A. Morphology

Morphology is the study of structure words and how words are formed or constructed. And morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies the ways in which words are constructed out of smaller meaningful units.

Morphology is the branch of linguistics (and one of the major components of grammar) that studies word structures, especially in terms of morphemes.

Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistics was named for the first in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher who used the term for the study of the form of words.

Example of morphology:

Lion (stem) Chocolate (stem) Box(stem)

Lion LionsChocolatechocolates Box Boxes

(singular) (plural) (singular)(plural) (singular) (plural)

B. Morpheme

Morphemes is the smallest meaningful unit in the structure of language. A morpheme is not identical with a syllable. The morpheme strange happens to be a syllable, and so are many English morphemes. But Connecticut is a single morpheme though it contains four syllables. Beside that, a morpheme may consist of only a single phoneme. The /z/ in goes is the example. Morpheme must be a smallest part and it must have meaning or is meaningful.

Morphemes composed of (1) Segmental phonemes, and (3) supra-segmental phonemes. Morphemes consisting of segmental phonemes are the most numerous in occurrence, e.g. ship consists of 3 segmental phonemes /sip/. One type of morpheme consisting solely of supra-segmental phonemes is very common. In English morphemes which consist wholly of supra-segmental phonemes are relatively rare. Morphemes consisting of segmental and supra-segmental phonemes also exist in English, e.g. the words boy, girl, goulash, consist not only of certain segmental phonemes, but also have a phoneme of stress. Between these extremes there are morphemes consisting of the following patterns of segmental phonemes: V: a-long, vc: im-proper, cv: de-ceiver, cvc: fish, cvcv: lava, cvcvc: hammer, etc. This inventory could be extended greatly, sisce there are still a number of morphemes, for instance, involving various types of consonant clusters.

C. Types of Morphemes

The distribution of morphemes differentiates many classes of morphemes and combination of morphemes:

a) Bound and Free Morphemes

Bound morphemes are morphemes which can not stand alone, but which are typically attached to another from, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed, -s, -ly in words.

Example of bound morphemes: Reader, Pianist, Confused, Cats, Slowly.

Certain bound morphemes are known as affixes, included prefix and suffixes. The set of affixes which fall into the bound category can also be divided into two types, namely derivational and inflectional morphemes.

Free morphemes are morphemes which can stand alone as single words.

Example of free morphemes : florist, dog, sad, happy, when, but, and.

Free morphemes fall into two categories:

1) Free morphemes as Lexical morphemes

Lexical morphemes are that set of ordinary nouns, adjective and verbs which carry the content of messages a speaker conveys, e.g. mother, happy, drink, girl, bored, eat.

2) Free morphemes as Functional morphemes

Example of functional morphemes: but, above, because, in, on, and the.

b) Roots and Non-roots

Roots constitute the nuclei (the central parts) of all words. There are may be more than 1 root in a single word.

Example of roots: Catfish (cat and fish), Blackbird (black and bird), Breakwater (break and water), Facebook (face and book).

Some roots many have unique occurrence. For example, the unique element cran- in cranberry dos not constitute the nuclease of any other words, but it occurs in the position occupied by roots such as in blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, Roseberry, Cranberry.

Non-roots is identical to bound, example of non-roots: The non-roots ism in communism, pragmatism, organism, faradism, and fascism for instance.

Non-roots has become a full root in a sentence, such as: Japanese state adopts communism.

c) Roots and Stems

Roots constitute the nuclei (the central parts) of all words. There are may be more than 1 root in a single word.

Example of roots: Catfish (cat and fish), Blackbird (black and bird), Breakwater (break and water), Facebook (face and book).

Some roots many have unique occurrence. For example, the unique element cran- in cranberry does not constitute the nuclease of any other words, but it occurs in the position occupied by roots such as in blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, Cranberry.

Stems is composed of The nucleus consisting of 1 or more roots, or the nucleus plus any other non-root morphemes. Sometimes, stems consist of one or more roots in a words. Example of stems:

The word feeds : is plural words. But the stem is feed.

The word books: is plural words. The stem is book.

The word bracelets is plural words. But the stem is bracelet.

The word bags is plural words. But the stem is bag.

The word some people : is plural words. But the stem is people.

d) Nuclei and Non-nuclei

The nucleus of a morphological construction consists of a root or a combination of roots. Beside that, non-nuclei is made up of non--roots. Example of nuclei and non-nuclei:

The word Boyishness boy is nuclei.

ishness is non-nuclei.

The word kindness kind is nuclei.

ness is non-nuclei.

In blueberries the nuclei is blueberry that consist of two roots.

e) Nuclear and Peripheral Structures

A nuclear structure consists of the nucleus or constitutes the heas. A peripheral structures is morphemes that usually consists of a non-root and always outside of the nuclear constituent. Example of nuclear and peripheral structures :

The word Fertilizer fertilize is the nuclear.

-er is peripheral.

The word Management manage is nuclear.

-ment is peripheral.

The word Formalizer formalize is nuclear.

-er is peripheral.

The word Amusement amuse is nuclear.

-ment is peripheral.

The word Arrangement arrange is nuclear.

-ment is peripheral.

f) Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

Inflectional morphemes are do not change the meaning and part of speech, example of word:

happy happier

Small smaller

Early earlier

Easy easier

Inflectional morphemes typically indicate syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence, e.g. the past tense morphemes ed is the word cooked that show agreement with the subject of the verb. Inflectional morphemes typically occur with all members of some large class of morphemes, e.g. plural morphemes s occurs with most nouns, such as: books, cats, dogs, etc. Inflectional morphemes typically occur at the margin of words, e.g. plural morphemes s always come last in a word, such as: some books, apples, etc.

Derivational morphemes is Change meaning and part of speech, e.g. -ment: form noun, amusement: from verb amuse. Derivational morphemes typically indicate semantic relations with the word. Derivation morphemes typically occur with only some members, e.g. suffix hood occur with a few nouns, such as: brother, sister but not with most others e.g. boy, girl. Derivation morphemes typically occur before inflectional suffixes.

D. Affixes

There are consists of:

a. Prefixes is Added to the beginning of a word. Example of prefixes: Dis-: disagree, Un-: unhappy, Anti-: antifreeze, Re-: rewrite, Pre-: previous.

b. Infixes is not normally to be found in english, but fairly common in some other languages. Example of infixes: Un-damned-believable, Abso-god-damlutely, Halle-bloody-lujah.

c. Suffixes is added to the end of a word. Example of suffixes: -ly: lovely, -ness: dryness, -ity: generality, -hood: childhood, -ism: organism.

E. Syntax

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the interrelationships among the internal parts. The scientific study of internal structure of language (sentences and phrase) and internal relationship among internal parts. In other word, one phrase or sentence always make from the words that arrange with using systematic. Example of syntax: the sentences The boy speaks English, sentences beginning with article the that formed one phrase with the word boy. Then, the word speaks that formed one phrase with word English. And then, phrase the boy joined with phrase speaks English. The sentences She studies English, sentences beginning with subject she. The, the word studies that formed one phrase with word English.

S S

NP VP NP VP

Det N VNP Det N VNP

The girl buys cake The boy plays tennis

S S

NP VP NP VP

N VNP N V NP

Nanny saw Det NVin take Det N

thepicture the ball

F. Structural Approach

Structural approach consist of two approach: traditional approach and structural approach. Traditional approach is identify a word consider with meaning of a word that related. In traditional approach consist of noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. For example, category of noun is all of word that refer to nouns, object, places. Category of verb is all of word that refer to the activities. The way to grouped by traditional word based on the meanings. In traditional approach, there is lexical meaning. Lexical meanings can find in english dictionary, example of lexical meanings: student (noun), eat (verb), good and happy (adjectives), today (adverb of time).

Beside that, structural approach is identify the word with marking syntactic. In structural approach consist of prepositions, articles and modals. The way to grouped by structural word based on marking syntactic. In structural approach, there is structural meaning. Structural meaning can understand from the using context of the word that related, example of structural meanings: the (article), on and in (preposition), will and must (modals).

Then, marking syntactic that using in structural approach are:

a. Word order

Word order identify classes of words by looking at the position of the word in a structure phrase or sentence. Sentences structure usually begins with subject, then followed with predicate. For example of word order : Andy speaks English.

S

NP VP

N V NP

Andy speaks N

English

b. Inflectional affixes

Inflectional affixes is word class that known of particle shape that related. Example of inflectional affixes:

The word dogs that known as noun. Because the inflectional is s.

The word easier that known as adjective. Because the inflectional is er.

The word baked that known as verbs. Because the inflectional is ed.

The word biggest that known as adverb. Because the inflectional is est.

The word studied that known as verbs. Because the inflectional is ed.

c. Derivational affixes

Derivational affixes can be used as a marker of the relevant class, example of derivational affixes:

The word beautifully that known as adverb. Because derivational is ly.

The word playful that known as adjective. Because derivational is ful.

The word quickly that known as adverb. Because derivational is ly.

The word easily that known as adverb. Because derivational is ly.

The word beautiful that known as adjective. Because derivational is ful.

d. Prosody

Prosody that known from primary stress that using. Example of prosody: In syllable 1, record as a noun. But in syllable 2, the word record as a verb.

e. Function words

Function word is located in the word that related. For example: function word the can be marking continued word class is noun, e.g the book, the girl, the boy, the cat, the man. Then, phrase very good, very well, very beautiful, very sad, very happy. Good, well, beautiful, sad, happy that known as adjective. Because there is function word very.

G. Marking Syntax for Nouns

Nouns be marked with five categories:

A. Function Words

The most important noun marker is function words category. It is called Noun Determiners. Formation of noun determiners in front of nouns. Noun determiners is the most appear is articles: the, a, an. For example:

The Cats

The man

an apple

an hour

a pedestrian

Noun determiners also has function as pronouns: my, your, our, their, his/her. For example:

My mother

your sister

our school

their ball

his/her bag

Noun determiners also has other functions as using for plural nouns, singular nouns, uncountable nouns. (this/these, that/those, one, both, some, every, other, many (a), more, several, all, no, a few, enough). For example:

Singular nouns: the boy, a cat, this pen, an umbrella, the girl.

Plural nouns: some books, some people, these bags.

B. Inflections

Inflections are marked noun consist of two categories: Plural inflections(-es) and genitive inflections/possessive (-'s). For example:

Plural inflections (-es): dogs, boxes, books, oranges, apples.

Genitive inflections (-'s): student's, students', teacher's, mother's, teachers'.

C. Derivations

Derivations are marked nouns added of stems or another word whose origin is not noun. The list of derivations marker nouns:

Added of verb:(-age): demurrage

(-ance): conveyance

(-er): sailor

(-ee): payee

(-ment): agreement

Added of adjectives:(-ce): abundance

(-cy): relevancy

(-ity): facility

(-ness): happiness

(-ster): oldster

Added of nouns:(-cy): democracy

(-er): liner

(-ian): librarian

(-ist): physicist

(-ship): friendship

Added of bound stem: (-er): tailor

(-ism): communism

(-ist): monist

(-ity): depravity, debility

D. Word order

word order constitute position in the sentence is a noun in front of the verb as a predicate. For example:

time flies : the word "time" is noun, because in front of verb.

Sub groups of nouns

In addition to being used as a marker noun syntax, there is a recognizable group of noun forms is pronoun and function noun.

i. Pronouns

In English, there are 8 pronouns: I, you, they, we, she, he, it, who.

ii. Function nouns

In English, function nouns has 15 characteristics:

The shape is similar to a noun determiners.

The shape is never change, it have not inflection and derivation.

Can occupy the position normally occupied by nouns.

Group 1 function nouns is the same shape as the noun determiners: all, any, both, enough, his, more, etc.

Group 2 function nouns is morphemic variation of noun determiners:

Noun determiners

Function nouns

No

None

My

Mine

Your

Yours

Our

Ours

Her

Hers

Their

Theirs

H. Marking Syntax for Verbs

Verb be marked with 5 categories:

1) Inflections

There are 4 verbs inflections in english, are:

a) Third-singular inflections (-s)

Pronunce morphemes (-s) is variation, e.g. (-s,-z, -ez) depend on the final sound of the verb that related. For example:

he hopes...(-s)

she rides...(-z)

she goes...(-s)

b) Past tense/preterit inflections (-ed1)

Pronounce morphemes (-ed1) is variation, e.g. (-t, -d, -ed) depend on the final sound of the verb that related. For example:

she hoped...(-t)

she prayed...(-d)

he studied...(-ed)

he admitted...(-ed)

c) Past participle inflection (-ed2)

Variations of the same words with the past tense inflection, e.g. (-t,-d, -ed). For example:

he put he has put

she prayed she has prayed

he left he has left

d) Present Participle inflections (-ing)

Speech of morphemes present participle is not varied, If there is variation was only found in a non standard dialect. For example:

I am studying English.

She is running.

They are swimming in the swimming pool.

2) Functions word

Groups of function words that mark the verbs are auxiliaries that make up the verb-phrase with verbs. Auxiliaries were divided into four groups:

a. Auxiliaries + base

Can /could do/does/did

May/mightmust

Shall/shoulddare

Will/wouldneed

(had) better/best

Example:You could go now.

She must be happy.

I do love him.

I will catch you.

I need it.

b. Auxiliaries + present-participle (-ing)

am/is/are/was/were

get/gets/go

Example:She is sleeping.

I am eating.

They were crying.

Auxiliaries + past participle (-ed2)

am/is/are/was/were

get/gets/go

have/has/had

Example:she has finished her report.

She got hit by bicycle.

They were playing a football.

c. Auxiliaries + to infinitive

Have/has/had

Ought

used

am/is/were/was

get/gets/got

am/is/was/were:-about

-going

Example:Like we used to.

I have to go now.

3) Derivations

Derivations as marker syntax for verbs divided into 6 categories:

(-ate1): operate, calumniate, orchestrate, implicate, and salivate.

(-ize): idolize, recognize, organize, socialize, utilize.

(-fy): beautify, simplify, signify, indemnify.

(-ish): finish, languish, furnish.

(-en): widen, sharpen, lighten, glisten, blacken.

(-en): enliven, embitter, enfold, empower.

4) Word order

Word order can not use without marker syntax. There are 2 word order:

In the beginning of command

Example: come here

(please) answer at once

(lets) go now

Between 2 nouns

Example: dogs chase sticks.

The stars light our path.

Birds love nests.

5) Prosody

Prosody that known from primary stress that using. Example of prosody:

Verbs () nouns/adjectives ()

Imprintimprint

Suspectsuspect

Importimport

Perfectperfect

The verb substitute do

Do with the others form can be a verb-substitute.

Example: he works harder than I do. (do : substitute work)

Function of Do :

a) Do as auxiliary

Example: do come to see us.

b) Do as function verb

Example: he liked it. But I didnt

c) Do as verb-substitute

Example: I hope you enjoyed the game.

d) Do as full verb.

Example: how do you do?

I. Marking Syntax for Adjectives

Marking syntax for adjective is combination between word order and function word. Adjectives be marked with 4 categories:

a. Word order and Function word

Marker syntax that is very enable for adjective is a good word in the 2 blank words.

Ex: the man is very strong.

(strong: adjective)

b. Derivations and inflections

In the form of derivations adjective can grouped be two, are:

1. Base adjectives : the original adjective.

Base adjective as inflectional suffixes (-er, -est)

Example:Pretty-prettier-prettiest

Small-smaller-smallest

Big-bigger-biggest

Base adjectives (-ness,-ly)

Example:Good-goodness-goodly

Bad-badness-badly

Black-blackness-blackly

Base adjective, except (-un, -in)

Example:uncommon

Inhuman

Base adjective, form (-en1, -en)

Example:bright-brighten

Cheap-cheapen

Light-enlighten

Life-enliven

2. Derived adjectives : derived form.

The end (-y)

Example: holy, healthy, quickly.

The end (-a1)

Example: natural, local, traditional.

the end (-able)

Example: enable, acceptable, remarkable.

The end (-full and less).

Example: hopeful, hopeless.

The end (-ar, -ary, -ic, -ish, -ous)

Example: columnar, literary, comic, lavish, and marvelous.

The end (-ent, -ive)

Example: significant, active, impulsive, convenient.

The end (-en2)

Example: woolen, waxen, wooden.

The end (-ed3)

Example: flowered, interested, bored, overrated, garlanded.

The end (-ing3)

Example: interesting, exciting boring, revealing.

The end (-ly2)

Example: friendly, homely, ugly.

3. Function words

Adjective qualifiers: function word marked adjective.

Comparative adjective qualifiers: adjective qualifiers are the function as adverb qualifiers.

J. Differences Grammar & Structure

Grammar

Structure

The set of structural rules of language or dealing with all aspect of language.

Structure is not related to the sound.

Grammar is more specific.

Structure is permanent form and follow the formula.

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