MODULE on Organization and Management of Educational Business Institution

7/28/2019 MODULE on Organization and Management of Educational Business Institution

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MODULE

PRESENTED BY : NELSON R. BELLO REQUIREMENT FOR THE COURSE: ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

PRESENTED TO : DR. LYDIA DELOS REYES OF EDUCATIONAL/BUSINESS INSTITUTIONS

NORTHWEST SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY

Calbayog City

GRADUATE SCHOOL AND TRAINING ACADEMY


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

COVER PAGE .1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 2INTRODUCTION .4

MODULE 1 : MANAGEMENT

A. DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION

Management and Its Relation to Art and Science.. 5

Management and Practice 6

Management and People .. 7

B. PATERNS OF MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS The Empirical School . 8

The Decision Theory School . 8

The Mathematical School ..9

The Systems of School .10

The Human Behavior School ...10

The Social System School 10

The Socio-Technical System School ...11

The Situational School ...11

The Managerial Roles School .. 12

The Operational School .12

C. THE MANAGER AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

The Economic Environment . 12

The Technological Environment ...13

The Social Environment .14

The Political Environment ..15

D. MANAGEMENT OF REVOLUTIONS

Crusading Stage .16

Popular Movement Stage . 16

Managerial Stage 16 Bureaucratic Stage .16

Preventing Another Revolution .17

E. COMPARATIVE MANAGEMENT

The Need for an Analytical Framework .. 17

Management and Culture . 18

The Impact of Culture on Modern Management 18


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F. PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Integrated Project Management Cycle ...18

Project pre-Development Land Screening .19

Project Appraisal, Negotiations and Approval 19 Project Implementation . 20

Project Evaluation and Recyling ..21

G. ACTIVITIES 22

PART II: ORGANIZING

A. ORGANIZING PROCESS

Why Organizing? 24

B. CHALLENGE OF INTRODUCING CHANGE

Managing Change at the Top 25

C. THEORIES OF ORGANIZING

The Classical Theory .25

The Neo Classic Theory 27

The Fusion Theory .28

The Systems Theory ..28

The Qualitative Theory ..29

The Four Basic Category of Change ..29

Organizational Evolutions in Developing Countries .30

D. ORGANIZATION

Formal Organization ..31

Organization Chart .31

Classical Principles 32

Coordination Process 33

The Effective Organization 34

Strategies of OD .36

Department ..39

Basic Departmentalization .31 Informal Organization .42

Individual and Group Responsibility 42

Tool and Techniques of Organization . 43

E. ACTIVITIES 44

REFERENCES 47


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NTRODUCTION

Management education has gained more importance in the last four decades

and institutions imparting management education have sprung up in large numbers

in the Philippines as well as in many other countries. Though institutions in our

country have adopted certain models from business/educational organizations, very

few have even thought of implementing any measures to improve the service quality

and organization effectiveness in their institutions. This module attempts to compile

some of the proven conceptual models that can be adopted as strategy and

operations to improve the degree of Organization Effectiveness.

Organizational Management is a quite discursive subject and much has been

written about it. Therefore, the study of organizations and their management

requires a comprehensive analysis. That only a single approach to organization and

management provides all the answers can hardly be maintained. Different

approaches should be comparatively studied.

It was only observed a few remarkable approaches to management until the

early 1950's, such as classical approach and human relations approach. But, since

then, as to what management is, what management theory is and how managerial

work or events should be analyzed, the various approaches to management and

much differing views have been appeared. This situation resulted in much confusion

in order to appreciate and probe the management and its ensuing problems and themanagerial roles and events, etc. Some years ago, an author who attempted to

classify the various "schools" of management theory called this situation "the

management theory jungle".

Certainly, it could be observed that many different approaches were diversely

categorized by different authors. Familiarity with the approaches to management by

analysis can help one appreciate many insights, ideas and help one avoid re -

examining previously known ideas.

I


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MODULE 1

MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION

A. Management and Its Relation to Art and Science

According to the nature of management, there is a controversy that

whether management is a science or an art. This controversy is very old & is

yet to be settled. It should be noted that, learning process of science is

different from that of art. Learning of science includes principles while learning

of art involves its continuous practice.

Management as a Science

Just like science, it cannot be denied that

management has a systematic body of knowledge

but it is not as exact as that of other physical

sciences like biology, physics, and chemistry etc.

The main reason for the inexactness of science of

management is that it deals with human beings and

it is very difficult to predict their behavior accurately.

Since it is a social process, therefore it falls in the area

of social sciences. It is a flexible science & that is why its theories andprinciples may produce different results at different times and therefore it is a

behavior science.

Management as an Art

Art means application of knowledge & skill to

get the desired results. An art may be defined as

personalized application of general theoretical

principles for achieving best possible results. Art

has the following characters: practical

knowledge, personal skill, creativity, perfection

through practice, and goal-oriented.


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MANAGEMENT

&

PRACTICE

Thus, we can say that management is an art therefore it requires

application of certain principles rather it is an art of highest order because it

deals with shaping the attitude and behavior of people at work towards the

desired goals.

Management as a Science and as an Art and as Both

Management is both an art and a science. The above mentioned

points clearly reveal that management combines features of both science as

well as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of

knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because

managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of

managers. Science provides the knowledge & art deals with the application of

knowledge and skills.

A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the

knowledge of science & the art of applying it. Therefore management is a

well-judged combination of science as well as an art because it proves the

principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science

teaches to know and art teaches to do. E.g. a person cannot become a

good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas & he also applies

his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for

manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving

various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually

exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit,bread and butter etc.). To conclude, we can say that science is the root and

art is the fruit.

Management and Practice

Management and Practices gives a

basic understanding of the role and

functions of a manager and to explain the

principles, concepts, and techniques used

by managers in educational and business

organizations in carrying out their work. This

is intended for persons who presently hold, or desire in the future to hold,

management responsibilities in an organization or enterprise. A central

concept of Management and Practice is that there is a general framework for


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understanding management that applies to managers in all organizations-

large or small, public or private, product-oriented or service-oriented.

Management and Practice include values and ethics, communicating,

planning, decision making, organizing, leading, controlling, and innovating.

This emphasizes the skills needed to apply management principles and

concepts to real-life situations; you will analyze management issues and

problems and how to formulate realistic, practical plans to resolve them.

These practical skills are developed through case studies in the assignments,

and through applying concepts to your own situation and approaches.

Management and People

People are the most importantresource for any business or educational

organization/institutions. People manage and organize

according to different management styles and

experiences. Management involves working with

people and getting organizational objectives

achieved through them. Working through people is interpreted in

terms of assigning activities to subordinates. We refer to management as a

group of people in which we include all those personnel who perform

managerial functions in organizations

Many women are excellent business managers. However, their special

skills and competencies as managers often remain under-utilized and the

subject of organization and management has often been neglected in training

programmes for women entrepreneurs with little educational background,

assuming that they do not need managerial skills.

B. PATERNS OF MANAGEMENT ANALYSIS

Pattern of management analysis is an analysis that comprises of

human capital management, project management tools, process modelling

solution as well as procurement management.


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The Empirical School

Studies experience through cases.

Identifies successes and failure. Situations

are all different. No attempt to identify

principles. Limited value for developing

management theory.

The Empirical School seeks to generalize the nature of management

based on the experience of successful managers. The basic theme of this

assumption is that if a particular business/ educational operation is

successful, or if a particular problem was effectively tackled by application of

a particular strategy, then the methods of strategies through which success

was achieved by the managers could be equally effectively used by others in

the case of similar business situations in future.

The Empirical School in an Applied Management is an Autonomous

Management School established with a view to get the aspiring professionals

conversant with Broad-based, Self-cultivating, and Application oriented

Management education. The said Management School is neither accredited

nor affiliated to any statutory body or University. It is Purely Autonomous in all

respects and stands for its Quality Management Education. All Professional

Management Programs of high standard speak well about the Testimony

which has instant taste of global business environment. Here, Candidates are

not only made to study Management but in fact experience and share theManagement Ethics, Strategies, Methodology and Analyze Management

operations under Application-based philosophy. The creative integrated

catalytic approach of the management operations has to enable them to

achieve the business goals. Evidently candidates learn the application-

oriented key operative skills to achieve result oriented professional growth.

The Decision Theory School

The decision theory school of

management concentrates on the rational

approach to decisions where alternative ideas

or courses of action are analyzed. This school

is believed to have grown from the theory of

consumer's choice associated with Jeremy

Bentham and tends to be oriented toward


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economic model construction and mathematics. It grew out of economic

analytical techniques such as utility maximization, indifference curves,

marginal utility, and economic behavior under risk and uncertainty. The

decision is the central focus.

Additionally, the Decision Theory School is a framework of logical and

mathematical concepts, aimed at helping managers in formulating rules that

may lead to a most advantageous course of action under the given

circumstances. Decision theory divides decisions into three classes (1)

Decisions under certainty: where a manager has far too much information to

choose the best alternative. (2) Decisions under conflict: where a manager

has to anticipate moves and counter-moves of one or more competitors. (3)

Decisions under uncertainty: where a manager has to dig-up a lot of data to

make sense of what is going on and what it is leading to. See also game

theory.

The Mathematical School

Managing is seen as mathematical

processes, concepts, symbols, and models.

Looks at management as a purely logical

process, expressed in mathematical symbols and

relationships pre-occupation with mathematical

models. Many aspects in managing cannot bemodeled. Mathematics is a useful tool, but hardly

a school or an approach to management.

The mathematical school of management views management as a

system of mathematical models and processes. This includes the operations

researchers and management scientists. But Koontz points out that in his

view mathematics is a tool, not a school.

The Systems of School

Systems concepts have broad

applieability. Systems have boundaries, but

theyalsa interaet with the external environment,

also, organisations are open systems.

Recognises importance of studying


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interralatedness of planning, organising, and controlling in an organisation as

well as the many subsystems. Analyses of the interrelatedness of systems

and subsystems as well as the interactions of organisations with their external

environment. Can hardly be considered a new approach to management.

The Human Behavior School

The central thesis of the human

behavior school is that since management

involves getting thing done with people,

management theory must be centered on

interpersonal relations. Their theory focuses

on the motivation of the individual viewed as a

socio-psychological being.

This school is also referred to as the "human relations", "leadership",

or "behavioral sciences approach". This school places emphasis on the study

of inter - and intra-personal phenomena from the personality dynamics of

individuals to the relations of cultures. Tannenbaum, Weschler and Massarik

are the only authors referenced in this section.

The Social System School

The members of the social system

school of management theory view

management as a social system. March and

Simon's 1958 book Organizations4 is used as

an example, but Koontz indicates that Chester

Barnard is the spiritual father of this school of

management.

The social system school identifies the nature of the cultural

relationships of various social groups and how they are related and

integrated. Barnard's work includes a theory of cooperation which underlies

the contributions of many others in this school. Herbert Simon, and others

expanded the concept of social systems to include any cooperative and

purposeful group interrelationship or behavior.


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The Socio-Technical System School

Socio-technical systems school pertains

to theory regarding the social aspects of people

and society and technical aspects of

organizational structure and processes. Here,

technical does not necessarily imply material

technology. The focus is on procedures and

related knowledge, i.e. it refers to the ancient

Greek term logos. "Technical" is a term used to

refer to structure and a broader sense of

technicalities. Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of social and

technical aspects of an organization or the society as a whole.

Sociotechnical theory therefore is about joint optimization, with ashared emphasis on achievement of both excellence in technical performance

and quality in people's work lives. Sociotechnical theory, as distinct from

sociotechnical systems, proposes a number of different ways of achieving

joint optimisation. They are usually based on designing different kinds of

organisation, ones in which the relationships between socio and technical

elements lead to the emergence of productivity and wellbeing.

The Situational School

The fundamental underpinning of the situational school is that there is

no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and

the most successful leaders are those that adapt their leadership style to the

maturity ("the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability

to take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of

an individual or a group for the task") of the individual or group they are

attempting to lead or influence.

Effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is

being influenced, but it also depends on the task, job or function that needs to

be accomplished.


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Manager

The Managerial Roles School

Original study consisted of observations of five

chief executives. On the basis of this study, ten

managerial roles were identified and grouped into O)

interpersonal, (2) informational and (37 decision roles.

Original sample was very small. Same activities are

not managerial. Activities are evidence of planning,

organising, staffing, leading and controlling. But same

important managerial activities were left out (e.g.,

appraising managers).

The Operational School

Draws together concepts, principles,

techniques, and knowledge from other fields and

managerial approaches. The attempt is to develop

science and theory with practical application.

Distinguishes between managerial and non-

managerial knowledge. Develops classification

system built around

the managerial funcUons of planing, organising, staffing, leading, and

controlling. Does not as same authors do, identify representing" or

coordinatian" as a separate function. Co-ordination, for example, is theessence of managership and is the purpose of managing.

C. THE MANAGER AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

The Economic Environment

Managers develop their

organizational goals and strategies by

taking advantage of the organizations

internal strengths and external

environment and opportunities while at the

same time minimizing internal

weaknesses and external threats. An

analysis of the firms internal and external

environment provides useful information to managers in their planning,


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organizing, leading, and controlling functions. This analysis is essential to the

firms leadership as they seek to exist within the forces impacting upon their

firm.

The SWOT analysis is a basic framework for evaluating the firms

internal and external environments and thus its competitive positioning within

the marketplace. Important insights of a SWOT analysis come only after you

examine the matches and mismatches between the organizations strengths

and weaknesses and the environments opportunities and threats. Business

decisions take place within a competitive context.

Understanding who your competitors are and how your firm stacks up

against them is a key part of management. Analyzing your own company is

just as important as analyzing your competition. Thus, most companies use a

SWOT analysis to identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, andthreats. With insight into its own capabilities and those of its competitors, a

company can then work to gain a competitive edge.

The Technological Environment

Technological Environment means the

development in the field of technology which

affects business by new inventions of

productions and other improvements intechniques to perform the business work.

These are external factors in technology that

impact business operations. Changes in

technology affect how a company will do

business. A business may have to dramatically

change their operating strategy as a result of changes in the technological

environment.

We see that in 21st century, technology is changing fastly. Now, all

work is done online and business shops are using machinery at high level.

There are following technological environment factors which affects business.

New inventions to produce the products.

New inventions relating to marketing like BPO for selling online in

international market.


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M

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The Social Environment

Social or Societary environment of

business means all factors which affects

business socially. Every business works

in a society, so societies ' different factors

like family, educational institutions and

religion affects business.

Main elements of Societies and Its

Effect on Business

1. Family- Family is basic part of

society from the birth of a person and up

to death, he lives in family so personal decision of buying and selling of goodsare affects from family. In the culture of a family, it may happen that parent

does not allow to use any product , then sale of such product will decrease ,

so businessman must analyze different familys needs . Many occasion of

family like marriage of any family member, can increase the demand of

goods.

2. Educational institutions - Educational institutions are also main

part of societies. They provide good knowledge, education, awareness,

thinking what should students buy or not to buy. Suppose if a student is

habitual to drink the tea and if his teacher advise him that this is harmful to hishealth after his guidance students can avoid to drink tea after this the sale of

tea will decrease.

3. Religion - Like family and education institution, religion is also

effects the business socially. Religion means the system in which group of

persons trust in God. They believe that there is one supernatural power in this

earth and its name is God. Different religions have different principles, rules

and regulations in which they sacrifice to use some products and to eat some

food, in Hindu religion, they never use leather products. They affect the sale

of leather industries. So, businessman must analyze the targeted audience

and after listening their religious thoughts, he should produce the goods.


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The Political Environment

The political environment is a key

component of the management and business

environment that dictates greatly on the

success of your business. What happens in

the politics of your country as well as that of

other countries influences a lot business.

Usually, the term political environment is used

to refer to the nature of the political situation in

the country where you are doing business or

where you intend to do business. How aware

are you of the political aspects that affect your

home business?

If you haven't been paying any attention to those political aspects that

have an effect on your business, it's therefore important for you to understand

the political environment in which you are operating because it can present

political risks to your business. For instance, your business is subject to

political risks if a war erupts in any country where you do business. Likewise,

changes in government policies may either affect you positively or negatively.

The prevailing political environment in any country directly affects the

economic environment or performance.

D. MANAGEMENT OF REVOLUTIONS

As a result of the evolution of the

management, several important changes are already

taking place in the management education industry

worldwide. Industry landscape is becoming

increasingly diversified. Along with the classical

American model of a university business school,

several types of stand alone institutions emerged.

Some of them are not for profit, some commercial.

The management development market is successfully

penetrated by for-profit companies offering more

flexibility and customer intimacy than traditional business schools. Some of the

stand alone institutions (mostly European) are research driven; others limit their

intellectual ambitions to applied research, and position themselves on the market

MANAGEMENT


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either as high quality or low cost providers. Product and price differentiation is

rapidly gaining importance in management education.

1. Crusading Stage

Enriched by the Crusades and the opening of trade to the East,

modern Western bourgeois males began their rise to dominance within the

European commercial cities of the late Middle Ages. Business and commerce

were the specialties of this class, and their legitimizing institution was the

university the place where the modern hyper-masculine bourgeois paradigm

was developed and expanded.

2. Popular Movement Stage

This stage is very important in management. Dealing with human

resource is one of the major functions of management. Hence awareness of

human relations movement is very important particularly to student teachers.

3. Managerial Stage

At this stage Managerial functions, the most common activities carried

out by managers in their organization. The extent to which each of these

functions is carried out depends on the organization and its objectives. This

unit will discuss the five major managerial functions of planning, organizing,directing, control and staffing.

4. Bureaucratic Stage

This stage as proposed by Max Weber played a major role in the

development of a system of organization called bureaucracy. He is referred to

as the father of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy emerged from problems associated

with big business enterprises and increasing complexity of government

operations. According to Weber, bureaucracy is an approach to management

by office or position rather than a person.

Weber designed patterns of relationships to guide complex

organizational activities in a systematic manner to fulfill the needs of clients.

He proposed that the system of administration should be through

departments. Weber further proposed that an organization should be

developed around logical rules, routines, clear division of labor, technical


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qualifications and clear chain of command. According to Max Weber

bureaucracy was the best method of achieving group endeavors.

6. Preventing another Revolution

All revolutions have faced the same danger: either they fail, or they

degenerate into government. How can one be revolutionary and institutional if

revolutions are made against institutions?

The country in revolution is debating this subject, inventing and erring,

because success does not exist without failure. To prevent revolution, one

organization must be decisive to overthrow, with patience and more patience,

with work and more work.

E. COMPARATIVE MANAGEMENT

The Need for an Analytical Framework

In management, there is a need to

develop a framework to classify supply

chain risk-management problems and

approaches for the solution of these

problems. We argue that risk-managementproblems need to be handled at three

levels: 1) strategic, 2) operational, and 3)

tactical. In addition, risk within the supply

chain might manifest itself in the form of

deviations, disruptions, and disasters.

Fortunately, you can turn to analytical frameworks, which combine

reusable solutions with analysis patterns, research, useful organization

techniques, and specific examples of successful approaches. An analytical

framework is a little like your own personal library, tailored specifically to your

own experience and background.


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Management and Culture

Management and culture are two

important and inseparable concepts in

effective management. Culture refers to

certain norms of behavior governing the

conduct of workers involved in work

situations to achieve certain desired

objectives. The degree of ones involvement

influences his performance resulting in high

or low productivity, high or low quality.

Sometimes, work culture is also integrated with a workers loyalty and sense

of belonging, by his behavior, to the organization. It is a mixture of abiding to

the laws, observing appropriate code of conduct as determined by the

organization as well as maintaining one's own morality

The Impact of Culture on Modern Management

Good management and a healthy organizational culture can better

achieve its mission. In order to lead well, leaders in an organization need to

invest in themselves and in their staff.

A positive organizational culture will bring resources and relationships

to the organization. A negative culture will wipe out good intentions and

handicap good programs. It has been said that "culture eats strategy forlunch." It is better to attend to your organizational culture before it sabotages

your strategy and mission.

F. PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Integrated Project Management Cycle

Integrated Project management cycle

is a cycle on the discipline of planning,

organizing, motivating, and controlling

resources to achieve specific goals. A project

is a temporary endeavor with a defined

beginning and end (usually time-constrained,

and often constrained by funding or

deliverables), undertaken to meet unique


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goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or added

value.

The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast with business as

usual (or operations), which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent

functional activities to produce products or services. In practice, the

management of these two systems is often quite different, and as such

requires the development of distinct technical skills and management

strategies.

Project pre-Development Land Screening

In order to implement a comprehensive list of recommendations, past

projects and future projects will need to be evaluated and prioritized forfeasibility and for adherence to real funding constraints. Future evaluation

processes are recommended in four steps: pre-screening, an initial evaluation

against criteria, adjustments, and application to a system-wide model.

Although projects are legitimate, it should be better to identify those

projects that would provide the most benefit to community mobility and quality

of life. To begin the evaluation process, it should pass through screenings.

Project Appraisal, Negotiations and Approval

After the completion of the project preparation stage, there is a need to

review the proposal and undertake a full-scale project appraisal. Appraisal

covers comprehensive review of the technical, economic, social, financial and

institutional aspects as well as the environmental aspects of the project

proposal and lays the foundation for implementing the project and evaluating

it when completed.

An appraisal mission examines such matters as the financing plan,

components to be financed, terms and conditions of financing, project

procurement action plans, project implementation plans, and disbursement

profiles. It also reviews the legal aspects of the project including the draft

project financing agreement and conditions of effectiveness and concludes an

understanding on these issues with the executing agency (and the

government, if applicable). The appraisal mission and the beneficiary

endeavor to agree on the measures necessary to assure the success of the

project.


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The draft project financing agreement is negotiated and, at the end of

the appraisal mission work, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)/Minutes

of Meeting reflecting the discussions and understanding reached by the

appraisal mission and the beneficiary is signed.

Appraisal of a project is the organizations responsibility but is

conducted in full co-ordination with the Beneficiary. It is carried out by the

staff, supplemented by outside consultants if necessary. Appraisal activities

cover the review and assessment of the following major aspects of a project.

Project Implementation

The Implementation phase of the Project Management Process puts

the project into action. The Implementation phase consists of four subphases: Execution, Monitoring & Control, and Move to Production.

Project Implementation usually done by implementing agency

(organization) that prepared the project and received funding for it. Other

organizations that participate in the implementation of the project by way of

collaboration, say by according good working relationship, extending technical

advice or seconding their staff to the project are referred to as co-operating

agencies.

Project Evaluation and Recyling

The final phase in the project cycle is project evaluation, then the last

is project recycling in case of failure. The analyst looks systematically at the

elements of success and failure in the project experience to learn how to plan

better for the future. The basic objective of such a study is to ascertain the

real worth of a project or programme as far as possible. Broadly speaking,

evaluation may be defined as "a process which attempts to determine as

systematically and objectively as possible the relevance, effectiveness and

impact of activities in the light of the objectives". It is, thus, a critical analysis

of the factual achievements/results of a project, programme or policy vis -a-vis

the intended objectives, underlying assumptions, strategy and resource

commitment. In specific terms, it makes an attempt to assess objectively the

following:

(a) The relevance and validity of the objectives and design of the

project/programme in terms of broader issues of development policy,


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sector/sub-sector priorities and strategies as well as other problems of

a wider nature;

(b) The efficiency and adequacy of the pace of progress of the

project/programme where the focus is mainly on managerial

performance and productivity;

(c) The effectiveness of the project/programme - a major part of an

evaluation exercise-in realizing the intended objectives from a variety

of angles; and

(d) The identification of reasons for the satisfactory or unsatisfactory

accomplishment of the results of the project/programme and to deduce

critical issues and lessons which may be of relevance to other on-

going and future projects/programmes of a similar nature.


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ACTIVITIES

1. Supposing you are to give a mini-lecture on management to a group of

farmers whoever who entered high school. What and how you make yourpresentation? Thoroughly explain your answer.

As a teacher conducting mini-lecture to group students who belong to

family of farmers entering high school; teacher should adjust, understand and used

simple languages that these group of students could easily understand. This group

of students who belong to families of farmers, similar to other indigenous

communities, have their own culture, socio-economic, and have different level of

understanding. Sensitivity to their culture and life, recognition of the cognitive

strengths of these students, and appreciation of their personality qualities is

necessary for a holistic effort for effective delivery of your lecture and education aswell.

Although mainstreaming through lecture alone is a difficult task, reorganizing

content and the lecturing methods to reflect and draw on their environment and

knowledge base, must be undertaken to develop the response of this groups of

students and increase participation. In addition, effective lecturing support learning

materials that are contextualized for these students and talking to them using their

local dialects if possible, and telling some farmers folklore are a more lasting way of

educating/lecturing these children.

On the other hand, in a country like the Philippines which is marked by

diverse languages, castes, religions and ideas; cementing indigenous values while

embracing modernity, is a progressive phenomenon. Within the context of the

education of marginalized communities such as these groups of students who

belonged to a families of farmers, a fine balance between these two ends of the

spectrum is necessary to yield results that have an impact, are sustainable, and

underpin a holistic education effort.

2. Cite a scenario where you are going to plan and execute a coup de-etat of

an imaginary Palace of a Prime Minister or Governor of a small Pacific Island

country. How would you go about it? Make a report on the scenario.

The answer could come in either of two forms. A coup just happens or

meticulous planning goes into it. And then, of course, there are the many kinds of


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coups which have, especially in modern times, put paid to politics proper across the

globe.

Think of the most serious coup d'etat against the government of Philippine

President Corazon Aquino was staged beginning December 1, 1989 by members of

the Armed Forces of the Philippines belonging to the Reform the Armed Forces

Movement (RAM) and soldiers loyal to former President Ferdinand Marcos. Metro

Manila was shakened by this Christmas coup, and they almost seized the

presidential palace. It was completely defeated by the Philippine government by

December 9, 1989.

With detailed planning, there will be no need for any sort of headquarters

structure in the active stage of the coup; for if there is no scope for decision -making

there is no need for decision-makers and their apparatus. In fact, having a

headquarters would be a serious disadvantage: it would contitute a concrete target

for the opposition and one which would be both vulnerable and easily identified. Assoon as the coup starts, the ruling group will know that something is happening, but

unless coups are very frequent in the country, they will not know what that

something is... We should avoid taking any action that will clarify the nature of the

threat and thus reduce the confusion that is left in the defensive apparatus of the

regime.

Our teams will emerge from their bases and proceed to seize their designated

targets while operating as independent units; their collective purpose and their

coordination will thus remain unknown until it is too late for any effective opposition.

The leaders of the coup will be scattered among the various teams, each joining theteam whose ultimate target requires his presence; thus the spokesman of the coup

will be with the team which will seize the radio-television station and the prospective

chief of police will be with the team whose target is the police headquarters [or state

legislature, as the case may be]. As each team will be both small and highly mobile,

and as there is no headquarters throughout the active phase of the coup, the

opposition will not have any single target on which it will be able to concentrate its

forces. In this way their numerical superiority will be dissipated and the smaller

forces of the coup will have local superiority in the area of each particular target.

This will be the key of the victory of the coup."

"Though some form of confrontation may be inevitable, it is essential to avoid

bloodshed, because this may well have crucial negative repercussions amongst the

personnel of the armed forces and the police. The destabilizing effects of the

behavior of the police should be avoided.


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MODULE 2

ORGANIZING

INTRODUCTION Organizing is the process of coordinating all the activities of an Organization

by using human, material and other available resources towards achieving the

overall objective of an Organization. (Hersey P et al) sees Organization and the

concept organizing as a social system. Found that the focus of the

administrative/structural sub-system is on authority, structure, and responsibility

within the organization: who does what for whom and who tells whom to do what,

how, when, where, and why. That the informational/decision-making, sub-systememphasizes key decisions and their informational needs to keep the system

operating. (James et al 2000) posit that Coordination is the process of integrating

the activities of separate departments in order to pursue Organizational goals

effectively. (Kreitner R. 1995) posit that Organization is a system of consciously

coordinated activities of two or more people.

A. ORGANIZING PROCESS

Why Organizing?

A plan, in essence, is a goal to

be achieved. Organizing is how the

plan will be carried out so the goal is

achieved. Once a plan is made, the

next step in the process is to

determine which people will need to be

involved, who will be in charge, who will

keep people accountable, and whatresources will be required, who will be

responsible for getting those resources, which will monitor progress? Those

steps are all part of the organizing process in the project.

So, organizing is next to planning, because once the plan is made, the

next natural step in the progression is to get organized so the plan comes to

fruition.


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B. CHALLENGE OF INTRODUCING CHANGE

Sometimes throughout the course of operations, it's necessary to change the

culture of an organization. Organizational change can facilitate positive results in the

long run. In the short term, you may encounter several issues with implementation.

Being aware of some of the problems that could arise can help considerably.

When attempting to change an organizations culture, managers frequently

must deal with employee resistance. Most employees are comfortable with the way

they operate and do not want to change. You may have to continually reinforce the

new behaviors you seek to keep employees from reverting to the old ways of doing.

Managing Change at the Top

Change - both anticipated and unanticipated - is rocking the educational prbusiness world and shows no signs of weakening. As revealed in research, issues

pertaining to change not only dominate the landscape, but also continue to escalate

in importance. In fact, three of this year's top six issues deal with this exact topic.

However, while the importance of managing change related issues is on the

rise, the ability to improve in this most vital capability remains highly elusive. In fact,

research reveals that only 35% of high-performance organizations (HPOs) in this

study - those in the top quartile of performers in year-over-year growth in revenue,

profit, market share and customer satisfaction - indicate they are highly effective at

doing so. And among low-performance organizations - those in the bottom quartile -the story is even worse, with only 13% perceiving their ability to manage and cope

with change as highly effective.

C. THEORIES OF ORGANIZING

1. The Classical Theory

Classical organization theories (Taylor, 1947; Weber, 1947; Fayol,

1949) deal with the formal organization and concepts to increase

management efficiency. Taylor presented scientific management concepts,

Weber gave the bureaucratic approach, and Fayol developed the

administrative theory of the organization. They all contributed significantly to

the development of classical organization theory.


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Taylor's scientific management approach

The scientific management approach developed by Taylor is based on

the concept of planning of work to achieve efficiency, standardization,

specialization and simplification. Acknowledging that the approach to

increased productivity was through mutual trust between management and

workers, Taylor suggested that, to increase this level of trust,

the advantages of productivity improvement should go to workers,

physical stress and anxiety should be eliminated as much as possible

capabilities of workers should be developed through training, and

the traditional 'boss' concept should be eliminated.

Weber's bureaucratic approach

Considering the organization as a segment of broader society, Weber

(1947) based the concept of the formal organization on the following

principles:

Structure In the organization, positions should be arranged in a

hierarchy, each with a particular, established amount of responsibility

and authority.

Specialization Tasks should be distinguished on a functional basis, and

then separated according to specialization, each having a separate

chain of command. Predictability and stability. The organization should operate according

to a system of procedures consisting of formal rules and regulations.

Rationality Recruitment and selection of personnel should be impartial.

Democracy Responsibility and authority should be recognized by

designations and not by persons.

Administrative theory

The elements of administrative theory (Fayol, 1949) relate to

accomplishment of tasks, and include principles of management, the concept

of line and staff, committees and functions of management.

Functions of management Fayol (1949) considered management as a

set of planning, organizing, training, commanding and coordinating functions.

Gulick and Urwick (1937) also considered organization in terms of


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management functions such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing,

coordinating, reporting and budgeting.

2. The Neo Classic Theory

Neoclassical theorists recognized the importance of individual or group

behaviour and emphasized human relations. Based on the Hawthorne

experiments, the neoclassical approach emphasized social or human

relationships among the operators, researchers and supervisors (Roethlisberger

and Dickson, 1943). It was argued that these considerations were more

consequential in determining productivity than mere changes in working

conditions. Productivity increases were achieved as a result of high morale,

which was influenced by the amount of individual, personal and intimate attention

workers received.

Principles of the neoclassical approach

The classical approach stressed the formal organization. It was mechanistic and

ignored major aspects of human nature. In contrast, the neoclassical approach

introduced an informal organization structure and emphasized the following

principles:

The individual. An individual is not a mechanical tool but a distinct

social being, with aspirations beyond mere fulfillment of a feweconomic and security works. Individuals differ from each other in

pursuing these desires. Thus, an individual should be recognized as

interacting with social and economic factors.

The work group. The neoclassical approach highlighted the social

facets of work groups or informal organizations that operate within a

formal organization. The concept of 'group' and its synergistic

benefits were considered important.

Participative management. Participative management or decision

making permits workers to participate in the decision making

process. This was a new form of management to ensure increases

in productivity.


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The Fusion Theory

Management is changing. It's the broadest, most significant change

that managers of the modern era have seen. Even executives who resist the

tide cannot fail to be swept along. This is not another of the single issue

themes that have promised so much in the recent past, and delivered so little.

It is the very opposite and contradiction of single-theme management. It is

Fusion Management.

Fusion cooking combines the best of West and East. In a sense,

Fusion Management does much the same. It combines the thrust of Western

management for certainty with the Eastern knowledge that nothing in human

affairs is certain - and that management is quintessentially a human activity.

Like individuals, companies sometimes act rationally, and always speak as if

they do, but, just as often, behave unreasonably in every sense.

Fusion Management accepts this paradox, as it accepts all the

innumerable contradictions of management. It is summed up in the East's

unending quest for a perfection that is always beyond reach, and in the

Western manager's equally paradoxical urge to sustain unsustainable rates of

long-term growth. You cannot escape paradox, no matter where you turn. The

manager must in theory optimise profits in the short term: the same theory

holds that management must optimise profits in the long term. You cannot do

both. What happens if you go too far with seeking near-term profits is evident

in the happenings at Ford Motor.

The Systems Theory

The systems theory views organization as a system composed of

interconnected - and thus mutually dependent - sub-systems. These sub-

systems can have their own sub-sub-systems. A system can be perceived as

composed of some components, functions and processes (Albrecht, 1983).

Thus, the organization consists of the following three basic elements (Bakke,

1959):

There are five basic, interdependent parts of the organizing system,

namely:

the individual,

the formal and informal organization,

patterns of behaviour emerging from role demands of the organization,

role comprehension of the individual, and

the physical environment in which individuals work.


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The Qualitative Theory

This Theory provide complex and comprehensive conceptual

understandings of things that cannot be pinned down: how societies work,

how organizations operate, why people interact in certain ways. Theories give

researchers different lenses through which to look at complicated problems

and social issues, focusing their attention on different aspects of the data and

providing a framework within which to conduct their analysis.

Just as there is no one way to understand why, for instance, a culture

has formed in a certain way, many lenses can be applied to a problem, each

focusing on a different aspect of it. For example, to study doctor-nurse

interactions on medical wards, various theories can provide insights into

different aspects of hospital and ward cultures. Box 1 indicates how each of

the theories discussed in this paper could be used to highlight different facetsof this research problem.

The Four Basic Category of Change

Many organizations must change and evolve to stay ahead of the

competition and keep up with technological advances. Most companies

implement these types of changes to meet profitability goals. While many

external factors impact organizational change, planned and unplanned

internal organizational changes are also a major part of the process. There

are four main types of organizational changes that could affect your companyor your role within it.

1. Structural Changes

The majority of organizational changes can be considered structural

changes, according to Cliffs Notes. These types of changes typically impact

how a company is run, from the traditional top-down hierarchy. Some

examples of these types of changes include the implementation of a new,

company-wide computer system or a company-wide non-smoking policy.

Other structural changes include any changes to the company's hierarchy of

authority and company-wide administrative procedures. Structural changes

can also be considered transformational changes.


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2. Strategic Changes

When a company must drastically adapt to external factors, it may

undergo a major strategic change. Strategic organizational changes are

usually quite transformative, as they typically include major adjustments or

complete upheavals of the current way the company operates. For example,

when a company changes its fundamental approach of doing business, such

as changing from an in-person retail environment to a heavy web presence, it

is considered a strategic change. Other strategic changes include changing

the target market, level of global activity and long-time partnerships.

3. People Changes

People changes can be large-scale or incremental. Large-scale peoplechanges include replacing the top executives with new employees in order to

change the entire company culture. Smaller-scale or incremental people

changes may include sending management personnel to team-building

workshops and classes. People changes may be planned or unplanned, and

they can impact the overall employee attitudes, behaviors and performances,

according to Free Management Library.

4. Process Changes

Process changes are usually an attempt to improve overall workflowefficiency and productivity. They may include implementing technology

changes, such as robotics in manufacturing or requiring sales teams to begin

documenting and reporting activities in a new way. Another example of this

type of change is when a grocery store chain implements self-scanning

checkout counters to improve customer processing times. Companies that

implement these types of changes are more successful when the new

process is proposed to employee focus groups, is carefully thought out, is

tested in beta groups and is rolled out in stages or phases.

Organizational Evolutions in Developing Countries

As the economics of the developing countries evolved from

agriculturally-based to industrially-based, organizational development and

management become increasingly important. This need raises two (2)

questions: (1) are organization and management theories developed in

advanced countries valid in developing countries, (2) if not, how and why


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organization and its management in developing countries different from those

of the advanced countries?

D. ORGANIZATION

Formal Organization

Formal organizations are characterised by planned structure and

represents the patterns of relationship that exist among the components of an

organization.

Formal organizations have the following specific characteristics:

a) Clearly defined structure of activities. These have formal relationships withcharts and position descriptions. The charts tie positions together through

a network of authority and accountability relationship.

b) Permanence. Formal organizations are relatively permanent. Most formal

organizations are created to take a long time. However those that do not

change to conditions in their environment may not last long.

c) Elaboration. Most formal organizations tend to be elaborate and complex.

Some organizations may become more complex through increased

d) specialization.

Organization Chart

Is a diagram that shows

the structure of an organization

and the relationships and relative

ranks of its parts and

positions/jobs. The term is also

used for similar diagrams, for

example ones showing the

different elements of a field of

knowledge or a group of

languages.


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A company's organizational chart typically illustrates relations between

people within an organization. Such relations might include managers to sub-

workers, directors to managing directors, chief executive officer to various

departments, and so forth. When an organization chart grows too large it can

be split into smaller charts for separate departments within the organization.

Classical Principles

Classical or Traditional organization theorists developed certain

generalizations which they considered to be principles of organization. These

principles are useful first approximates, or guides for thought, in the

organizing function. They provide a simple group of intuitive statements that

provoke though by both operating managers and researchers in an

organization. The most important of these principles are (1) unity ofcommand, (2) exception principle, (3) span of control, (4) scalar principle, (5)

organizing departments and (6) decentralization.

One of the traditional principles of organization generally referred to as

unity of command states that no member of an organization should report to

more than one superior on any single function. This principle appeals to

common sense in a pure line organization, in which each superior has

general authority; however, it becomes a complex problem in actual cases in

which some form of staff and/or functional organization is used. In practice

instruction may be received from several sources without loss of productivity.

The central problem is to avoid conflict in orders from different people

relating to the same subject. One should recognize immediately that the

actions of a subordinate may be influenced by many persons who are not

recognized in the formal hierarchy of authority. The principle of unity of

command may be useful in the planning of an organization if it is interpreted

as a tendency toward the simplification of relationship between superior and

subordinate; it is not realistic if it is interpreted as an immutable law that would

eliminate useful relationships among executives.

A second principle, called the exception principle, states that recurring

decisions should be handled in a routine manner by lower level managers,

whereas problems involving unusual matters should be referred to higher

levels. This principle emphasizes that executives at the top levels of an

organization have limited time and capacity and should refrain from becoming

bogged down in routine details that can be handled as well by subordinates.


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Thus, it is an important concept concerning the delegation of authority in an

organization.

The exception principle can be very useful to execute by focusing

attention on those matters that should receive attention first. It is applicable at

all levels and, if kept in mind, can help the inexperienced executive

compensate for a human tendency to concentrate on the concrete,

immediate, and detailed problems at the expenses of the more fundamental,

difficult, and abstract issues. At the same time, attention to the principle can

help the lower level managers understand exactly what they are expected to

do.

Coordination Process

Co-ordination Process in an organization is the unification, integration,synchronization of the efforts of group members so as to provide unity of

action in the pursuit of common goals. It is a hidden force which binds all the

other functions of management. According to Mooney and Reelay, Co -

ordination is orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of action in

the pursuit of common goals. According to Charles Worth, Co-ordination is

the integration of several parts into an orderly hole to achieve the purpose of

understanding.

Management

seeks to achieve co-ordination through

its basic functions of

planning, organizing,

staffing, directing

and controlling. That

is why, co-ordination

is not a separate

function of

management

because achieving

of harmony between

individuals efforts

towards

achievement of

group goals is a key


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to success of management. Co-ordination is the essence of management and

is implicit and inherent in all functions of management.

The Effective Organization

Effective Organization or Organizational effectiveness is the concept of

how effective an organization is in achieving the outcomes the organization

intends to produce.[1] The idea of organizational effectiveness is especially

important for non-profit organizations as most people who donate money to

nonprofit organizations and charities are interested in knowing whether the

organization is effective in accomplishing its goals.

However, scholars of nonprofit organizational effectiveness

acknowledge that the concept has multiple dimensions [2] and multiple

definitions. [3] For example, while most nonprofit leaders defineorganizational effectiveness as 'outcome accountability,' or the extent to which

an organization achieves specified levels of progress toward its own goals, a

minority of nonprofit leaders define effectiveness as 'overhead minimization,'

or the minimization of fundraising and administrative costs.

According to Richard et al. (2009) organizational effectiveness

captures organizational performance plus the myriad internal performance

outcomes normally associated with more efficient or effective operations and

other external measures that relate to considerations that are broader than

those simply associated with economic valuation (either by shareholders,managers, or customers), such as corporate social responsibility.[4]

An organization's effectiveness is also dependent on its communicative

competence and ethics. The relationship between these three are

simultaneous. Ethics is a foundation found within organizational effectiveness.

An organization must exemplify respect, honesty, integrity and equity to allow

communicative competence with the participating members. Along with ethics

and communicative competence, members in that particular group can finally

achieve their intended goals.

Foundations and other sources of grants and other types of funds are

interested in organizational effectiveness of those people who seek funds

from the foundations. Foundations always have more requests for funds or

funding proposals and treat funding as an investment using the same care as

a venture capitalist would in picking a company in which to invest.


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Organizational effectiveness is an abstract concept and is difficult for

many organizations to directly measure. Instead of measuring organizational

effectiveness directly, the organization selects proxy measures to represent

effectiveness. Proxy measures may include such things as number of people

served, types and sizes of population segments served, and the demand

within those segments for the services the organization supplies.

For instance, a non-profit organization which supplies meals to house

bound people may collect statistics such as the number of meals cooked and

served, the number of volunteers delivering meals, the turnover and retention

rates of volunteers, the demographics of the people served, the turnover and

retention of consumers, the number of requests for meals turned down due to

lack of capacity (amount of food, capacity of meal preparation facilities, and

number of delivery volunteers), and amount of wastage. Since the

organization has as its goal the preparation of meals and the delivery of thosemeals to house bound people, it measures its organizational effectiveness by

trying to determine what actual activities the people in the organization do in

order to generate the outcomes the organization wants to create.

Organizational effectiveness is typically evaluated within nonprofit

organizations using logic models. Logic models are a management tool

widely used in the nonprofit sector in program evaluation. Logic models are

created for specific programs to link specific, measurable inputs to specific,

measurable impacts.[5] Typically, logic models specify how program inputs,

such as money and staff time, produce activities and outputs, such as

services delivered, which in turn lead to impacts, such as improvedbeneficiary health.

Activities such as administration, fundraising, and volunteer training

are important inputs into organizational effectiveness because although they

do not directly result in programmatic results, they provide the essential

support functions needed for the organization to successfully finance and

administer its programs. These other activities are overhead activities that

indirectly assist the organization in achieving its desired outcomes.

However, some nonprofit watchdog agencies regard overhead

spending not as indirect program spending but as in indication of

organizational ineffectiveness or inefficiency since funds are not being spent

directly on programs. Cost ratios such as overhead are much simpler to

measure than actual programmatic results and can be easily calculated from

publicly available information disclosed on nonprofit organizations' IRS Forms

990. Several nonprofit watchdog agencies provide ratings of nonprofit

organizations using these data. However, this practice is widely criticized by

scholars and practitioners.[6][7] A nonprofit with low overhead may have


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ineffective programs that have no impact, while a nonprofit with relatively

higher overhead may be significantly more effective in terms of achieving

meaningful results.[8][9] Some studies suggest that low overhead may

actually reduce organizational effectiveness.[10] Moreover, an organization

with higher overhead is more efficient than one with lower overhead if the

organization with higher overhead achieves the same results at a lower total

cost.

The term Organizational Effectiveness is often used interchangeably

with Organization Development, especially when used as the name of a

department or a part of the Human Resources function within an organization.

Strategies of OD

Techniques used for OD are considered below.

a. Sensitivity training

This has many applications and is still used widely, even though new

techniques have emerged (Lewin, 1981). Sensitivity training (Benny, Bradford

and Lippitt, 1964) basically aims at:

growth in effective membership;

developing ability to learn;

stimulating to give help; and

developing insights to be sensitive to group processes.These process variables - in a systems sense - interact and are interdependent.

b. Grid Training

Grid training is an outgrowth of the managerial grid approach to

leadership (Blacke and Mouton, 1978). It is an instrumental approach to

laboratory training. Sensitivity training is supplemented with self-administered

instruments (Benny, Bradford and Lippitt, 1964). The analysis of these

instruments helps in group development and in the learning of group

members. This technique is widely used and has proved effective.

Grid training for OD is completed in six phases. They are:

laboratory-seminar training, which aims at acquainting participants

with concepts and material used in grid training;


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a team development phase, involving the coming together of

members from the same department to chart out as to how they will

attain a 9 x 9 position on the grid;

inter-group development aims at overall OD. During this phase,

conflict situations between groups are identified and analysed;

organization goal setting is based on participative management,

where participants contribute to and agree upon important goals for

the organization;

goal attainment aims at achieving goals which were set during the

phase of organizational goal setting; and

stabilization involves the evaluation of the overall programme and

making suggestions for changes if appropriate.

Modern OD techniques

In addition to the traditional OD techniques like sensitivity training,

grid training and survey feedback, there are four modern techniqueswhich can be used at inter-personal and inter-group levels.

Process consultation approach

This attempts to efficiently help diagnose and solve important

problems of organizations. It refers to the processes which take place

within a group or between groups and the consultant. The consultant

aims at helping the client to perceive, understand and act upon process

events which occur in the client's environment. Schein (1969) has

proposed six major steps to be followed by the consultant. They are:

Initiating contact The consultant is approached by the client to

solve an organizational problem which could not be solved by

normal procedures.


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Defining the relationship This refers to clarifying the expectations

of both client and consultant through a contract between them

about services, time and fees.

Selecting a setting and a method This refers to the place and

method of doing the exercise.

Gathering data and making a diagnosis This is implemented

through using questionnaires, interviews, observations, etc.

Intervention This involves agenda setting, feedback, coaching and

structural interventions, individually or in combination.

Reducing involvement and terminating This is the mutual

agreement to cease the consultation.

Third Party

The third-party peace-making technique attempts to settle inter-

personal and inter-group conflicts using modern concepts and

methods of conflict management. This technique analyses the

processes involved, discerns the problem on the basis of the analysis,

and suitably manages the conflict situation.

Team building

Team building has been considered the most popular OD technique in

recent years, so much so that it has replaced sensitivity training. It

aims at improving overall performance, tends to be more task-

oriented, and can be used with family groups (members from the

same unit) as well as special groups (such as task forces, committees

and inter-departmental groups).


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Department

Every organization is made up of

different department. Each department

contributes to the running of the business.

The most common departments are:

a) Production

b) Marketing & Salesc) Finance

d) Human resource and in

some cases, Information

Technology departments

1. Production Department

The production department is responsible for converting inputs into

outputs through the stages of production processes. The Production Manager

is responsible for making sure that raw materials are provided and made into

finished goods effectively. He or she must make sure that work is carried out

smoothly, and must supervise procedures for making work more efficient and

more enjoyable.

There are five production sub-functions:

Production and planning.

They will set the standards and targets at each stage of the production

process. The quantity and quality of products coming off a production line will beclosely monitored.

Purchasing department

This department will provide the materials, components and equipment

required. An essential part of this responsibility is to ensure that stocks arrive on

time and are of good quality.

The stores departmentThe stores department are responsible for stocking all the necessary tools, ,

raw materials and equipment required to service the manufacturing process.

The design and technical support department

They are responsible for the design and testing of new product processes and

product types, together with the development of prototypes through to the final

product.


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The works department

This department is concerned with the manufacture of products. This willinclude the maintenance of the production line and other necessary repairs. The

works department may also have responsibility for quality control and inspection.

2. Human resource Department

The role of Human resource department is in charge of recruiting, training,

and the dismissal of employees in an organisation.

Recruitment and selection

Training programmes

Training programs are held by the HRD to improve the employees skills, as

well as to motivate them.

There are three main types of training:

1. Induction training

2. On-the- job training

3. Off-the-job training

Manpower Planning

The HR department needs to think ahead and establishthe numberand skills of the workforce required by the business in the future. Failure

to do this could lead to too few or too many staff or staff with inappropriate needs.

Dismissal and Redundancy (retrenchment)

Dismissal is where a worker is told to leave their job due to unsatisfactorywork or behaviour.

Redundancy is when the business needs to reduce the number of employees eitherbecause it is closing down a branch or needs to reduce costs due to falling profits. It

may also be due to technological improvements, and the workers are no longerneeded.

3. Marketing Department

These are the main section of the market departments: Sales department is responsible for the sales and distribution of the

products to the different regions.

Research & Department is responsible for market research and

testing new products to make sure that they are suitable to be sold.

Promotion department decides on the type of promotion method for

the products, arranges advertisements and the advertising media

used.


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Distribution department transports the products to the market.

4. Finance Department

Book keeping procedures

Keeping records of the purchases and sales made by a business as

well as capital spending.

Preparing Final Accounts

Profit and loss account and Balance Sheets

Providing management information

Managers require ongoing financial information to enable them to

make better decisions.

Management of wages

The wages section of the finance department will be responsible for

calculating the wages and salaries of employees and organising the

collection of income tax and national insurance for the Inland

Revenue. Raising Finance

The finance department will also be responsible for the technical

details of how a business raises finance e.g. through loans, and therepayment of interest on that finance. In addition it will supervise the

payment of dividends to shareholders.

Basic Departmentalization

Another fundamental characteristic of organization structure is

departmentalization, which is the basis for grouping position into departments and

departments into the total organization. Managers make choices about how to use

the chain of command to group people together to perform their work. There are five

approaches to structural design that reflect different uses of the chain of command in

departmentalization. The functional, divisional, and matrix are traditional approaches

that rely on the chain of command to define departmental groupings and reporting

relationships along the hierarchy. Two approaches have emerged to meet

organizational needs in a highly competitive global environment. A brief illustration of

the five alternatives is presented in the chart on the other side


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.

1. Vertical functional approach. People are grouped together in

departments by common skills and work activities, such as in an

engineering department and an accounting department.

2. Divisional Approach. Departments are grouped together into separate,

self-contained divisions based in a common product, program, or

geographical region. Diverse skills rather than similar skills are the

basis of departmentalization.

3. Horizontal matrix approach. Functional and divisional chains of

command are implemented simultaneously and overlay one another in

the same departments. Two chains of command exist, and some

employees report to two bosses.

4. Team-based approach. The organization creates a series of teams to

accomplish specific tasks and to coordinate major departments. Teams

can exist from the office of the president all the way down to the shop

floor.

5. Network Approach. The organization becomes a small, central hub

electronically connected to other organizations that perform vital functions.

Departments are independent, contracting services to the central hub for a profit.

Departments can be located anywhere in the world.

Each approach to structure serves a distinct purpose for the organization, and

each has advantages and disadvantages. The basic difference among structures is

the way in which employees are departmentalized and to whom they report. The

differences in structure illustrated here have major consequences for employee

goals and motivation. Let us now turn to each of the five structural designs and

examine their implications for managers.

Informal Organization

Informal organizations consist of the unofficial and unauthorised relationships

that occur between individuals or groups within the formal organization. Sometimes

informal organizations occur within the formal organization. Informal

organizations occur in order to:


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i) Satisfy a social need.

ii) Create a sense of belonging.

iii) Perpetuate cultural values of a group.

iv) Communicate and pass information.

Characteristics of informal organizations

i) Standards of BehaviorInformal organizations generally develop its own laws, taboos and beliefs

about what is right and wrong behavior or conduct.

ii) Pressures to conformInformal groups tend to exert pressures upon which its members conform to.

iii) Informal leadershipLeaders in informal organizations emerge from groups through persuasion

and influence.

Influence of informal organizations in management of formal organizations

The presence of informal organizations helps the management of formal

organizations.

Informal groups form a channel through which certain information can bepassed to workers. This additional means of communication can sometimes be veryeffective. It may also provide a means of social satisfaction. It is not possible fororganizations to provide all means of satisfaction. Informal groups can serve asadditional source of satisfaction for formal group members.


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ACTIVITIES

1. Presumed that you have organized and had followed the steps in

organizing. Then make a detailed report on the difficulties and problems of

organizing. Make suggestions on how you would go about it the second timearound.

An effective service organization is made up of people who are basically all

pointing in the same direction that is, they are in agreement about the reason for

the organization to exist, and what they would like to see the organization achieve. If

there are very basic disagreements about such matters, it is likely that the

organization will not be effective, and will spend its time arguing and posturing.

Therefore those involved need to be open and clear about the purpose of the

organization, and about the ways that it intends to work. It is then very important tomake sure that all those involved are on board that is, in agreement about these

fundamental aspects of the organization. This may seem very simple (if not over-

simple) but these aspects are the foundations of any organization that wants to

achieve something. You ignore them at your peril.

Here are just 19 problems/difficulties I've seen in Organizing:

Lack of communication - forcing others make assumptions

Incomplete or misleading communication

Dependence on "tribal knowledge"

One shift or department doesn't report conditions in writing to next shift or

department

Lack of formal written instructions and checklists

Processes not documented real-time

Problems ignored or overlooked and passed down line, assuming they'll get

caught by someone else

Faulty parts not returned to vendors for engineering correction

Certain items/actions not verified

Bugs not reported

Computer records not updated

Events happen out of sequence

Projects sitting idle waiting for communication or parts

Product must be taken apart and rebuilt because problems slipped through

Problems shipped to customers, where the system must be patched by field

support

7/28/2019 MODULE on Organization and Management of Educ

MODULE on Organization and Management of Educational Business Institution

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