平成27年度言語研修 アラビア語パレスチナ方言研修テキスト1...平成27年度言語研修 東京外国語大学 アジア・アフリカ言語文化研究所
語言學概論Morphology 2
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Transcript of 語言學概論Morphology 2
Morphology: The Words of Language
Ching-Fen Hsu
2013/9/24
Lecture 2
2013/9/24_2013/9/27
Introduction • Words: important part of linguistic knowledge &
constitute components of mental grammars
• Without words we are unable to convey thoughts through lg or understand others’ thoughts
• Without knowledge of lg, it’s impossible to tell how many words are in utterances
• Knowing a word = knowing a meaning & pronunciation in mental lexicon
• Sound-meaning relation is arbitrary, e.g., homophone (bear vs. bare; 新/心/欣/馨/薪/辛/芯), synonyms (sofa vs. couch; 拍手/鼓掌)
Mental Lexicon • Mental dictionary lists unique phonological
representation, including spelling or
orthography, parts of speech (grammatical
categories, syntactic class)
• We can form grammatical S & distinguish
ill-formed S from well-formed S
Content Words & Function Words
• Content words: N (objects: children), V (actions: build), Adj (attributes: beautiful), Adv (ideas we think about: seldom)
• Open class words: new words are addable, e.g., facebook, blog, online
• Function words: specify grammatical relations & have little or no semantic content, including possession (prepositions: in, of), articles (definite: the, indefinite: a/an), conjunctions (and, or, but), pronouns (it, them)
• Closed class words: hard to add new words
Empirical Evidences • Brain-damaged patients & SLI have difficulty on
function words (in, which) rather than contents words (inn, witch)
• Slips of the tongue has been observed on content words but not function words, e.g., the journal of the editor => the editor of the journal
• Children omit function words in acquisition, e.g., doggie (is) barking
• Content words vs. function words play diff roles
• Content words bear meanings
• Function words connect content words into larger grammatical context
Morphemes • The minimal units of meaning or the most
elemental unit of grammatical form (morpho-/morph- means “form”)
• Morphology: study of internal structures of words & rules by which words are formed (morph- + -ology: branch of knowledge); refers to internal grammatical knowledge concerning word forms
• Un- means “not” (see examples on p.37)
• Phon- means “pertaining to sound” (p. 37)
ㄨph- or pho-
• Words have rule-governed internal structures
e.g., uneaten *eatenun “not eaten”
• Un- must be prefixed, not suffixed, as im-
Formation of Words • A single word may be composed of one or more
morphemes (see p. 38)
• A morpheme could be a single sound, atypical; a single syllable, childish; two syllables, lady; three syllables, crocodile; four syllables, helicopter
• Morpheme: arbitrary union of sound & meaning
• Morpheme: cannot be analyzed into smaller unit
• Linguistic sign: sound vs. meaning
Discreteness of Morphemes • Monomorphemic words: words represent a single
morpheme, finger (ㄨ fing + er)
• Meaning of morphemes are constant
• Identical form represents two morphemes (same form & diff meanings): singer, painter, worker, taller, nicer, prettier
• Two morphemes have same meaning but diff forms: singer, songster, youngster (monster!)
• Discreteness: decomposition of words into morphemes; fundamental properties of human lg; sounds=>morphemes=>words=>phrases=>S; diff from animal communication; important part of linguistic creativity, writable, (un)rewritable
Bound & Free Morphemes • Morphological knowledge = knowledge of
individual morphemes + knowledge of rules to combine them
• Free morpheme: morphemes that can stand alone, boy, desire, gentle, man
• Bound morpheme: morphemes attached to a base morpheme, -ish, -ness, -ly, pre-, un-, trans-
• Affixes: bound morphemes attach at the beginning, the end, in the middle, or both beginning & end
Prefixes & Suffixes • Prefix: affixes precede other morphemes, un-,
pre-, bi-
• Suffix: affixes follow other morphemes, -er, -ist,
-ing, -ly
• Languages differ in how they deploy affixation,
e.g., English plural form: -s, -es (suffix); Isthmus
Zapotec in Maxico: ka- (prefix) (p. 40)
• Languages differ in what meanings they
express through affixation, e.g., verb-to-noun in
English (dance); suffix –ak in Turkish (p. 40);
each other in English, -sh in Turkish (p. 40)p.41
Infixes & Circumfixes • Infixes: morphemes insert into other
morphemes, e.g., Bontoc in Philippines, -um
inserted after 1st consonant (p. 41)
• Circumfixes (discontinuous morphemes):
morphemes are attached to a base morpheme
initially & finally, e.g., Chickasaw in Oklahoma,
ik- + -o to indicate a negative morpheme (p. 42);
German, ge- + -t to mean past participle of
verbs, lieb ‘love’ => geliebt ‘loved’ or ‘beloved’
Roots & Stems • Morphological complex words = root + affix(es)
• Root: may or may not stand alone as a word,
(1) painter, reread, conceive, linguist
(2) the form around which circumfix attaches, ikchokmo
(3) the form into which infix is inserted, fumikas ‘to be strong’
• Hebrew & Arabic vary patterns of vowels & syllables on nouns & verbs, e.g., infixing vowels in ktb ‘write’ (p. 42)
• Stem = root + affix (p. 42)
• Base = any root or stem to which an affix is attached, system, systematic, unsystematic, unsystematical vs. unsystematically
Bound Roots • Do not occur in isolation
• Acquire meaning only in combination with other morphemes, receive, perceive, deceive, conceive; permit, submit, admit, transmit
• For English speakers, Latinate morphemes have no independent meaning
• Their meaning depends on entire words in which they occur
• Prefix + bound root morpheme: nonplussed, discern
• Bound morphemes convey meaning only in combination, huckleberry (small, round, purplish blue), lukewarm (somewhat)
Rules of Word Formation • Pure + ify = purify
• Simple + ify = simplify
• False + ify = falsify
• Adjective + ify = Verb
‘to make adjective”
• Purify + cation = purification
• Simplify + cation = simplification
• Falsify + cation = falsification
• Verb +cation = Noun
‘the process of making adjective”
• How about ugly?
• Ugly + ify = uglify?
• Uglify + cation = uglification?
• Morphological rules of English in combining words
Exercise 4: P. 67 Write the one proper description
from the list under B for the
italicized part of each world in A
Derivational Morphology • When bound morphemes are attached to a base, a
new word with a new meaning is derived
e.g., pure + ify = purify ‘to make pure’
purify + cation = purification ‘the process of making pure’
• In mental lexicon, derivational morphemes & rules determine how we add to roots or stems
• Derived words: forms resulted from addition of derivational morphemes, pouzy + ify = pouzify + cation = pouzification (static electricity on hair)
• Derivational morphemes have clear semantic contents & may result in different grammatical classes
Derivational Affixes • Desire + able = desirable (V to A)
• Dark + en = darken (A to V)
• Sweet + ie = sweetie (A to N) (p. 45)
• Application of morphological rules may be blocked
when a new word enters lexicon, e.g., communist
ㄨcommuian (grammarian) or communite
(Trotskyite); Chomskyan, Chomskyist, Chomskyite
(followers of Chomsky’s views of linguistics);
semanticist, semanticianㄨsemantite
• Two classes of derivational affixes: (1) trigger
sound change in pronunciation (-ity, -ive, -ize), (2)
without affecting pronunciation (-ness, -er) p. 46
Inflectional Morphology • Bound morphemes for grammatical function,
e.g., tense, person, number
• Never change grammatical category of stems to which they are attached, e.g., sail, sails, sailed, has sailed (require syntactic rules), is sailing
• Inflectional morphemes does not add lexical meaning; closely connected to syntax & semantics of S
• Eight bound inflectional affixes in Modern English (p. 47)
• Derivational morpheme + inflectional morpheme, commit + ment + s
Inflectional Morphemes • Apply freely to every appropriate base, very
productive, plural –s (unlike derivational
morphemes, idolize *picturize
• English has relatively little inflectional
morphology vs. Swahili in eastern Africa,
European lgs, Romans lgs from Latin (p. 47)
• Case morphology: grammatical relation of
nouns (case of nouns), Russian has rich
system of inflectional suffixes for grammatical
relations of nouns (p. 48)
Rich Inflectional Processes
• German circumfixes: geliebt, ‘loved’ ‘beloved’
• Arabic infixes: kitáab ‘book’, kútub ‘books’
• Samoan reduplication: savali ‘he travels’,
savavali, ‘they travel’
• Malay reduplication: orang, ‘person’,
orangorang ‘people’
• Finnish have extraordinarily complex case
morphology; Chinese lack it entirely
• Distinctions bet inflectional vs. derivational(p.48)
Exercise 2: P. 66 Divide the following words by
placing a + between their
morphemes
Hierarchical Structure of Words
• Morphemes added in fixed orders reflect hierarchical organization of words
• Hierarchical structure is essential property of human lg
• Words & Ss relate to each other in specific & rule-governed ways
• Words have internal structures but not simple sequences
• Representations in tree diagrams, e.g., unsystematic (p. 49) + morphological rules
• -atic is closer than un- to system,ㄨunsystem
Morphological Rules • Adjective + al = adjective (p. 50)
egotistical + al = egotistical
fantastical + al = fantastical
astronomic + astronomical
• Adjective + ly = adverb
happy + ly = happily
lazy + ly = lazily
hopeful + ly = hopefully
unsystematically (p. 50)
• Un- + noun = adjective (p . 51) unemployment, unacceptance, *uncola!
• Part of linguistic
competence
includes ability to
recognize possible
vs. impossible words
Tree Diagrams • Make explicit way that speakers represent
internal structure of morphologically complex
words in lgs
• Tree diagrams show that mental representation
of words is hierarchical & linear
• Inflectional morphemes are equally well
represented, refinalizes (p. 51)
• Ambiguous words show two clear hierarchical
structures based on meanings, unlockable (p.
51, 52), i.e., structure is important to
determining meaning
Rule Productivity I • Some morphological rules are productive, e.g.,
verb + able = ‘able to be’, acceptable, laughable, passable, changeable, breathable, adaptable, downloadable, faxable
• Un- derives opposite meaning, unafraid, unfit, un-American
• un-Rule is productive for adjectives derived from verbs, unbelievable, unpickupable, unsimplified, unauthorized, undistinguished
• Most un- words have polysyllabic bases, unfit, uncool, unread, unclean, unhappy, uncrowdly; most unacceptable un-forms are monosyllabic stems, *unsad, *ungreat, *unred
Rule Productivity II • Verb + -er = ‘one who does’, examiner, analyzer,
hunter; comparative –er ‘more’, greedier, nicer, prettier, more beautiful
• Other productivity rules: sincere + ity = sincerity, curious + ity = curiosity; warm + th = warmth, wide + th = width; moist + en = moisten, ripe + en = ripen
• Meanings can be predicted by attached prefixes, unhappy ‘not happy’, acceptable ‘fit to be accepted’; some are unpredictable (p. 53)
• Unpredictable words are listed individually in the mental lexicon
Exceptions & Suppletions • Children learn regular rules first, plural rule, past
tense rule
• Irregular rules (suppletions) are learned later, child
(children), man (men), foot (feet), mouse (mice),
go (went), sing (sang), bring (brought), run (run),
know (knew)
• Children’s speech errors in acquisition evidenced
existence of regular rules, goed, mans
• Suppletive forms are treated separately in
grammar, went, worse
• Regular forms + rules are listed in mental lexicon,
walked, taller
Zero Phonological Shape • Hit + past tense = hit, Yesterday you hit the ball
• Sheep + plural form = sheep, The sheep are in the meadow
• Derived verbs from nouns apply regular rules, ring (encircle), The police ringed the bank with armed menㄨrang; flied out (from fly ball),ㄨflew out
• Nouns lose meanings in compounds, flatfoot ‘cop’, flatfoots,ㄨflatfeet
• Mothers-in-law, mother-in-law’s; courts-martial, attorneys-general (legal setting)/ attorney-generals (popular call); rightmost acts, footman, footmen,
ㄨfeetman, feetmen, footmans
Lexical Gaps • Accidental caps = well-formed non-existing
words
• Words are not presented but could be added in lexicon with permissible sound sequence, *blick, *slarm, *krobe
• Phonotactic constraints should be considered, *bnick for impossible English initials
• Mental grammar with morphological components make us create & understand new words & recognize possible & impossible words, *magnificenter, more magnificent; *disobvious, nonobvious
Back-Formations • New words enter lg because of incorrect
morphological analyses, peddler => peddle
(p.56)
• Delibrately miscast back-formations, bikini (two)
from Marshall islands => monokini (one,
topless), tankini (tank top); martini (wine) =>
appletini, chocotini, mintini; action => act,
revision = > revise, television => televise,
resurrection => resurrect
• Lgs can be adaptable & changeable but not
corrupted
Compounds • Flexible combinations in English (p. 57)
• When two words in same grammatical category, compound will be in this category
noun + noun = noun, boyfriend, mailman
adj. + adj. = adj., icy-cold, red-hot, wordly-wise
• Compound head: the part of a word or phrase that determines grammatical category of compounds
noun + adj. = adj., headstrong
verb + noun = noun, pickpocket
• Prepositions can be in compounds, overtake, sundown
• No compounding limit, four-dimensional space-time (p.58)
• Compounds have internal structures, tophatrack (p. 58)
Meaning of Compounds • Is not always sum of its parts, blackboard (green?
white?), Redcoat (English soldiers? red coat)
• Jumping beans, falling star, magnifying glass, but
how about looking glass? eating apple?
• Peanut oil, olive oil, how about baby oil?
• Horse meat (meat from horses), dog meat (meat
for dogs)
• Opaque compounds are unrelated to meanings of
parts, jack-in-a-box, turncoat, highbrow, bigwig,
egghead, flatfoot
• Stressed the first syllables of compounds
Universality of Compounding
• Common & frequent process enlarging
vocabulary of all lgs, French, German, Russian,
Spanish, Native American lg Tohono, Twi (p.
59), Thai (p. 60)
• Pullet Surprises? Pulitzer Prizes?
• Errors reveal knowledge of morphology
longevity, ‘being very tall’
homogeneous, ‘devoted to home life’
Exercise 3: P. 67 Match each expression under
A with the one statement
under B that characterizes it
Morphological Analysis
• Case study 1: English (p. 61)
• Case study 2: Paku (p. 62)
• Case study 3: Michoacan Aztec (p. 63)
• Case study 4: Slavic examples (p. 63)
Exercise 5: P. 67 Part One + Part Two
Question?
Homework Hand-in next week