Morphology and Morphology and SyntaxSyntax

Phrase structurePhrase structure

Phrases must have a Phrases must have a headhead

[[NP Intelligent cats with long tails] are lovely. Intelligent cats with long tails] are lovely.[[NP Cats] are lovely Cats] are lovely*[*[NP Intelligent with long tails] are lovely. Intelligent with long tails] are lovely.

Sue is [Sue is [AP very ill indeed]. very ill indeed].Sue is [Sue is [AP ill]. ill].*Sue is [*Sue is [AP very indeed]. very indeed].

The water went [The water went [PP down the drainpipe]. down the drainpipe].The water went [The water went [PP down]. down].*The water went [*The water went [PP the drainpipe]. the drainpipe].

ComplementsComplements

S: John will never read a book.S: John will never read a book.

John will never John will never read a bookread a book but Bill will but Bill will frequently frequently do so.do so.

*John will *John will never readnever read a book and Bill will a book and Bill will do sodo so a a paper.paper.

Read a book John will never do.Read a book John will never do.*Never read John will do a book.*Never read John will do a book.

Conclusion:Conclusion: read a book read a book is a constituent of S is a constituent of Snever readnever read is not a constituent of S is not a constituent of S

SpecifiersSpecifiers

John will [John will [nevernever read a book]. read a book].

The cinema [The cinema [reluctantlyreluctantly refunded the refunded the tickets].tickets].

The firm has [The firm has [in her absencein her absence adopted adopted a new policy].a new policy].

The structure of VPsThe structure of VPs

VPVP

specifier specifier V’ (“ V bar”) V’ (“ V bar”)

never never

VV complementcomplement

readread a booka book

Complements to verbs are Complements to verbs are not always NPsnot always NPs

Betty went [Betty went [PP to Mali]. to Mali].

Kate asked [Kate asked [S if Lenny had listened to if Lenny had listened to that cd].that cd].

Heads select the type of Heads select the type of complementcomplement

Kate asked [Kate asked [S if it was time to go]. if it was time to go].

Kate asked [Kate asked [NP the time]. the time].

Kate wondered [Kate wondered [S if it was time to go]. if it was time to go].

*Kate wondered [*Kate wondered [NP the time]. the time].

The structure of NPsThe structure of NPs

Nouns can also combine with Nouns can also combine with complements and specifiers.complements and specifiers.

quick quick inspections of the patientsinspections of the patients and and slow slow onesones

**quick inspectionsquick inspections of the patients and of the patients and onesones of the hospital of the hospital

NPNP

specifier specifierspecifier specifier N’ N’the quickthe quick NN PP PP

inspectioninspection P NPP NP ofof

specifier Nspecifier N the the

patientpatient

Complements to nounsComplements to nouns

In Modern English, complements to nouns usually In Modern English, complements to nouns usually are PPs:are PPs:

an inspection of the patientsan inspection of the patients

*an inspection the patients*an inspection the patients

Sentences can appear as complement to a noun as Sentences can appear as complement to a noun as well:well:

[[NP the hypothesis [ the hypothesis [S that the moon is made of green that the moon is made of green cheese]]cheese]]

[[NP the question [ the question [S whether JFK was the victim of a whether JFK was the victim of a plot]]plot]]

RecursionRecursion

A phrase can contain another phrase A phrase can contain another phrase of exactly the same type as the of exactly the same type as the containing phrasecontaining phrase..

[[NP an inspection [ an inspection [PP of [ of [NP the patients the patients [[PP with [ with [NP red pyjamas]]]]]red pyjamas]]]]]

Recursion of sentencesRecursion of sentences

[[S John regrets [ John regrets [S that Mary believes that Mary believes these rumours]]these rumours]]

John regrets [that Mary believes [that John regrets [that Mary believes [that Harry has said [that the paper Harry has said [that the paper reported [that…reported [that…

Complements in APsComplements in APs

They are [They are [AP proud of their daughter]. proud of their daughter].

They are [They are [AP mad about dogs]. mad about dogs].

They are [They are [AP fond of their daughter]. fond of their daughter].

*They are [*They are [AP fond]. fond].

Specifiers in APsSpecifiers in APs

That shirt is [That shirt is [AP tootoo red to go in the red to go in the washing machine with the white washing machine with the white shirt].shirt].

In winter the city is [In winter the city is [AP veryvery cold]. cold].

Sam is [Sam is [AP ratherrather fond of dogs]. fond of dogs].

Complements in PPsComplements in PPs

This will last [This will last [PP until Doomsday]. until Doomsday].

*This will last [*This will last [PP until]. until].

a piece [a piece [PP of cake] of cake]

*a piece [*a piece [PP of] of]

We’ll go on [We’ll go on [PP from here]. from here].

*We’ll go on [*We’ll go on [PP from]. from].

PPs without a PPs without a complementcomplement

I’ve never met him [I’ve never met him [PP before today]. before today].

I’ve never met him [I’ve never met him [PP before]. before].

The paint came [The paint came [PP off the wall]. off the wall].

The paint came [The paint came [PP off]. off].

They went [They went [PP down the hill]. down the hill].

They went [They went [PP down]. down].

Complements in PPs are Complements in PPs are not always NPsnot always NPs

[[PP After [ After [S they went to America]] they they went to America]] they started a new trade.started a new trade.

We have had no rest [We have had no rest [PP since [ since [S our new our new neighbours started a pub]].neighbours started a pub]].

[[PP From [ From [PP under the bridge]] came a under the bridge]] came a herd of strange creatures.herd of strange creatures.

This play lasts [This play lasts [PP until [ until [PP after midnight]]. after midnight]].

Specifiers in PPsSpecifiers in PPs

They went [They went [PP all the wayall the way down the down the mine shaft].mine shaft].

They found it [They found it [PP ten metersten meters under the under the ground].ground].

The “X bar” schema for The “X bar” schema for phrase structurephrase structure

XPXP

specifier(s) specifier(s) X’ X’

XX complement(s) complement(s)

What about sentences?What about sentences?

SS

NP VPNP VP

Do sentences not have a head?Do sentences not have a head?

Language variation in the Language variation in the ordering of heads, ordering of heads,

complements and specifierscomplements and specifiers

put meat in the potput meat in the pot

béle-bi-ò náma tuabéle-bi-ò náma tuapot-the-in meat putpot-the-in meat put

stay in the house with himstay in the house with him

u-momó wári-bi-ò tímiu-momó wári-bi-ò tímihim-with house-the-in stayhim-with house-the-in stay

these three big booksthese three big books*these big three books*these big three books*three big these books*three big these books*three these big books*three these big books*big these three books*big these three books*big three these books*big three these books

nangseuu jaj saam lem nii nangseuu jaj saam lem nii book big three book big three classifierclassifier this this‘‘these three big books’these three big books’

UniversalsUniversals

Languages in which V precedes its Languages in which V precedes its complement tend to have complement tend to have prepositions, so P precedes its prepositions, so P precedes its complement as well.complement as well.

Languages in which V follows its Languages in which V follows its complement tend to have complement tend to have postpositions, so P follows its postpositions, so P follows its complement as well.complement as well.

Ze zwommen [in het kanaal].Ze zwommen [in het kanaal]. Ze Ze zwommen [het kanaal in].zwommen [het kanaal in].

they swam in the canalthey swam in the canal they swam they swam the canal in the canal in

‘‘They were swimming in the canal.’They were swimming in the canal.’ ‘They swam ‘They swam into the canal.’into the canal.’

une nouvelle maisonune nouvelle maison un livre noirun livre noira new housea new house a book blacka book black‘‘a new house’a new house’ ‘a black book’‘a black book’