Moral Reasoning and Ethical Theories
Transcript of Moral Reasoning and Ethical Theories
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4 E T H I C A L T H E O R I E S
1 Utilitarianism : Mill &
Others
2 Duty Ethics : Kant
3 Rights Ethics : Locke
4 Virtue Ethics : Aristotle
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1) U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • Those actions which produce the
maximum benefit for the
greatest number of people ( Ex.
Democracy )
• Emphasizes on maximizing the
well being of the society as a
whole and not on that of an
individual
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U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • Tries to achieve a balance between the
Good and Bad consequences of an
action
• Tries to maximize the well being of
society and emphasizes what will
provide the most benefit to the largest
group of people
• This method is fundamental to many
types of engineering analysis, including
Risk – Benefit Analysis and Cost –
Benefit Analysis
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D R A W B A C K S • Sometimes what is best for the
community as a whole is bad for
certain individual in the
community
• It is often impossible to know in
advance which decision will lead
to the most good
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P R O B L E M S • Difficult to quantify benefits for
all those affected
• “Greatest Good” difficult to
apply to an all – inclusive
population
• Some gets “Shafted” –
approach justifies perpetrating
injustice on individuals
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3 A P P R O A C H E S
• Cost Benefit
• Act
Utilitarian
• Rule
Utilitarian
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1) COST BENEFIT APPROACH • In a Project, Costs & Benefits are
assessed
• Projects with highest ration of
Benefits to Costs will be implemented
• Easy to estimate the cost but difficult
to predict the Benefit in tangible
terms
• It is important to ensure that those
who benefit are also those who pay
the cost
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2) A C T U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • It focuses on individual actions rather
than Rules
• Well known proponent was “John
Stuart Mill”
• Mill felt that individual actions should
be judged based on whether the most
Good was produced in a given
situation and rules shall be broken if
doing so will lead to the most Good
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R U L E U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • It differs from Act utilitarianism as
it holds that Moral Rules are most
important
• It contends that adhering to rules
might not always maximize good in
a particular situation. Overall
adhering to moral rules will
ultimately lead to the most Good
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D U T Y E T H I C S ( K A N T )• Contends that certain acts ( or
duties ) shall be performed because
they are inherently ethical
These actions can be listed
( Honesty, fairness )
• Concludes that individuals who
recognize their ethical duties will
choose ethically correct moral
actions
• May not always lead to Maximization
of Good to society
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E X A M P L E S O F D U T Y E T H I C S
1 Be Honest
2 Be Fair
3 Do not hurt Others
4 Keep your promises
5 Obey the Law
This leads to “ R e s p e c t
for H u m a n i t y ”
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RIGHTS ETHICS - LOCKE • Formulated by John Locke
• It holds that people have
fundamental rights that other
people have a duty to respect
• Any act that violates an
individual’s moral rights is ethically
unacceptable
• Duty Ethics & Rights Ethics are just
two sides of the same coin
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R I G H T S E T H I C SE x :
• Charter of Human Rights and
Freedom
• Rights to a Harassment Free
Discrimination - Free Environment
D r a w b a c k
• How to prioritize the rights of
different individuals ?
• It often promotes rights of
individuals at the cost of society
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P R O B L E M S W I T H D U T Y & R I G H T S E T H I C S • Basic right of one person ( group )
may conflict with that of others
• Ex. Dam construction project
Individuals objection is overlooked
as per utilitarianism & not by
Rights Ethics
Rights Ethics can result in project
termination although it is Good to
society
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ie Rights Ethics favour
individual while
Utilitarianism favours
society as a whole
Now the Question is
Which Theory to use ?
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Fortunately, many - a - times all
these theories lead to the same
conclusion
Ex : Chemical Plant that
discharges a hazardous waste
into Ground Water
U t i l i t a r i a n T h e o r y :
Doesn’t permit this as it causes
‘ N o G o o d ’ to
society
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P O I N T T O T H E S A M E C O N C L U S
I O N
R i g h t s E t h i c s :
Says it causes harm to many
individual ( unethical )
V i r t u e E t h i c s :
Discharging Waste into GW
is irresponsible & harmful
act
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V I R T U E E T H I C S • Focuses on the Type of person we
should strive to be
• Actions which reflect good
character traits ( Virtues ) are
inherently right
• Actions which reflect bad
character traits ( Vices ) are
inherently wrong
• More tied to individual behaviour
than to that of an organization
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A R I S T O T L E ’ S V I R T U E E T H I C S
• It makes proper balance between
of conduct, emotion, desire and
attitude
• This he refers as “G o l d e n M e a
n”
• That is between the extremes of
“T o o M u c h” ( Excess ) or
“ T o o L i t t l e ”
( deficiency )
• Viz. Truthfulness, Generosity,
friendliness etc
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U S E O F E T H I C A L T H E O R I E S
I m p o r t a n t U s e s
• Understanding Moral Dilemmas
• Justifying Professional
Obligation and Ideals
• Relating Ordinary & Professional
Morality D I S C U S S I O N F O L L O W S
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1) R E S O L V I N G M O R A L D I L E M M A S
• U t i l i t a r i a n i s m :
Construes Dilemma in terms of
Competing Goods & Public
Safety
• V i r t u e E t h i c s :
In terms of competing ideals &
relationship
Loyalty to employers vs to public
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D u t y E t h i c s :
Duty to protect public
affected by the work and to
respect employer’s authority
R i g h t E t h i c s :
Rights of the people vs rights
of Management
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2 Provides more precise sense of
kind of information needed to
solve the moral dilemma
3 Offers ways to Rank the relevant
moral considerations in the
order of importance and provide
guidance in solving them
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4 Helps to identify the full
moral ramifications of
alternative course of
actions
5 By providing framework for
moral development, the theories
strengthen our ability to
reach balanced judgments
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Further Ethical Theories are
also useful in justifying the
obligations of Professionals
( Engineers )
1. Acquire Moral Obligation
Concerning Safety by being
Subject to Laws
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2. Acquire special obligation by
joining a professional society
thereby agree to live by society’s
code
3. Acquire Safety obligations
through contractual Agreement
4. Promise tacitly the public on
his responsibility to protect the
safety of society
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3 T Y P E S O F I N Q U I R Y Engineering Ethics Combines
Inquiries into Values,
Meanings & Facts
(a) N o r m a t i v e
Inquiry
(b) C o n c e p t u a l
Inquiry
(c) F a c t u a l
Inquiry
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a) N O R M A T I V E I N Q U I R YIt aims at identifying & justifying
the morally desirable norms or
standards that ought to guide
individuals or groups
Ex :
(i) When whistle blowing shall be
resorted to
(ii) Judgment in Acceptable Risks
etc
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b) C O N C E P T U A L I N Q U I R I E S
• Directed towards clarifying the
meaning of concepts, principles
and issues in Engineering Ethics
Ex : What does “ S a f e t y ” mean
and how is it related to
Risk ?
What is Bribe ?
What is a profession & a
professional etc.,
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c) F A C T U A L I N Q U I R I E S • Also known as “ D e s c r i p t i
v e I n q u i r i e s ” seek to
uncover information bearing
upon value issues
• Where possible, researchers
attempt to conduct factual
enquiries using proven Scientific
Techniques
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• Factual inquiries involve
what is actually known about a
case ie what the facts are ?
• Ofcourse, Facts can be
controversial
Ex : Global Warming process is
only barely / partly understood and
the need to curtail emission of
these has become a controversial
issue
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M O R A L D E V E L O P M E N T
2 Theories
Exist
1. Kohlberg’s
Theory
2. Carol Gilligan’s
Theory
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K O H L B E R G ’ S T H E O R Y
Six stages of Moral
Development that
could be classified into
3 identifiable level
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Level 1 : Pre conventional (Self
Centric)
Ex : Children and Few Adults
O r i e n t a t i o n :
Stage 1 : Obedience /
Punishment
Behave according to socially
acceptable norms because they are
imposed on you. This is compelled
by threat of Punishment
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Stage 2 : Individualism
Characterized by “Right
Behaviour means in acting one’s
own interest”
Level 2 : Conventional ( Family /
Society Centric )
Ex : My Family, Group & Society
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Stage 3 : Good Boy / Good Girl
Characterized by an attitude that
seek to do those things that gain
the approval of others
Stage 4 : Law and Order
Abiding by Law & responding to the
obligations of duty
Highly Motivated to Please
Others
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Level 3 : Post conventional
( Principle Centric )
Based on General Principles for
the Large Good
Stage 5 : Social Contract
Stage 6 : Principled Conscience
Kohlberg feels that this level is
not reached by Majority of adults
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S 5 : Genuine interest in
welfare of others
S 6 : Respect for Universal
Principle & the demands
of Individual
Conscience Autonomous People, think on their own
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In essence, Kohlberg believed that
“Moral Development” can be
promoted through Formal Education
and Social Interaction
Children develop through stages 1 &
2 and settle into 3 & 4
Only a minority of adults pass into
higher stages 5 & 6
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CAROL GILLIGAN'S THEORY
No
Men Women
1
More interested to try & solve moral problems by applying Abstract Moral Principles
Try to preserve personal relationship with everyone involved in the situation
2
Resolve Moral Dilemmas by determining most important Moral Rule
Hence focus greater attention on the context & details of M Dilemma rather than simply invoking & ranking General Rules
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Gillighan’s Recasting of Kohlberg 1 Preconventional : Self centric
2 Conjugational level : Sacrificial, Quite
often women are prone to fall a prey
& are willing to give up their personal
interest to serve needs of others
3 Post Conventional : Strikes a
Reasoned, Balance of ones own
interest with that of the others needs
- Based on Mutual Caring
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M O R A L A U T O N O M Y• Autonomous individuals think for
themselves and do not assume
that customs are always right
• They seek to reason and live by
general principles
• Their motivation is to do what is
morally reasonable for its own
sake, maintaining integrity, self
respect and respect for others
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SKILLS TO BE DEVELOPED for M A
1 Proficiency in recognizing moral
problems
2 Skill in comprehending, clarifying
& critically assessing opposing
views
3 Ability to form consistent &
comprehensive view points based
on relevant facts
4 Imaginative awareness of
alternative responses
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5 Sensitive to genuine difficulties
6 Increased precision in the use of
common ethical language
7 Sense of appreciation for using
both Rational Dialogue and
Tolerance with morally reasonable
beings
8 Awakened sense of integrating
one’s Professional Life & Personal
Convictions ie Moral Integrity
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A N E X A M P L E Martin Luther King Jr ( 1 9 6 3 )
“One who breaks an unjust law must
do so openly, lovingly and with a
willingness to accept the penalty.
I submit that an individual
who breaks a law that conscience
tells him is unjust and willingly
accepts the penalty is in reality
expressing the highest respect for
the law
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M O R A L D I L E M M A S • Moral Dilemmas, at the very least,
involve conflicts between moral
Requirements
Why Does Moral Dilemma Arise ?
1 Problems of Vagueness
2 Problems of Conflicting Reasons
3 Problems of Disagreement
ie. You have moral reasons to do each
of 2 action but doing both is not
possible
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S T E P S T O C O N F R O N T M O R A L D I L E M M A S
1 Identify the Moral Factors &
Reasons
2 Gather all available facts that
are pertinent
3 Rank the moral considerations
4 Consider alternative course of
action
5 Talk to colleagues
6 Arrive at a carefully reasoned
judgment
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TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMAS1 Epistemic vs Ontological
Epistemic : Two or more moral
requirements & not knowing which
one takes precedence
2 Ontological
Two or more moral requirements
and neither is overridden. Both are
Genuines
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2) SELF IMPOSED vs BY WORLD
S e l f I m p o s e d :
Arises by one’s own wrongdoing.
Promising to do things knowing
fully well they can’t be
I m p o s e d b y W o r l d :
Imposed by the world and not
arising rut of one’s action
D I F F I C U L T to R E S O L V E
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3) O B L I G A T I O N vs
P R O H I B I T I O N D
I L E M M A O b l i g a t i o n :
More than one feasible
action is obligatory
P r o h i b i t i o n :
All feasible actions are
forbidden
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M O R A L R E L A T I V I S M
• Moral relativists maintain
that moral disagreements
stem from the fact that
what is right for one is not
necessarily right for another
• Morality is purely relative
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M O R A L A B S O L U T I S M • Moral Absolutists believe
that their moral
viewpoint is the only
legitimate one
• Religions fundamentalist
are absolutists
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STUDY THE FOLLOWING ALSO 1 Moral Pluralion
2 Moral Disagreement
3 Ethical Egoism
4 Universalizability
5 Caring
6 Compassion
7 Value Based Ethics