugeproject,biggerandmorecomplicatedthanmanywars,andtovisitevenchunksofthiscableoperationistobeflooredbyit.

    WefirstmetJimDailyandAlanWallunderneaththatbigCarlsbergsign,sittingoutinalateafternoonrainstormunderanumbrella,havingacoupleofbeers"theonlyferangshere,"asWalltoldmeonthephone,usingthelocaltermforforeigndevil.DailyisAmerican,2meterstall,blond,blueeyed,khakiandpoloshirted,gregarious,absolutelyplainspoken,andalmostalwaysseems

  • tobehavingagreattime.WallisEnglish,shorter,darkhaired,impeccablysuited,cagey,reticent,anddry.Bothareintheir50s.Itisofsomesignificancetothisstorythat,attheendoftheday,thesetwomenunwindbysittingoutintherainandhoistingabeer,payingnoattentionwhatsoevertotheindustrialscalewhorehousenextdoor.BothofthemhaveseenmanyyoungWesternmenarrivehereonbusinessmissionsandcompletelylosecontroloftheirsphinctersandbecomeimpedimentstoanykindoforganizedactivity.DailyhiredWallbecause,likeDaily,heisastablefamilymanwhohashisacttogether.Theyaretheverydefinitionofacomplementaryrelationship,andtheyseemtobemakingexcellentprogresstowardtheirgoal,whichistoruntworeallyexpensivewiresacrosstheMalayPeninsula.

    Sincethesetwo,andmanyoftheotherswewillmeetonthisjourney,havemuchincommonwithoneanother,thisisasgoodaplaceasanytowriteageneraldescription.TheytendtocomefromtheUSortheBritishCommonwealthcountriesbutspendverylittletimelivingthere.Theyarecheerfulandoutgoing,rudelyhumorous,andfrequentlyhavelongtermmarriagestoadaptablewives.Theytendtobeabsolutelystraightshootersevenwhentheyaretalkingtoahackertouristaboutwhomtheyknownothing.TheiropennesswouldprobablybecareersuicideintheatmosphereofByzantinecourteunuchintriguethatispubliclifeintheUnitedStatestoday.Ontheotherhand,ifIhadanunlimitedamountofmoneyandwokeuptomorrowmorningwithaburningdesiretoseea2,000holegolfcourseerectedonthesurfaceofMars,IwouldprobablycallmenlikeDailyandWall,doahandshakedealwiththem,sendthemablankcheck,andnotworryaboutit.

    DailyworksoutofBangkok,theplacewherebanksareheadquartered,contractsarewritten,and50toncranesaretobehad.Alan"theferang"WalllivesinBanHatYai,thecenteroftheFLAGoperationinThailand,cruisingthecableroutesacoupleoftimesaweek,materializingunpredictablyintheheartofthetropicaljungleinaperfectlytailoreddarksuittoinspect,amongotherthings,FLAG'schainofmanholemakingvillages.

    Thereweresevenoftheseinexistenceduringthesummerof1996,alllyingalongoneofthetwohighwaysthatrunacrosstheisthmusbetweentheAndamanandtheSouthChinaSeas.Thesehighways,incidentally,arelinedwithutilitypolescarryingbothpowerandcommunicationswires.Thetopsofthepolesareguardedbyconicalbasketsabouthalfwayup.Thebasketspreventratsfromscamperingupthepolestochewawaythetastyinsulationonthewiresandpoisonoussnakesfromslitheringuptosunthemselvesonthecrossbars,apracticethathasbeenknowntocausemoraleproblemsamonglineworkers.

    Themanholemakingvillagewearevisitingonthisfine,steamysummerdayhasapopulationofsome130workersplusanunknownnumberofchildren.Thevillagewasfoundedintheshadeofanold,maturerubberplantation.Alongthehighwayarepilesofconstructionmaterialsdepositedbytrucks:bundlesofhalfinchrebar,pilesofsandandgravel.Atoneendoftheclearingisadoublerowofsheltersmadefromshinynewcorrugatedmetalnailedoverwoodenframes,wherethemen,women,andchildrenofthevillagelive.Ontheendofthisisanopenairofficeunderaleantoroof,equippedwithawhiteboardjustlikeanyselfrespectinghightechcompany.Chickensstrutaroundflappingtheirwingsuselessly,lookingforstufftopeckoutoftheground.

    Whenthedaybegins,thechildrenarebusedofftoschool,andthemenandwomengotowork.Thewomencuttherebartolengthusinganelectricchopsaw.Thebarsarelaidoutonplankswithrowsofnailsstickingoutofthemtoformsimpletemplates.Thenthepiecesofrebararewiredtogethertocreatecagesperhaps2metershighand1.5metersonaside.Thenthecarpentersgotowork,liningthecageinsideandoutwithwoodenplanks.Finally,13metrictonsofcementarepouredintotheformscreatedbytheplanks.Whentheplanksaretakenaway,theresultisahollow,concreteobeliskwithacylindricalcollarprojectingfromthetop,withanironmanholecoversetintoit.Makingamanholetakesthreeweeks.

    Meanwhile,alongthehighway,trenchesarebeingdugquicklyscoopedoutofthelowlandsoilwithabackhoe,or,inthemountains,laboriouslyjackhammeredintosolidrock.A50toncranecomestothevillage,picksuponemanholeatatimeusingliftingloopsthatthevillagersbuiltintoitstop,andsetsitonaflatbedtruckthattransportsittooneofthewiderexcavationsthatarespacedalongthetrenchatintervalsof300to700meters.Themanholeswillallowworkerstoclimbdown

  • totheleveloftheburiedcable,whichwillstretchthroughaconduitrunningunderthegroundbetweenthemanholes.

    Thecranelowersthemanholeintotheexcavation.Acoupleofhardhattedworkersgetdowntherewithitandpushitthiswayandthat,gettingitlinedup,whileotherworkersupontheedgeofthepithelpoutbyshovingonitwithabigstick.Finallyitsettlesgingerlyintoplace,atopitsprepouredpad.Theforemanclambersin,takesatransparentgreendisposablelighterfromhispocket,andsetsitdownsidewaysonthetopofthemanhole.Theliquidbutaneinsidethelighterservesasafluidlevel,verifyingthatthemanholeiscorrectlypositioned.

    Withafewmorehours'work,theconduitshavebeenmatedwiththetubesbuiltintothewallsofthemanholeandthesurroundingexcavationfilledinsothatnothingisleftexceptsomedisturbedearthandamanholecoverlabeledCAT:CommunicationsAuthorityofThailand.Theeventualresultofallthisworkwillbetwoseparatechainsofmanholes(931ofthemalltold)runningparalleltotwodifferenthighways,eachchainjoinedbytwinlengthsofconduitoneconduitforFLAGandoneforCAT.

    Fartherwest,anothercrewisatwork,burdenedwiththreeenormousmetalspoolscarryingflexibleblackplasticconduithavinganinsidediameterofaninch.Thethreespoolsaresetuponstandsnearamanhole,thethreeductsbroughttogetherandtiedintoaneatbundlebyworkersusingcolorfulplastictwine.Meanwhile,othersdowninthemanholearewrestlingwiththeworld'smostpowerfulpeashooter:amassivemetalpipewithascrewjackonitsbuttend.Themuzzleofthedeviceisinsertedintooneoftheconduitsonthemanholewallandthescrewjackistightenedagainsttheoppositewalltoholdithorizontal.Nextthepeashooterisloaded:abigroundspongewitharopetiedtoitisinsertedintoanopeningonitsside.Theropecomesoffalongspool.Finally,aheftyaircompressorisfiredupabovegroundanditsoutlettubethrowndownintothemanholeandpatchedintoavalveonthispipe.Whenthevalveisopened,compressedairfloodsthepipebehindtheroundsponge,whichshootsforwardlikeabulletinagunbarrel,pullingtheropebehinditandcausingthereeltospinwildlylikedeepseafishingtacklethathashookedabigtuna.

    "Nextmanhole!Nextmanhole!"criestheforemanexcitedly,andpedestrians,bicyclists,motorscooters,and(ifinspectorsorhackertouristsarepresent)carsparadedownthehighway,veeringaroundwaterbuffaloesandgoatsandchickenstothenextmanhole,somehalfakilometeraway,whereatorrentofwater,drivenbeforethesponge,isblastingoutofaconduitandslammingintotheoppositewall.Onelengthoftheconduitcanholdsome5cubicmetersofwater,andthesponge,rammingdownthetubelikeapiston,forcesallofitout.Finallythespongepopsoutoftheholelikeapeafromapeashooter,bringingtheropewithit.Theropeisusedtopullthroughathickerrope,whichisfinallyconnectedtothetriplebundleofthinductatoneendandtoapullingmotorattheother.Thispullingmotorisaslowlyturningdrumwithseveralturnsofropearoundit.

    Nowtheworkgetsharder:atthemanholewiththereels,someworkersbundleandtietheductsastheyunrollwhileothers,downinthehole,bendthemaroundadifficultcurveandkeepthemfeedingsmoothlyintotheconduit.Attheotherend,amanworkswiththepuller,keepingthetensionconstantandremainingalertfortrouble.Backatthereels,thethinductoccasionallygetswedgedbetweenlooseturnsonthereel,andeverythinghastobestopped.Usuallythisiscommunicatedtothepullerviawalkietalkie,butwhentheafternoonrainshit,thewalkietalkiesdon'tworkaswell,andamessengerhastobuzzbackandforthonamotorscooter.Buteventuallythetripleinnerductispulledthroughbothoftheconduits,andthewholeprocesscanbeginagainonthenextsegment.

    DailyandWallpresideoverthisoperation,whichisWesternatthetopandpureThaiatthegroundlevel,withagradualshadingofculturesinbetween.FLAGhasdealingsinmanycountries,andthearrangementisdifferentineachone.Here,thetoplevelisa5050partnershipbetweenFLAGandThailand'sCAT.Theybidtheprojectouttotwodifferentlargecontractors,eachofwhomhiredsubcontractorswithparticularspecialtieswhoworkthroughsubsubcontractorswhohiretheworkers,getthemtothesite,andmakethingshappen.Theincentivesareshapedateachlevelsothatthecontractorswillgetthejobdonewithouthavingtobemicromanaged,andtheroadsseemtobecrawlingwithinspectorsrepresentingvariouslevelsoftheprojectwhomakesurethatthe

  • workisbeingdoneaccordingtospec(attheheightofthisoperation,50percentofthetrafficonsomeoftheseroadswasFLAGrelated).

    Thetoplevelcontractsarecompletelyformalizedwithdetailedspecifications,bidbonds,andsoon,andbusinessatthislevelisdoneinEnglishandinairconditionedoffices.Butbythetimeyougettothebottomlayer,workisbeingdonebypeoplewho,althoughpresumablyjustasintelligentasthebigshots,arefluentonlyinThaiandnotespeciallyliterateinanylanguage,runningaroundinrubberflipflops,doingbusinessonahandshake,pullingwadsofbillsoutoftheirpocketswhennecessarytopayforsomesuppliesorgetdrinksbroughtin.Consequently,thewayinwhichtheworkisperformedbearsnoresemblancewhatsoevertothewayitwouldbedoneintheUnitedStatesoranyotherdevelopedcountry.ItisdonetheThaiway.

    Notonebuttwoentirelyseparatepairsofconduitsarebeingcreatedinthisfashion.BothofthemrunfromtheidyllicsandybeachofBanPakBaraonthewesttotheparadisiacalsandybeachofSongkhlaontheeastbothofthemareconstructedinthesameway,tothesamespecifications.Bothofthemrunalonghighways.Thesouthernroutetakestheobviouspath,parallelingaroadthatrunsinarelativelystraightlinebetweenthetwoendpointsfor170kilometers.ButtheotherroutejogssharplynorthwardjustoutofBanPakBara,runsupthecoastforsomedistance,turnseast,andclimbsupoverthebonyspineofthepeninsula,thenturnssouthagainandfinallyreachesSongkhlaaftermeanderingforsome270kilometers.Unlikethesouthernroute,whichpassesalmostexclusivelyovertableflatpaddyland,easilyexcavatedwithabackhoe,thenorthernroutegoesformanykilometersoversolidrock,whichmustbetrenchedwithjackhammersandotherheavyartillery,filledwithgalvanizedsteelconduit,andthenbackfilledwithgravelandconcrete.

    Thisraisesquestions.Thequestionsturnouttohaveinterestinganswers.I'llsummarizethemfirstandthengointodetail.Q:WhybotherrunningtwowidelyseparatedroutesovertheMalayPeninsula?

    A:BecauseThailand,likeeverywhereelseintheworld,isfullofidiotswithbackhoes.

    Q:Isn'tthatapainintheass?

    A:Youhavenoidea.

    Q:WhynotjustgosoutharoundSingaporeandkeepthecableinthewater,then?

    A:BecauseSingaporeiscontrolledbytheenemy.

    Q:Whoistheenemy?

    A:FLAG'senemiesarelegion.

    ThereasonforthedifficultnorthernrouteisFLAG'spursuitofdiversity,whichinthiscaseisnotapoliticallycorrectbuzzword(thoughFLAGalsohasplentyofthatkindofdiversity)butreferstotheprinciplethatoneshouldhavemultiple,redundantpathstomakethesystemmorerobust.Diversityisnotneededinthedeepocean,butlandcrossingsareviewedasconsiderablymorerisky.SoFLAGdecided,earlyon,tolaytwoindependentcablesontwodifferentroutes,insteadofone.

    TheindefatigableJimDaily,alongwithhisredoubtableinspectorRuzee,droveusalongeverykilometerofbothoftheseroutesoverthecourseofadayandahalf."Letmeaskyouanavequestion,"Isaidtohim,onceIgotaloadofthebigrockridgehewasgettingreadytocutatrenchthrough."Whynotjustputonecableononesideofthatsouthernhighwayandanothercableontheoppositeside?"Ifoundithardtoimagineabackhoecuttingthroughbothsidesofthehighwayatonce."

    Theyjustwantedtobesurethattherewasnoconceivabledisasterthatcouldwipeoutbothroutesatthesametime,"heshrugged.

    FLAGhasenvisionedeverypossibleparanoiddisasterscenariothatcouldleadtoafailureofacable

  • segmentandhaslaidactionplansthatwillbeimplementedifthisshouldhappen.Forexample,ithasmadedealswithitscompetitorssothatitcanbuycapacityfromthem,ifithasto,whileitrepairsabreak(likewise,thecompetitorsmightreservecapacityfromFLAGforthesamereason).Despiteallthis,FLAGissayinginthiscase:"Wearegoingtocutatrenchacrossa50milewidepieceofrockbecausewethinkitwillmakeourcableinfinitesimallymorereliable."Essentially,theyhavetodoit,becauseotherwisenoonewillentrustvaluablebitstotheircablesystem.

    Whydidn'ttheykeepitinthewater?Opinionsvaryonthis:proFLAGpeoplearguethattheStraits,withalloftheirshiptraffic,arearelativelyhazardousplacetoputasubmarinecableandthataterrestrialcrossingoftheMalayPeninsulaisatacticalmasterstroke.FLAGskepticswilltellyouthattheterrestrialcrossingisanecessityimposedonthembecauseSingaporeTelecommadethedecisionthattheydidn'twanttobeconnectedtoFLAG.

    Instead,SingaporeTelecomandFranceTelecomhavebeenpromotingSEAMEWE3,thatSoutheastAsiaMiddleEastWesternEurope3cable,asystemwhosetargetdateis1999,twoyearslaterthanFLAG.SEAMEWE1and2runfromFrancetoSingaporeand3wasoriginallyplannedtocoverthesameterritory,butnowitsorganizershavegottenothertelecoms,suchasBritishTelecom,involved.TheyhopethatSEAMEWE3willcontinuenorthfromSingaporeasfarasJapan,andnorthfromFrancetoGreatBritain,coveringgenerallythesamerouteasFLAG.FLAGandSEAMEWE3are,therefore,directcompetitors.

    Thecompetitionisnotjustbetweentwodifferentwires.Itisacompetitionbetweentwoentirelydifferentsystemsofdoingbusiness,twoentirelydifferentvisionsofhowthetelecommunicationsindustryshouldwork.Itisacompetition,also,betweenAT&T(thejuggernautofthefield,andthepowerbehindmosttelecombackedsystems)andNynex(theBabyBellwithanOedipuscomplexandthepowerbehindFLAG).NynexandAT&ThavetheirofficesashortdistancefromeachotherinManhattan,butthewarbetweenthemisbeingfoughtintrenchesinThailand,glassofficetowersinTokyo,anddustygovernmentministriesinEgypt.

    TheoriginofFLAG

    KesslerMarketingIntelligenceCorp.(KMI)isaNewport,RhodeIsland,companythathasdevelopedaspecialtyintrackingtheworldwidesubmarinecablesystem.Thisisnotatrivialjob,sincethereareatleast320cablesystemsinoperationaroundtheworld,witholdonesbeingretiredandnewonesbeinglaidallthetime.KMImakesmoneyfromthisbysellingadocumenttitled"WorldwideSummaryofFiberopticSubmarineSystems"thatwillsetyoubackaboutUS$4,500butthatisamustreadforanyonewantingtooperateinthatbusiness.CompilingandmaintainingthisdocumentgivesarareOlympianperspectiveontheworldcommunicationssystem.

    Inthelate1980s,asKMIlookedatthecablestheninexistenceandthesystemsthatwereslatedforthenextfewyears,theynoticedanalmostmonstrousimbalance.

    TheUnitedStateswould,bythelate1990s,bemassivelyconnectedtoEuropebysome200,000circuitsacrosstheAtlantic,andjustasmassivelyconnectedtoAsiabyaroughlyequalnumberofcircuitsacrossthePacific.ButbetweenEuropeandAsiatherewouldbefewerthan20,000circuits.

    Cableshavealwaysbeenfinancedandbuiltbytelecoms,whichuntilveryrecentlyhavealwaysbeengovernmentbackedmonopolies.Inthebusiness,thesearevariouslyreferredtoasPTTs(Post,Telephone,andTelegraphs)orPTAs(PostandTelecomAuthorities)orsimplyas"theclubs."ThedominantclubhaslongbeenAT&TespeciallyintheyearssinceWorldWarII,whenmostoftheinternationaltelecommunicationssystemwasbuilt.

    Traditionally,thewayacablesystemgetsbuiltisthatAT&TmeetswithotherPTTsalongtheproposedroutetonegotiateterms(althoughintheopinionofsomeinformedpeoplewhodon'tworkforAT&T,"dictate"comesclosertothetruththan"negotiate").ThecapitalneededtoconstructthecablesystemisponiedupbythevariousPTTsalongitsroute,which,consequently,endupcollectivelyowningthecableandallofitscapacity.Thisisatidyenougharrangementasthosetelecomstraditionally"own"allofthecustomerswithintheirbordersandcanchargethemwhateverittakestopayforallofthosecables.Cablesbuiltthiswayarenowcalled"clubcables."

  • GivenAmerica'spostwardominanceoftheworldeconomyandAT&T'sdominanceofthecommunicationssystem,itbecomesmucheasiertounderstandthehugebandwidthimbalancethattheanalystsatKMInoticed.Actually,itwouldbesurprisingifthisimbalancedidn'texist.Ifthecableindustryworkedonanythinglikeafreemarketbasis,thishowlingchasminbandwidthbetweenEuropeandAsiawouldbeanobviousopportunityforentrepreneurs.Sincethesystemwas,infact,controlledbygovernmentmonopolies,andsincethebiggestofthosemonopolieshadnoparticularinterestinbuildingacablethatentirelybypasseditsterritory,nothingwaslikelytohappen.

    Butthensomethingdidhappen.KMI,whoseentirebusinessisfoundedonknowingandunderstandingthemarket,wasideallypositioned,notjusttobeawareofthissituation,butalsotocrunchthenumbersandfigureoutwhetheritconstitutedaworkablebusinessopportunity.In1989,itpublishedastudyonworldwideunderseafiberopticsystemsthatincludedsomesuchcalculations.Basedonreasonableassumptionsaboutthecostofthesystem,itsworkinglifetime,andthepresentcostofcommunicationsonsimilarsystems,KMIreckonedthatifastateoftheartcablewerelaidfromtheUnitedKingdomtotheMiddleEastitwouldpaybackitsinvestorsintwotofiveyears.Settingasideforamomentthefactthatitwentagainstallthetraditionsoftheindustry,therewasnoreasoninprinciplewhyaprivatelyfinancedcablecouldnotbeconstructedtofillthisdemand.Investorswouldpoolthecapital,justastheywouldforanyotherkindofbusinessventure.Theywouldbuythecable,paytohaveitinstalled,sellthecapacitytolocalcustomers,andmakemoneyfortheirshareholders.

    ThestudywasreadbyGulfAssociates,agroupofNewYorkbasedmoneyedIranianexpatswhoarealwayslookingforgoodinvestments.GulfAssociatescheckedoutKMI'sprefeasibilitystudytogetanideaofwhattheparametersofsuchasystemwouldbe.Basedonthat,othercompanies,suchasDallahAlBaraka(aSaudiinvestmentcompany),MarubeniCorp.(aTokyotradingcompany),andNynexgotinvolved.ThenascentconsortiumpaidKMItoperformafullfeasibilitystudy.NeilTagare,theformervicepresidentforKMI,visited25countriestodeterminetheirlevelofneedforsuchacable.Thefeasibilitystudywascompletedinlate1990andlookedfavorable.TheconsortiumgrewtoincludetheAsianInfrastructureFundofHongKongandTelecomHoldingCo.Ltd.ofThailand.Thescopeoftheprojectgrewalso,extendingnotjusttotheMiddleEastbutallthewaytoTokyo.

    NynextookontheroleofmanagingsponsorfortheFLAGproject.AnewcompanycalledNynexNetworkSystems(Bermuda)Ltd.wasformedtoserveastheworldwidesalesrepresentativeforFLAG,andFLAG'sworldheadquarterswassitedinBermuda.ThismightseemabitpeculiargiventhatnoneofthemoneycomesfromBermuda,thecablegoesnowherenearBermuda,andNynexiscenteredinthenortheasternUnitedStates.ButsinceFLAGisultimatelyownedandcontrolledbyaBermudacompanyandthecapacityonthecableissoldoutofBermuda,theinvoicesallcomeoutofBermudaandthemoneyallcomesintoBermuda,whichbyanoddcoincidencehappenstobeamajorcorporatetaxhaven.

    NynexalsohasresponsibilityforbuildingtheFLAGcablesystem.OnemightthinkthataBabyBellsuchasNynexwouldbeaperfectchoiceforthiskindofwork,but,infact,Nynexownednoneofthefactoriesneededtomanufacturecable,noneoftheshipsneededtolayit,andnotenoughoftheexpertiseneededtoinstallit.Nynexdoesknowathingortwoaboutlayingandoperatingterrestrialcablesystemsduringthemid1990s,forexample,itwiredlargepartsoftheUnitedKingdomwitha"cabletelevision"systemthatisactuallyageneralizeddigitalcommunicationnetwork.Buttransoceanicsubmarinecableswereoutsideofitstraditionalrealm.

    Ontheotherhand,duringtheearly'90s,NynexfounditselfstymiedfromcompetingintheUnitedStatesbecauseofregulatoryhasslesandbeganlookingoverseasformarketsinwhichtoexpand.BythetimeFLAGwasconceived,therefore,Nynexhadbeguntogainexperienceinthecountlesspitfallsofdoingbusinessintheworldwidetelecommunicationsbusiness,makingupalittlebitofAT&T'sdauntinglead.

    FLAG'sbusinessarrangementswereentirelynovel.TheentireFLAGconceptwasunfeasibleunless

  • agreementscouldbemadewithsocalledlandingpartiesineachcountryalongtheroute.Thelandingpartyisthecompanythatownsthestationwherethecablecomesashoreandoperatestheequipmentthatpatchesitintothelocaltelecommunicationssystem.TheobviouschoiceforsucharolewouldbeaPTT.ButmanyPTTswerereluctanttoparticipate,partlybecausethisnovelarrangementstruckthemasdubiousandpartlybecausetheyweren'tgoingtoendupmonopolizingthecable.

    Overcomingsuchoppositionwasessentiallyasalesjob.JohnMercogliano,ahighintensityNewYorkerwhoisnowvicepresidentEurope,NynexNetworkSystems(Bermuda)Ltd.,developedasalespitchthathedeliverstoorapidlyforanyhackertouristtowritedownbutgoessomethinglikethis:"IntheolddaysAT&Tcamein,toldyouhowmuchtopay,andyouraisedthemoney,assumedalloftherisk,andownedthecable.ButnowFLAG'scominginwithinvestorswhoaregoingtoputin$600millionoftheirowncashandborrowabillionmorewithoutanyguaranteedsales,assumingalloftherisk.YoubuyonlyasmuchcapacityonFLAGasyouwant,andmeanwhileyouhaveretainedyourcapital,whichyoucanusetoupgradeyouroutdatedlocalinfrastructureandprovidebetterservicetoyourcustomersnowwhatthehelliswrongwiththat?"

    Thequestionhangsintheairprovocatively.Whatthehelliswrongwithit?Putthisway,itseemsunbeatable.ButalotoflocaltelecomsturnedFLAGdownanywayatleastatfirst.Why?

    TheshortansweristhatI'mnotallowedtotellyou.Thelonganswerrequiresanexplanationofhowahackertouristoperateshowhismethodsdifferfromthoseofanactualjournalistandjusthowweirdtheglobaltelecombusinessisnowadays.

    Let'stakethelastonefirst.Thebusinessissotangledthatnopurecompetitionexists.TherearenoCokeversusPepsidichotomies.Mostofthecompaniesmentionedinthisstoryareactuallywholefamiliesofcompanies,andmostofthosehavetheirfingersinpiesindozensofcountriesallaroundtheglobe.Anytwocompaniesthatcompeteinonearenaare,atthesametime,probablyinbedwitheachotheronmanyotherlevels.Asbadlyastheymightwanttoslageachotherinthepress,theydarenot.

    So,likethose"highrankingofficials"you'realwaysreadingaboutinnewsreportsfromWashington,theyalltalkonbackground.Anyonewhowantstowriteaboutthisbusinesswillcomeoffaseitherageniuswithanencyclopedicbrainorapathologicalliarwithanaxetogrinddependingonthereader'spointofviewbecausealltrulyinterestinginformationisdishedoutstrictlyonbackground.

    PerhapsarealjournalistwouldgointoWoodwardandBernsteinmode,findaDeepThroat,andlayitallbare.ButI'mnotarealjournalist:I'mahackertourist,andtryingtoworkupanexposonmonopolisticbehaviorbybigbadtelecomswouldonlygetinthewayofwhatare,tome,themoreinterestingaspectsofthisstory.

    SoI'lljustsaythatawholelotofimportantandwellinformedpeopleinthetelecombusiness,allovertheplanet,arelaboringunderthestrangeimpressionthatAT&TuseditspowerandinfluencetodiscouragesmallertelecomsinothercountriesfromsigningdealswithFLAG.

    Intheolddays,thiswouldhavepreventedFLAGfromevercomingintoexistence.Butthesearethenewdays,telecomderegulationiscreepingslowlyacrosstheplanet,andmanyPTTsnowhavetoworryaboutcompetition.SotheresultsoftheFLAGsalespitchvariedfromcountrytocountry.Insomeplaces,likeSingapore,FLAGnevermadeanagreementwithanyoneandhadtobypassthecountryentirely.Inotherplaces,thePTTbrokerankswithAT&TandagreedtolandFLAG.Inothers,thePTTturneditdownbutanupstartcompetitordecidedtolandFLAGinstead,andinstillothers,thePTTdeclinedatfirst,andthengotsoworriedabouttheupstartcompetitorthatitchangeditsmindanddecidedtolandFLAGafterall.

    Itwouldbeveryeasyforyou,dearreader,tounderestimatewhataseachangethisallrepresentsfortheclubs.Theyarenotaccustomedtohavingtoworryaboutcompetitionitdoesn'tcomenaturallytothem.Thetypicalhighrankingtelecomexecutiveismoreofagovernmentbureaucratthanabusinessperson,andtheentirescenariolaidoutaboveisirregular,messy,anddisturbingto

  • someonelikethat.Atelecrat'sreflexistoassume,smugly,thatnewcarrierssimplydon'tmatter,becausenomatterhowmuchfinancingandbusinessacumentheymayhave,nomatterhowgreatthedemandfortheirservicesmaybe,andnomatterhowcrappytheexistingserviceis,theoldPTTstillcontrolsthecable,whichistheonlywaytogetbitsoutofthecountry.ButintheFLAGera,ifthecustomersgotoanothercarrier,thatcarrierwillfindawaytogettheneededcapacitysomehowatwhichpointitistoolateforthePTT.

    Thelocalcarriers,therefore,needtostopthinkinggloballyandstartthinkinglocally.Thatis,theyneedtoleavelongrangecablelayingtotheentrepreneurs,toassumethatthebandwidthwillalwayssomehowbethere,andtoconcentrateonupgradingthequalityoftheircustomerserviceinparticular,thesocalledlastmile,thelocalloopthattiescustomersintotheNet.

    Bytheendof1994,FLAG'sConstructionandMaintenanceAgreementhadbeensigned,andtheprojectwasforreal.Wellbeforethispoint,ithadbecomeobvioustoeveryonethatFLAGwasgoingtohappeninsomeform,socompaniesthatinitiallymighthavebeenhostilebeganlookingforwaystogetinontheaction.Themanufactureofthecableandtherepeatershadbeenputouttobidin1993andhadturnedintoacompetitionbetweentwoconsortia,oneconsistingofAT&TSubmarineSystemsandKDDSubmarineCableSystems,andtheotherformedaroundAlcatelandFujitsu.Theformergroupendeduplandingthecontract.SoAT&T,whichevidentlyfeltthreatenedbythewholepremiseoftheFLAGprojectandaccordingtosomepeoplehadtriedtoquashit,endedupwithpartofthecontracttomanufacturethecable.

    InwhichtheHackerTouristreturns(temporarily)toBritishsoilintheFarEast.The(temporary)centerofthecablelayinguniverse.Hoistingflagonswiththelitecablelayingfraternity

    atawaterfrontestablishment.Classicrepriseoftheancienthackerversussuitdrama.HistoricalexploitsofthefamousWilliamThomsonandtheinfamousWildmanWhitehouse.Theirrivalry,culminatinginthedestructionofthefirsttransatlanticcable.Whitehousedisgraced,ThomsontransmogrifiedintoLordKelvin....

    2215.745'N,1140.557'ESilvermineBay,LanTaoIsland,?b>HongKong

    "Today,LanTaoIslandisthecenterofthecablelayinguniverse,"saysDavidM.Handley,a52yearoldSouthernerwho,likevirtuallyallcablelayingpeople,istalkative,endlesslyenergetic,andgiveseveryindicationofknowingexactlywhathe'sdoing."Tomorrow,it'llbesomeplaceelse."WearechugalugginglargebottlesofwateronapublicbeachatTongFukonthesoutherncoastofLanTao,whichisarelativelylarge(25kilometerslong)islandanhour'sferryridewestofHongKongIsland.Arrayedbeforeusonthebayisacollectionofvesselsthat,toalayman,wouldn'tlooklikethecenterofadecentsalvageyard,tosaynothingofthecablelayinguniverse.Butrememberthat"layman"isjustapolitewordfor"idiot."

    Closesttoshore,thereareacoupleofjunksandsampans.Mindyou,thesearenotpicturesqueJamesClavelljunkswithredsailsorPearlBucksampanswithpolewieldingpeasantsinconicalhats.Thetermsarenowusedtodescribemodern,motorizedvesselsbuiltvaguelyalongthesamelinestoperformroughlythesamefunctions:ajunkisalarge,squareassedvessel,andasampanisasmallutilitycraftwithanenclosedcabin.Fartherout,therearetwobarges:slabswithcranesandboxythingsonthem.Finally,thereareseveralofwhatHandleycallsLBRBs(LittleBittyRubberBoats)goingbackandforthbetweenthesevesselsandthebeach.Boeinghydrofoilsandturbocatsscreambackandforthafewmilesout,ferryingpassengersamongvariousdestinationsaroundthePearlDeltaregion.It'sahotday,andkidsareswimmingonthepublicbeach,prudentlystayingwithinthelineofredbuoysmarkingtheantisharknet.Handleyremarks,offhandedly,thatfivepeoplehavebeeneatensofarthisyear.Abulletinboard,inEnglishandChinese,offersadvice:"Ifschoolingfishstarttocongregateinunusuallylargenumbers,leavethewater."

    Thisbayisthecenterofthecablelayinguniversebecausecablelayershavecongregatedherein

  • unusuallylargenumbersandbecauseofthosetwobarges,whichareadamnsightmorecomplicatedandexpensivethanyouwouldeverguessfromlookingatthem.Thesemen(theyareallmen)andequipmenthavecomefromallovertheworld,tolandnotonlyFLAGbutalso,atthesametime,anotherofthosethirdgenerationfiberopticcables,APCN(AsiaPacificCableNetwork).

    Incontrasttootherplaceswevisited,virtuallynolocallaborisbeingusedonLanTao.ThereishardlyaChinesefacetobeseenaroundtheworksite,andwhenyoudoseeanAsianittendstobeeitheranIndonesianmemberofabargecreworaSingaporeanofChineseorIndianancestry.Mostofthepeoplehereareblueeyedandsunburned.AgoodhalfofthemhaveaccentsthatoriginatefromtheBritishIsles.TheremainderarefromtheStates(frequentlyDixie),Australia,orNewZealand,withasmatteringfromFranceandGermany.

    BothFLAGandAPCNarejustpassingthroughHongKong,notterminatinghere,andsoeachhastobelandedtwice(onesegmentcominginandonesegmentgoingbackout).InFLAG'scase,onesegmentgoessouthtoSongkhla,Thailand,andtheothergoesnorthtowardShanghaiandKorea.Itwouldn'tbesafetolandbothsegmentsinthesameplace,sotherearetwoseparatelandingsites,withFLAGandAPCNcablesrunningsidebysideateachone.Oneofthesitesisatthepublicbeach,whichisniceandsandy.Theothersiteisafewhundredmetersawayonacobblebeachahillofroundedstones,fisttofootballsized,risingupoutofthesurfandmakingmusicalclinkingnoisesasthewavessmashthemupanddownthegrade.Thisisaterribleplacetolandacable(Handley:"Ifitwaseasy,everybodywoulddoit!")but,asinThailand,diversityistheultimatetrumpcard.PlantedabovethehillofcobblesisabrandnewcablestationbearingtheHongKongTelecomlogo,onlyoneofthespoilssoontobereapedbythePeople'sRepublicofChinawhenallthisrevertstoitscontrolnextyear.

    LanTaoIsland,likemostotherplaceswherecablesarelanded,isapeculiararea,longhometosmugglersandpirates.Some30,000peoplelivehere,mostlyconcentratedaroundSilvermineBayontheisland'seasternend,wheretheferriescomeineveryhourorsofromHongKong'scentraldistrict,carryingbothislandersandtourists.Thebeachesarelovely,exceptforthesharks,andtheinterioroftheislandismostlyunspoiledparkland,popularamonghikers.HongKong'snewairportisbeingbuiltonreclaimedlandattachedtothenorthsideoftheisland,andamonumentalchainofbridgesandtunnelsisbeingconstructedtoconnectitwiththecity.Otherthantouristattractions,theislandhostsafewodditiessuchasaprison,aTrappistmonastery,avillageonstilts,andtheworld'slargestoutdoorbronzeBuddha.

    Cabletrash,asthesecharactersaffectionatelycallthemselves,shuttlebackandforthbetweenTongFukandSilvermineBay.TheyallstayatthesamehotelandtendtospendtheiroffhoursatPapaDoc's(norelationtotheHaitiandictator),abeachfrontbarrunbyexpats(British)forexpats(Australians,Americans,Brits,younameit).PapaDoc'sisn'tjustforcablelayers.Italsomeetstheexactingspecificationsofexhaustedhackertourists.It'sthekindofjointthatHumphreyBogartwouldberunningifhehadwashedashoreonLanTaointhemid1990swearinganoseringinsteadoflandinginCasablancainthe1940swearingafedora.

    Oneevening,afterHandleyandIhadbeenbuyingeachotherdrinksatPapaDoc'sforawhile,heraisedhisglassandsaid,"Togoodtimesandgreatcablelaying!"Thistoast,whilenodoubtutteredwithacertainamountofirony,speaksvolumesaboutcableprofessionals.

    Formostofthem,goodtimesandgreatcablelayingareoneandthesame.Theymaketheirlivingdoingthekindofworkthatautomaticallyweedsoutlosers.Handley,forexample,wasafoundingmemberofSEALTeam2whospent59monthsfightinginVietnam,laidcablesfortheNavyforafewmoreyears,andhasdonesimilarworkinthecivilianworldeversince.Inadditiontobeinganexpertdiver,hehasamastermariner'slicensegoodupto1,500tons,whichisnotaneasythingtogetormaintain.Hedoesallhisworkonalaptop(heclaimsthatitreplaced14employees)andisascomputerliterateasanyoneI'veknownwhoisn'tacoder.

    Handleyisunusualincombiningallofthesequalitiesintooneperson(that'swhyhe'sthebossoftheLanTaoIslandoperation),butthequalitiesareascommonastattoosandTevasaroundthetablesofPapaDoc's.Thecrewsofthecablebargestendtobejacksofalltrades:ship'smasters

  • whoalsoknowhowtodiveusingvarioustypesofbreathingrigsorwhocanslamoutareportontheirlaptops,embedafewdigitalimagesinit,andemailittotheothersideoftheworldoverasatellitephone,thenpickupaweldingtorchandgotoworkonthebarge.Ifthesepeopledidn'tknowwhattheyweredoing,there'sagoodchancetheywouldbedeadbynoworwouldhavescrewedupacablelaysomewhereandwashedoutoftheindustry.

    Mostoftheoneshereworkonwhatamountstoafreelancebasis,eitherontheirownoraspartofsmallfirms.Handley,forexample,isDirectorofTechnicalServicesfortheITRCorporation,which,amongotherfunctions,servesasasortoftalentagencyforcablelayers,matchingsupplyofexpertisetodemandandfacilitatingcontracts.Mostofthediversarefreelancers,hiredtemporarilybycompaniesthatlikewisemovefromonejobtoanother.Thebusinessisasclosetobeingapuremeritocracyasanythingevergetsintherealworld,andit'sonlybecausetheseguysknowtheyaregoodthattheyhavetheconfidencetocallthemselvescabletrash.

    Itwasnotalwaysthus.Untilveryrecently,cablelayingtalentwasmonopolizedbytheclubs.Thisworkedjustfinewheneverycablewasaclubcable,createdbymonopoliesformonopolies.Inthelastcoupleofyears,however,twochangeshaveoccurredatonce:FLAG,thefirstmajorprivatelyfinancedcable,camealongandatthesametime,manyexperiencedcablelayersbegantogointobusinessforthemselves,eitherbecauseofvoluntaryretirementordownsizing.Thereclearlyisasynergybetweenthesetwotrends.

    TherosterofFLAG'sTongFukcablelaycontainsaround44people,halfofwhomarecrewmembersoneitherthecablebargeElbeortheaccompanyingtugOceanEast.Therestofthemarehererepresentingvariouscontractorsinvolvedintheproject.ItwouldbesafetoassumethatatleastthatmanyareworkingontheAPCNsideforagrandtotalofaround100.

    ThesizeofthefraternityofcablelayersisestimatedbyHandleytobelessthan500,andthenumberisnotincreasing.Amajorityworkfulltimeforoneoftheclubs.Perhapsacoupleofhundredofthemarefreelancers,thoughthisfractiongiveseveryindicationofrisingastheclubemployeesresignandgotoworkascontractors,frequentlydoingthesameworkforthesamecompany."Noonecanaffordtohirethesefolksforlongperiodsoftime,"Handleysays.Buttheirpayisnotexceptionallyhigh:benefits,perdiem,andexpensesplusadailyratebutadaymightbeanythingfrom0to24hoursofwork.Foradivertheratemightbe$200perdayforthemasterofabarge,tug,orbeach$300andfortheexpertsrunningtheshowandreppingforcontractorsorcustomersit'sintherangeof$300to$400.

    ThearrivalofashorelandingoperationataplacelikeLanTaoIslandmustlooksomethinglikethistothelocals:suddenly,itisdifficulttoobtainhotelroomsbecauseaplethoraofsmall,unheardofoffshorecorporationshaveblockedoutacoupleofdozenroomsforacouplehundrednights.SunburnedAnglosbegintoarrive,wearingTshirtsandcarryingluggageemblazonedwiththelogosofAlcatel,AT&T,orCable&Wireless.Theyflyinfromallpointsofthecompass,speakinginSoutherndrawlsorAustraliantwangsorScottishburrsandsometimesbringingtheirwivesorgirlfriends,notinfrequentlyThaiorFilipina.Theleastimportantofthemhasalaptopandacellphone,butmosthavemoreadvancedstufflikeportableprinters,GPSunits,andthatultimatepersonalcommunicationsdevice,thesatellitetelephone,whichworksanywhereontheplanet,eveninthemiddleoftheocean,bybeamingthecallstraightuptoasatellite.

    SampleconversationatPapaDoc's:

    Envioushackertourist:"Howmuchdoesoneofthosesatellitephonescost,anyway?"

    Leathery,veterancablelayer:"Whogivesashit?"

    Withinadayortwo,thecablelayershaveestablishedanofficialhaunt:preferablyaplaceequippedwithadartboardandafewotheramenitiesveryclosetothewaterfrontsotheycankeepaneyeonincomingtraffic.Theretheycangetabitetoeatoradrinkandpayforitonthespotsothatwhentheirsatellitephonesringorwhenatugboatchugsintothebay,theycanimmediatelydashofftowork.Thesemenworkandplayatcompletelyerraticandunpredictablehours.TheywearshortsandsandalsandTshirtsandfrequentlysporttattoosandhencecouldeasilybemistaken,ata

  • glance,forvacationingsailors.Butifyoucangetsomeonetoturndownthevolumeonthejukebox,youcanoverhearthemlearnedlydiscoursingonflawpropagationinthecrystallinestructureofboronsilicateglassoronseasonalvariationofcurrentsinthePearlRiverestuary,oronwhatapainintheassitistohelmalargeshipthroughtheSuezCanal.TheirconversationisfilledwithreferencestoplaceslikeTunisia,DiegoGarcia,theNorthSea,Porthcurno,andPenang.

    Onedayabargeappearsoffthecove,andthereisalotoffussingaroundwithfloats,lotsofdiversinthewater.Abackhoedigsatrenchinthecobblebeach.Alongskinnyblackthingiswrestledashore.Workingalmostnakedinthetropicalheat,themenboltsegmentedpipesarounditandthenburyit.Itisneveragaintobeseenbyhumaneyes.Suddenly,allofthesemenpaytheirbillsandvanish.Notlongafterward,thephoneservicegetsahellofalotbetter.

    Onland,thetoolsofcablelayingarethetoolsofcivilengineers:backhoes,shovels,cranes.Thejobisamatterofdiggingaditch,layingduct,plantingmanholes.Thecomplicationsaresometimesgeographicalbutmostlypolitical.Indeepwater,wherethemajorityofFLAGislocated,theworkisdonebycableshipsandhasmoreincommonwithspaceexplorationthanwithanyterrestrialactivity.Thesetworealmscouldhardlybemoredifferent,andyetthetransitionbetweenthemtheshorelandingiscompletelydistinctfromboth.

    Shallowwateristhemostperilouspartofacable'sroute.Extraprecautionsmustbetakeninthetransitionfromdeepwatertothebeach,andtheseprecautionsgetmoreextremeasthewatergetsmoreshallow.Between1,000and3,000meters,thecablehasasinglelayerofarmorwires(steelrodsaboutasthickasapencil)aroundit.Inlessthan1,000metersofwater,ithasasecondlayerofarmoraroundthefirst.Inthefinalapproachtotheshoreline,thisdoublearmoredcableiscontainedwithinamassiveshellofarticulatedcastironpipe,whichinturnisburiedunderuptoameterofsand.

    Thearticulatedpipecomesinsectionshalfameterlong,whichhavetobemanuallyfitaroundthecableandboltedtogether.Eachsectionofpipeinterlockswiththeonesoneitherendofit.Thecouplingisdesignedtobendacertainamountsothatthecablecanbesnakedaroundanyobstructionstoitsdestination:thebeachmanhole.Itwillbendonlysomuch,however,sothatthecable'sminimumradiusofcurvaturewillnotbeviolated.

    AtthesandybeachthismanualworkwasdoneoutinthesurfbyateamofEnglishfreelancediversbasedoutofHongKong.Atthecobblebeach,itwasdoneinatrenchbyabikiniunderwearcladFrenchmanwithaNewZealandpassportlivinginSingapore,workinginHongKong,withaSingaporeanwifeofChinesedescent.Drenchedwithsweatandrainandseawater,hewrestleswiththecastironpipesectionsinacobblestoneditch,boltingthempatientlytogether.AChinesemaninasuitpickshiswayacrossthecobblestowardhim,carryinganoversizedumbrellaemblazonedwiththelogoofaprominentstockbrokerage,followedbyaminion.AlthoughthisisallhappeninginChina,thisisthefirstChinesepersonwhohasappearedonthebeachinacoupleofdays.Heisanexecutivefromthephonecompany,comingtoinspectthework.Afterastiffexchangeofpleasantrieswiththeothercablelayersonthebeach,hegoestothebrinkofthetrenchandbeginsbossingaroundthemanwiththehalfpipes,who,knowingwhat'sgoodforhim,justkeepshismouthshutwhilemaintainingacertainbearinganddignitybesidewhichtheexecutive'ssuitandumbrellaseempatheticandvain.

    Toahackertourist,thesceneisstrikinglyfamiliar:itistheancienthackerversussuitdrama,enactedforthemillionthtimebutstickingtoitstraditionalstructureasstrictlyasaNohplayor,forthatmatter,aDilbertcartoon.Cablelayers,likehackers,scorncredentials,etiquette,andniceclothes.Anyonewhocandotheworkispartoftheclub.Nothingelsematters.Suitsareabizarreintrusionfromanirrationalworld.Theyhaveundeniableauthority,butheavenonlyknowshowtheyacquiredit.Thisyear,thesuitsarefromHongKong,whichmeanstheyareprobablysmarterthantheaveragesuit.PrettysoonthesuitswillbefromBeijing,butBeijingdoesn'tknowhowtolaycableeither,soiftheyeverwanttogetbitsinoroutoftheircountry,theywillhavetoreachanunderstandingwiththeseguys.

    AtTongFuk,FLAGisencasedinpipeouttoadistanceofsome300metersfromthebeach

  • manhole.Whenthedivershavegotallofthatpipeboltedon,whichwilltakeaweekorso,theywillmaketheirwaydownthelinewithawaterjetthatworksbyfluidizingtheseabedbeneathit,turningitintoquicksand.Thepipesinksintothequicksand,whicheventuallycompacts,leavingnotraceoftheburiedpipe.

    Beyond300meters,thecablemuststillbeburiedtoprotectitfromanchors,ticklerchains,andotterboards(moreaboutthislater).ThisisthejobofthetwobargeswesawoffTongFuk.One,theElbe,wasburyingFLAG.TheotherwasburyingAPCN.Elbediditsjobinonethirdthetime,withonethirdthecrew,perhapsexemplifyingthedifferencebetweenFLAG'sfreelancebasedvirtualcorporationbusinessmodelversustheoldclubmodel.TheElbecrewisGerman,British,Filipino,SingaporeanofIndianancestry,NewZealander,andalsoincludesaSouthAfricandiver.

    Inthecenterofthebargeisatankwherethecableisspooled.Thethick,heavyarmoredcablethattheElbeworkswithiscoveredwithajacketoftarredjute,whichgivesitanoldfashionedlookthatbeliesitshightechopticalfiberinnards.Thetarlikestomeltandstickthecabletogether,soeachlayerofcableinthetankisseparatedfromitsneighborsbywoodenslats,andbucketsoftalcareslatheredoverit.Thecableemergesfromtheopentopofthetankandpassesthroughaseriesofrollersthatcurvearound,lookingverymuchlikeaminiaturerollercoastertrackthesearebuiltinsuchawayastobendthecablethroughaparticulartrajectorywithoutviolatingitsminimumradiusofcurvature.Theyfeeditintothetopoftheinjectorunit.

    Theinjectorisahugesteelcleaver,7metershighand2or3metersbroad,riggedtothesideofthebargesoitcanslideupanddownandthusbejammeddirectlyintotheseabed.Butinsteadofacuttingbladeonitsleadingedge,ithasarowofhardenedsteelinjectornozzlesthatspurthighlypressurizedwater,pipedinfromahugepumpburiedintheElbe'sengineroom.Thesenozzlesfluidizetheseabedandthusmakeitpossibleforthegiantbladetopenetrateit.Alongthetrailingedgeofthebladerunsachannelforthecablesothatasthebladeworksitswayforward,thecableisgentlylaidintothebottomoftheslit.Thebargecarriesasetofextensionsthatcanbeboltedontothetopoftheinjectorsoitcanoperateinwaterasdeepas40meters,buryingthecableasdeepas9metersbeneaththeseabed.Thissufficedtolaythecableoutforadistanceof10kilometersfromTongFuk.Later,anotherbarge,theChinann,willcometocontinueworkoutto100metersdeepandwillburybothlegsoftheFLAGcableforanother60kilometersouttogetthemthroughadangerousanchoragezone.

    TheElbehasitsowntugboat,theOceanEast,staffedwithanIndonesiancrew.RelationsbetweenthetwovesselshavebeenabittensebecausetheIndonesiansbutcheredandatealloftheElbe'slayinghens,terminatingtheeggsupply.ButitallseemedtohavebeenpatchedupwhenweweretherenoonewasfrettingaboutitexceptfortheElbe'srooster.WhentheElbeismorethanhalfakilometerfromshore,OceanEastpullsheralongbymeansofacable.Thetug'smovementsarecontrolledfromtheElbe'sbridgeoveraradiolink.Closertoshore,theElbedropsananchorandthenpullsitselfalongbywinchingthelinein.ShecangetmorepowerbyusingtheHarbormasterthrusterunitsmountedoneachofherends.Butthemainpurposeofthesethrustersistoprovidesidepropulsionsothebarge'smovementscanbefinelycontrolled.

    ThenervecenteroftheElbeisaraised,airconditionedbridgejammedwiththeelectronicparaphernaliacharacteristicofmodernships,suchasasatellitephone,afaxmachine,aplotter,andaNavtexmachinetoreceivemeteorologicalupdates.ProbablythemostimportantequipmentisthedifferentialGPSsystemthattellsthebarge'soperatorsexactlywheretheyarewithrespecttotheallimportantRoutePositionList:aseriesofpointsprovidedbythesurveyors.Theirjobistoconnectthesedotswithcable.Elbe'sbridgenormallysportsfourdifferentcomputersallconcernedwithnavigationandstationkeepingfunctions.Inadditiontothiscomplement,duringtheTongFukcablelay,DaveHandleywasupherewithhislaptop,takingdowndataimportanttoFLAG,whiletherepresentativesfromAT&TandCable&Wirelesswerealsopresentwiththeirlaptopscompilingtheirowndata.

    Hey,waitaminute,thehackertouristsaystohimself,IthoughtAT&Twastheenemy.What'sanAT&TguydoingonthebridgeoftheElbe,sidebysidewithDaveHandley?

  • Theansweristhatthetelecombusinessisanunfathomablycomplicatedsnarlofrelationships.NotonlydidAT&T(alongwithKDD)endupwiththecontracttosupplyFLAG'scable,italsoendeduplandingagreatdealoftheinstallationwork.NotthatmanycompanieshavewhatittakestomanageaninstallationofFLAG'smagnitude.AT&TisoneofthemandNynexisn't.SoitfrequentlyhappensatFLAGjobsitesthatAT&Twillbeservingasthecontractor,makingthelocalcontactsandorganizingthework,whileFLAG'spresencewillbelimitedtooneortworepswhoseallegianceistotheinvestorsandwhosejobitistomakesureit'salldonetheFLAGway,asopposedtotheAT&Tway.Aswithanyotherconstructionprojectfromadoghouseonupward,countlessdecisionsmustbemadeonthesite,andheretheyneedtobemadethewayagroupofprivateinvestorswouldmakethemnotthewayaclubwould.

    IfFLAG'sinvestorsspentanytimeatalllookingintothehistoryofthecablelayingbusiness,thistopicmusthavegiventhemafewsleeplessnights.Theearlyyearsoftheindustrywerefilledwithdecisionmakingthatcanmostcharitablybedescribedascolorful.Inthosedays,therewerenoexperiencedoldhands.Theyjustmadeeverythingupastheywentalong,andasoftenasnot,theygotitwrong.

    ThomsonandWhitehouse

    Asof1861,some17,500kilometersofsubmarinecablehadbeenlaidinvariousplacesaroundtheworld,ofwhichonlyabout5,000kilometersworked.Theremaining12,500kilometersrepresentedalosstotheirinvestors,andmostoftheselostinvestmentswerelongcablessuchastheonesbetweenBritainandtheUnitedStatesandBritainandIndia(3,500and5,600kilometers,respectively).UnderstandingwhylongcablesfailedwasnotatrivialproblemitdefeatedeminentscientistslikeRankineandSiemensandwassolved,intheend,onlybyWilliamThomson.

    Inprospect,itprobablylookedlikeitwasgoingtobeeasy.Insulatedtelegraphwiresstrungfrompoletopoleworkedjustasonemightexpect,andso,assumingthatwatertightinsulationcouldbefound,similarwireslaidundertheoceanshouldworkjustaswell.Theinsulationwassoonfoundintheformofguttapercha.Verylongguttaperchainsulatedwireswerebuilt.Theyworkedfinewhenlaidoutonthefactoryfloorandtested.Butwhenimmersedinwatertheyworkedpoorly,ifatall.

    Theproblemwasthatwater,unlikeair,isanelectricalconductor,whichistosaythatchargedparticlesarefreetomovearoundinit.Whenapulseofelectronsmovesdownanimmersedcable,itrepelselectronsinthesurroundingseawater,creatingapositivelychargedpulseinthewateroutside.Thesetwochargedregionsinteractwitheachotherinsuchawayastosmearouttheoriginalpulsemovingdownthewire.Theoperatoratthereceivingendseesonlyaslowupwardtrendinelectricalcharge,insteadofacrispjump.Ifthesendingoperatortransmittedthedifferentpulsesthedotsanddashestooclosetogether,they'dblurastheymoveddownthewire.

    Unfortunately,that'snottheonlythinghappeninginthatwire.Longcablesactasantennae,pickingupallkindsofstraycurrentsastherotationoftheEarth,anditsrevolutionaroundthesun,sweepthemacrossmagneticfieldsofterrestrialandcelestialorigin.AttheMuseumofSubmarineTelegraphyinPorthcurno,Cornwall(whichwe'llvisitlater),isagraphofthesocalledEarthcurrentmeasuredinacablethatranfromtheretoHarborGrace,Newfoundland,decadesago.Overaperiodofsome72hours,thegraphshowedavariationintherangeof100volts.Unfortunately,theamplitudeofthetelegraphsignalwasonly70volts.Sotheweak,smearedoutpulsesmakingtheirwaydownthecablewouldhavebeenalmostimpossibletohearabovethemusicofthespheres.

    Finally,leakageinthecable'sprimitiveinsulationwasinevitable.Alloftheseinfluences,addedtogether,meantthatearlytelegrapherscouldsendanythingtheywantedintothebigwire,buttheonlythingthatshowedupattheotherendwasnoise.

    Theseproblemswereknown,butpoorlyunderstood,inthemid1850swhenthefirsttransatlanticcablewasbeingplanned.Theyhadprovedtroublesomebutmanageableintheearlycablesthatbridgedshortgaps,suchasbetweenEnglandandIreland.Nooneknew,yet,whatwouldhappeninamuchlongercablesystem.Thebestanyonecoulddo,shortofbuildingone,wastomakepredictions.

  • TheVictorianerawasanageofsuperlativesandlargerthanlifecharacters,andasfarasthatgoes,Dr.WildmanWhitehousefitrightin:whatVictoriawastomonarchs,Dickenstonovelists,Burtontoexplorers,RobertE.Leetogenerals,Dr.WildmanWhitehousewastoassholes.HeachievedalevelofpureaccomplishmentinthisfieldthattheAlfonseD'Amatosofourtimecanonlydreamof.Theonly19thcenturyfigurewhoevencomesclosetohiminthisdepartmentisCuster.Inanycase,Dr.EdwardOrangeWildmanWhitehousefanciedhimselfsomethingofanexpertonelectricity.HisrivalwasWilliamThomson,10yearsyounger,aprofessorofnaturalphilosophyatGlasgowUniversitywhowasinfatuatedwithFourieranalysis,anewandextremelypowerfultoolthathappenedtobeperfectlysuitedtotheproblemofhowtosendelectricalpulsesdownlongsubmarinecables.

    WildmanWhitehousepredictedthatsendingbitsdownlongunderseacableswasgoingtobeeasy(thedegradationofthesignalwouldbeproportionaltothelengthofthecable)andWilliamThomsonpredictedthatitwasgoingtobehard(proportionaltothelengthofthecablesquared).Naturally,theybothendedupworkingforthesamecompanyatthesametime.

    Whitehousewasamedicaldoctor,henceworkinginthewrongfield,andprobablytrailedThomsonbyagood50or100IQpoints.Butthatdidn'tstopWhitehouse.In1856,hepublishedapaperstatingthatThomson'stheoriesconcerningtheproposedtransatlanticcablewerebalderdash.Thetwomengotintoapublicargument,whichbecameextremelyimportantin1858whentheAtlanticTelegraphCompanylaidsuchacablefromIrelandtoNewfoundland:acoppercoresheathedinguttaperchaandwrappedinironwires.

    Thiscablewas,toputitmildly,abadidea,giventhestateofcablescienceandtechnologyatthetime.Thenotionofcopperasaconductorforelectricity,asopposedtoadownspoutmaterial,wasstillextraordinary,anditwasimpossibletoobtainthemetalinanythinglikeapureform.Thecablewasslappedtogethersoshoddilythatinsomeplacesthecorecouldbeseenpokingoutthroughitsguttaperchainsulationevenbeforeitwasloadedontothecablelayingship.Butventurecapitalistsbackthenwereamoreruggednottosaycrazybreed,andtherecanbenobetterevidencethanthattheyletWildmanWhitehousestayonastheAtlanticTelegraphCompany'schiefelectricianlongafterhisdeficiencieshadbecomeconspicuous.

    Thephysicalprocessofbuildingandlayingthecablemakesforawildtaleinandofitself.Buttodoitjustice,Iwouldhavetodoublethelengthofthisalreadyherniatedarticle.Let'sjustsaythatafterlotsofexcitement,theyputacableinplacebetweenIrelandandNewfoundland.Butforallofthereasonsmentionedearlier,ithardlyworkedatall.QueenVictoriamanagedtosendPresidentBuchananacelebratorymessage,butittookawholedaytosendit.Onagoodday,thecablecouldcarrysomethinglikeonewordperminute.Thisfactwasgenerallyhushedup,buttheimportantpeopleknewaboutitsothepressurewasonWildmanWhitehouse,whosetheorieswereblatantlycontradictedbythefacts.

    Whitehouseconvincedhimselfthatthesolutiontotheirtroubleswasbruteforcesendthemessageatextremelyhighvoltages.Tothatend,heinventedandpatentedasetof5footlonginductioncoilscapableoframming2,000voltsintothecable.WhenhehookedthemuptotheIrelandendofthesystem,hesoonmanagedtoblastaholethroughtheguttaperchasomewherebetweenthereandNewfoundland,turningtheentiresystemintouselessjunk.

    Longbeforethis,WilliamThomsonhadfiguredout,bydintofFourieranalysis,thatincomingbitscouldbedetectedmuchfasterbyamoresensitiveinstrument.Theproblemwasthatinstrumentsinthosedayshadtoworkbyphysicallymovingthingsaround,forexample,byclosinganelectromagneticrelaythatwouldsoundabuzzer.Movingthingsaroundrequirespower,andthebitsonaworkingtransatlanticcableembodiedverylittlepower.Itwasdifficulttomakeaphysicalobjectsmallenoughtobesusceptibletosuchghostlytracesofcurrent.

    Thomson'ssolution(actually,thefirstofseveralsolutions)wasthemirrorgalvanometer,whichincorporatedatinyfleckofreflectivematerialthatwouldtwistbackandforthinthemagneticfieldcreatedbythecurrentinthewire.Abeamoflightreflectingfromthefleckwouldswingbackandforthlikeasearchlight,makingadimspotonastripofwhitepaper.Anobserverwithgood

  • eyesightsittinginadarkenedroomcouldtellwhichwaythecurrentwasflowingbywatchingwhichwaythespotmoved.CurrentflowinginonedirectionsignifiedaMorsecodedot,intheotheradash.Infact,theinformationthathadbeentransmitteddownthecableinthebrieffewweeksbeforeWildmanWhitehouseburnedittoacrisphadbeendetectedusingThomson'smirrorgalvanometerthoughWhitehousedeniedit.

    Aftertheliteralburnoutofthefirsttransatlanticcable,WildmanWhitehouseandProfessorThomsonweregrilledbyacommitteeofeminentVictorianswhowereseriouslypissedoffatWhitehouseandenthralledwithThomson,evenbeforetheyheardanytestimonyandtheyheardalotoftestimony.Whitehousedisappearedintoignominy.ThomsonendedupbeingknightedandlaterelevatedtoabaronbyQueenVictoria.HebecameLordKelvinandeventuallygotanimportantunitofmeasurement,anevenmoreimportantlawofphysics,andarefrigeratornamedafterhim.

    EightyearsafterWhitehousefriedthefirst,asecondtransatlanticcablewasbuilttoLordKelvin'sspecificationswithhispatentedmirrorgalvanometersateitherendofit.Heboughta126tonschooneryachtwiththestupendousamountofmoneyhemadefromhisnumerouscablerelatedpatents,turnedtheshipintoafloatingluxurypalaceandlaboratoryfortheinventionofevenmorefantasticallylucrativepatents.HethenspenttherestofhislifetoolingaroundtheBritishIsles,BayofBiscay,andwesternMediterranean,frequentlyhostingDukesandcontinentalsavantswhoallcommentedonthenerdlord'stendencytostopinthemiddleofpoliteconversationtoscrawloutlongskeinsofequationsonwhateverpieceofpaperhappenedtobehandy.

    Kelvinwentontodesignandpatentotherdevicesforextractingbitsfromtheendsofcables,andotherengineerswenttoworkontheproblem,too.Bythe1920s,thechoreoftranslatingelectricalpulsesintolettershadbeenlargelyautomated.Now,ofcourse,humansarecompletelyoutoftheloop.

    ThenumberofpeopleworkingincablelandingstationsisprobablyaboutthesameasitwasinKelvin'sday.Butnowtheyaremerelycaretakersformachinesthatprocessbitsaboutasfastasabilliontelegraphersworkinginparallel.

    TheHackerTouristtravelstotheLandoftheRisingSun.

    Technologicalwondersofmoderncablestations.WhyUgandanscouldnotplacetelephonecallstoSeattle.Trawlers,ticklerchains,teredoworms,andotherhazardstounderseacables.Theimmensefinancialstakesinvolvedwhycableownersdonotcareforthecompanyoffishermen,andviceversa.

    3517.690'N,13946.328'EKDDCableLandingStation,Ninomiya,Japan

    WhethertheyareinThailand,Egypt,orJapan,moderncablelandingstationshavemuchincommonwitheachother.ShortlyaftertouchingdowninTokyo,wewerestandinginKDD'slandingstationinNinomiya,Japan.I'lldescribeittoyou.

    Asurprisingamountofspaceinthestationisdevotedtoelectricalgear.Thestationmustnotlosepower,sotherearetwoseparate,redundantemergencygenerators.Thereisalsolikelytobeatransformertosupplypowertothecablesystem.Wethinkofopticalfibersasdelicatestrandsconsumingnegligiblepower,butallofthoserepeaters,spacedeveryfewdozenkilometersacrossanocean,endupconsumingalotofjuice:forabigtransoceaniccable,oneortwoamperesat7,000orsovolts,foratotalofsomethinglike10,000watts.Theequipmenthandlingthatpowermakesahumyoucanfeelinyourbones,kickingthepoweroutnotalongwiresbutsolidcopperbarssuspendedfromtheceiling,withoccasionalsectionsofmassivebraidedmetalribbonsotheywon'tsnapinanearthquake.

    Theemergencygeneratorsarehookedintoabatteryfarmthatfillsaroom.Thebatteriesareconstantlytricklechargedandexistsimplytoprovidepowerduringanemergencyaftertheregularpowergoesoutbutbeforethegeneratorskickin.Mostoftheequipmentinthecablestationiscomputergearthatdemandsastabletemperature,sotherearetwoseparate,redundantair

  • conditioningplantsfeedingintoabigsystemofventilationducts.Theequipmentmustnotgetdirtyorgetfriedbysparksfromthefingersofhackertourists,soyouleaveyourshoesbythedoorandslipintoplasticantistaticflipflops.Theequipmentmustnotgetsmashedupinearthquakes,sothebuildingisbuiltlikeabrickshithouse.

    Thestationisnomorethanafewhundredmetersfromabeach.Sandybeachesinoutofthewayareasarepreferred.Thecablecomesinunderthesanduntilithitsabeachmanhole,whereitcontinuesthroughundergroundductsuntilitcomesupoutofthefloorofthecablestationintoasmall,wellsecuredroom.Thecableisattachedtosomethingbigandstrong,suchasamassivesteelgridboltedintothewall.Earlycabletechniciansweresometimesstartledtoseetheircablessuddenlyjerkloosefromtheirmooringsinsidethestationyankingthegutsoutofexpensivepiecesofequipmentanddisappearinthedirectionoftheocean,whereapassingshiphadsnaggedthem.

    Fromholesinthefloor,thecablespassupintoboxeswhereallthearmorandinsulationarestrippedawayfromthemandwherethetubularpowerleadsurroundingthecoreisconnectedtotheelectricalservice(7,500voltsinthecaseofFLAG)thatpowerstherepeatersoutinthemiddleoftheocean.Itsinnardsthencontinue,typicallyinsomekindofoverheadwiringplenum(aminiaturecatwalksuspendedfromtheceiling)intotheBigRoomFullofExpensiveStuff.

    TheBigRoomFullofExpensiveStuffisatleast25metersonasideandcommonlyhasafloormadeofremovable,perforatedplatescoveringplenumsthroughwhichwirescanberouted,anoverheadgridofopenplenumsfromwhichwiresdescendlikejunglevines,orboth.Mostoftheroomisoccupiedbyequipmentracksarrangedinparallelrows(thinkofthestacksatabiglibrary).Theracksaretall,wellovermostpeople'sheads,andtheirinsidesareconcealedandprotectedbyfaceplatesbearingcorporatelogos:AT&T,Alcatel,Fujitsu.InthecaseofanopticalcablelikeFLAG,theycontaintheLightTerminal:thegearthatconvertsthe1,558nanometersignallaserscomingdownthefiberstrandsintodigitswithinanelectricalcircuit,andviceversa.TheLightTerminaliscontainedwithinacoupleofracksthat,takentogether,areaboutthesizeofarefrigerator.

    Alltheotherracksofgearfillingtheroomcopewiththeunfathomablehasslesassociatedwithtryingtofunnelthatmanybitsintoandoutofthefiber.Intheend,thatgearis,ofcourse,connectedtothelocaltelecommunicationssysteminsomeway.Henceonecommonlyseesmicrowaverelaytowersontopofthesebuildingsandlotsofmanholesinthestreetsaroundthem.Onedoesnot,however,seealotofemployees,becauseforthemostpartthisequipmentrunsitself.Everysinglecircuitboardineveryslotofeverylevelofeveryrackinthewholeplacehasapairofcopperwirescomingoutofittosendanalarmsignalintheeventthattheboardfails.Liketinyrivuletsjoiningtogetherintoamightyriver,thesecometogetherintobundlesasthickasyourlegthatsnakebeneaththefloorplatestoanalarmcenterwheretheyarepatchedintobeautifulroundedclearplasticcasesenclosinggridsofinterconnectpins.FromheretheyaretiedintocommunicationslinesthatrunallthewaytoTokyosothateverythingonthepremisescanbemonitoredremotelyduringnightsandweekends.NinomiyaisstaffedwithnineemployeesandMiura,FLAG'sotherJapaneselandingpoint,onlyone.

    Withonenotableexception,thehackertouristseesnoparticularevidencethatanyofthishastheslightestthingtodowithcommunications.Itmightaswellbethecomputerroomatabiguniversityorinsurancecompany.Theoneexceptionisatelephonehandsethangingonahookononeoftheequipmentracks.Thehandsetisthere,butthere'snokeypad.Aboveitisasignbearingthenameofacityfar,faraway."Ha,ha!"Isaid,thefirsttimeIsawoneofthese,"that'sfortalkingtotheguyinCalifornia,right?"Tomyembarrassment,mytourguidesnoddedyes.Eachcablesystemhassomethingcalledtheorderwire,whichenablesthetechniciansatoppositeendsofthecabletotalktoeachother.Atamajorlandingstationyouwillseeseveralorderwireslabeledwiththenamesofexoticsoundingcitiesontheoppositesideofthenearestlargebodyofwater.

    Thatisthebareminimumthatyouwillseeatanycablestation.AtNinomiyayouseeabitmore,andthereinliessomethingofatale.

    NinomiyaisbyfartheoldestofKDD'ssevencablelandingstations,havingbeenbuiltin1964to

  • landTPC1,whichconnectedJapantoGuamandhencetotheUnitedStates.UnlikemanyofFLAG'sotherlandingsites,whicharestilltornupbybackhoetracks,itissurroundedbyperfectlymaintainedgardensmarredonlybytoweringgraysteelpoleswithbigredlightsonthemaimedouttowardtheseainanattempttodissuademarinersfromdroppinganchoranywherenearby.NinomiyaservedasatraininggroundforJapanesecabletalent.SomeofthepeoplewholearnedthetradethereareamongthetopexecutivesinKDD'shierarchytoday.

    Duringthe1980s,whenAmericansstartedtogetfreakedoutaboutJapanagain,weheardagreatdealaboutJapanesecorporations'patient,longtermapproachtoR&DandhowvastlysuperioritwastoAmericancompanies'stupid,shorttermapproach.SinceAmericannewsmediaareatleastasstupidandshorttermasthebigcorporationstheyliketobitchabout,wehaveheardverylittlefollowuptosuchstoriesinrecentyears,whichiskindofdisappointingbecauseIwassortofwonderinghowitwasallgoingtoturnout.Butnowtheformerlylongtermisabouttocomedue.

    Bythebeginningofthe1980s,thegenerationofcablesavvyKDDmenwhohadcuttheirteethatNinomiyahadreachedthelevelwheretheycouldbegindivertingcorporateresourcesintoR&Dprograms.TohruOhta,whotodayistheexecutivevicepresidentofKDD,managedtoprysomemoneylooseandgetitintothehandsofaprotg,Dr.YasuhikoNiiro,wholaunchedoneofthosevauntedfarsightedJapaneseR&DprogramsatNinomiya.TheterminalbuildingforTPC1,whichhadbeenthecenteroftheJapaneseinternationaltelecommunicationsnetworkin1964,wasrelegatedtoalaboratoryforNiiro.ThegoalwastomakeKDDaplayerintheopticalfibersubmarinecablemanufacturingbusiness.

    SuchamovewasnotwithoutcontroversyintheseniorranksofKDD,whohaddevotedthemselvestoaverydifferentcorporatemission.In1949,whenJapanwasstillbeingrunbyDouglasMacArthurandthecountrywastryingtodigoutfromtherubbleofthewar,NipponTelephone&Telegraph(NT&T)splitoffitsinternationaldepartmentintoanewcompanycalledKokusaiDenshinDenwaCo.,Ltd.(KDD),whichmeansInternationalTelegraph&Telephone.KDDwasmuchsmallerandmorefocusedthanNT&T,andthiswasforareason:Japan'sinternationalcommunicationssystemwasashambles,andnothingwasmoreimportanttothecountry'seconomicrecoverythanthatitberehabilitatedasquicklyaspossible.ThehopewasthatKDDwouldbemorenimbleandagilethanitslumberingparentandgetthejobdonefaster.

    Thisstrategyseemstohavemoreorlessworked.Obviously,Japanhassucceededintheworldofinternationalbusiness.ItisconnectedtotheUnitedStatesbynumeroustranspacificcableslinestotheoutsideworldareplentiful.Ofcourse,sinceKDDenjoyedmonopolystatusforalongtime,thefactthattheselinesareplentifulhasneverledtotheirbeingcheap.Still,thesystemworked.LikemuchelsethatworkedinJapan'spostwareconomy,itsucceeded,inthoseearlyyears,preciselyinsofarasitworkedhandinglovewithAmericancompaniesandinstitutions.AT&T,inotherwords.

    UnliketheUnitedStatesorFranceorGreatBritain,Japanwasnevermuchofaplayerinthesubmarinecablebusinessbackintheprewardays,andsoOhta'sandNiiro'snotionofgoingintoheadtoheadcompetitionagainstAT&T,itspostwarsugardaddy,mighthaveseemedaudacious.KDDhadcustomarilybeensoclosetoAT&TthatmanyJapanesemockeditcruelly.AT&Tisthesumochampion,theysaid,andKDDisitskoshiginchaku,itsbeltholdingassistant.Thewordliterallymeanswaistpursebutseemstohaverudeconnotationsalongthelinesofjockstrapcarrier.

    Againstallofthat,theonlythingthatOhtaandNiirohadtogoonwasthefactthattheirideawasareally,reallygoodone.BuildingcablesisjustthekindofthingthatJapaneseindustryisgoodat:ahighlyadvancedformofmanufacturingthatrequirestheverybestqualitycontrol.Cablesandrepeatershavetoworkforatleast25yearsundersomereallyunpleasantconditions.

    KDDSubmarineCableSystems(KDDSCS)builtitsfirstopticalfibersubmarinecablesystem,TPC3,in1989andwillsoonhavemorethan100,000kilometersofcableinserviceworldwide.ItdesignsandholdsthepatentsontheterminalequipmentthatwesawatNinomiya,thoughtheequipmentitselfismanufacturedbyelectronicsgiantslikeToshibaandNEC.KDDSCSisbuildingsomeofthecableandrepeatersthatmakeupFLAG,andAT&TSSIisbuildingtherest.AproblemhasalreadysurfacedintheAT&Trepeaterstheyswitchedtoadifferentsolderingtechniquewhich

  • turnsouttobenotsuchagoodidea.ElevenoftherepeatersthatAT&TmadeforFLAGhavethisproblem,andallofthemarelyingonthebottomofoceanswithbitsrunningthroughthemfornow.FLAGandAT&Tarestillstudyingthisproblemandtryingtodecidehowtoresolveit.Still,everyoneinthecablebusinessknowswhathappenedithastobeconsideredamajorwinforKDDSCS.

    SowhenKDDthrewsomeofitsresourcesintooneofthosefamousfarsightedlongrangeJapaneseR&Dprograms,itpaidoffbeautifully.Inthefieldofsubmarinecablesystems,thelowlyassistanthastaughtthesumochampionalessonandsenthimreelingbacknotquiteoutofthering,butcertainlyenoughtogethisattention.How,youmightask,istherestofKDDdoing?

    Theansweristhat,likemostotherPTTs,it'sshowingitsage.EventhetactfulJapanesearewillingtoadmitthattheyhaveperformedpoorlyintheworldofinternationaltelecommunicationscomparedtoothercountries.NonJapanesewilltellyouthesamethingmoreenthusiastically.

    ThetelcoderegulationwarshavebeguninJapanastheyhavealmosteverywhereelse,andKDDnowhascompetitorsintheformofInternationalDigitalCommunicationsInc.(IDC),whichownstheMiurastation,theotherFLAGlandingspot.Inordertosucceedinthiscompetition,KDDneedstoinvestalotofmoney,buttheverysmallnessthatmadeitsuchagoodideain1949putsitatadisadvantagewhenlargeamountsofcapitalareneeded.

    JustasNinomiyaisagenericcablelanding,soKDDissomethingofagenericPTT,facingmanyofthesametroublesthatothersdo.Forexample:theJapanesetelecommunicationsministrycontinuestosetratesatanartificiallyhighlevel.Atfirstblush,thiswouldseemtohelpKDDbymakingitmuchmoredifficultforupstartslikeIDCtocompetewiththem.Butinfactithasopenedthedoortoanunexpectedformofcompetition:callback.

    CallbackandKallbackareregisteredtrademarksofSeattlebasedInternationalTelcomLtd.(ITL),but,likebandaidandkleenex,tendtobeusedinagenericwaybypeopleoverseas.Thecallbackconceptisbasedonthefactthatit'smuchcheapertocallJapanfromtheUSthanitistocalltheUSfromJapan.SubscriberstoacallbackservicearegivenaphonenumberintheUS.Whentheywanttomakeacall,theydialthatnumber,waitforittoringonce,andthenhangupsotheywon'tbechargedforthecall.Inthejargonofthecallbackworld,thisisthetriggercall.AsystemintheUSthencallsthemback,givingthemacheapinternationalline,andoncethatisaccomplished,it'saneasymattertoshuntthecallelsewhere:toanumberintheStatesorinanyothercountryintheworld.

    Anyphonecallmadebetweentwocountriesissubjecttoasocalledsettlementcharge,whichisassessedonaperminutebasis.Theamountofthesettlementchargedisfixedbyanagreementbetweenthetwocountries'PTTsandgenerallyprovidesabarometeroftheirrelativesizeandpower.So,forexample,whenworkingoutthedealwithDenmark,Pakistanmightsay,"Hey,Danesarerich,andwedon'treallycarewhethertheycallusornot,andtheyhavenoparticularleverageoverussoPOW!"andinsistonahighsettlementchargesay$4perminute.ButwhennegotiatingagainstAT&T,Pakistanmightagreetoalowersettlementchargesay$1perminute.

    Settlementchargeshavelongbeenamajorsourceofforeignexchangefordevelopingcountries'PTTsandhencefortheirgovernmentsandanycrookedofficialswhomaybedippingintothemoneystream.Insomeunderdevelopednations,theyhavebeenthemajorvergingontheonlysourceofsuchincome.Butnotforlong.

    Nowadays,aDanewhomakeslotofinternationalcallswillsubscribetoaservicesuchasITL'sKallback.HemakesatriggercalltoKallback'scomputerinSeattle,which,sinceitisanincompletecall,costshimnothing.Thecomputerphoneshimbackwithinafewseconds.HethenpunchesinthenumberhewantstocallinPa


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