Module Education 100

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

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UNIT 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

Introduction:

This unit introduces you to the concept of education and meaning of education in

general. A number of scholars are mentioned without many details about them. It

will be your personal interest to investigate further about them.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

Define the term education.

Discuss the concepts in used in education

Illustrate different types of education.

1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION

The word education has its origin in a Latin word educatio of which in turn has

been derived from the verb educare, which means, to bring up, bringing up of

rearing of children or animals. It may also mean educere that means to lead out of

ignorance.

Education has been defined in different ways by different scholars:

J. S Farrant defines education as total process of human learning by which

knowledge is imparted, faculties trained and skill developed. R. S Peters defines

education as something worthwhile is being or has been internationally transmitted

in morally accepted manner. He goes on to say education is a process, which

provides man and woman with skills necessary for them to take place in society and

seek further knowledge, R. S Peters further defines education as initiation because

it prepares children for social life.

Schuffler defines education as: a process of developing and transmission of

knowledge.


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Education is societys cultural reproductive system. It helps society reproduce itself

by passing its main characteristics to the next generation. Education keeps society

alive.

You will find that in each society the education system is influenced by political,

economic and social belief of that particular society.

As we have discussed the definition of education, it will be necessary at this point to

look at different educationists definitions.

Pestalozzi- Education is a natural harmonious and progressive development of

mans innate powers

David Whitehead- Education is life in all its manifestations.

John Dewey- Education is a process of living though a continuous reconstruction of

experience.

Ross James- the influence of a person who holds a vital belief brought to bear on

another person with the object of making him also to hold that belief.

1.2 EDUCATION

Education may also be looked as concept that might mean;

i. A system or institution for example a school

ii. It could also refer to the curriculum or content (Approved body of knowledge

for teaching).

iii. Another meaning of education could be that of an activity by the adults upon

the young to make them ready for social life (socialization).

iv. Another school of thought describes education as a process of providing

people with information about an important spectrum/ topic/ body of

knowledge or themes.

v. Education can be described as a universal practice engaged by societies at all

levels of development. It is leading out in new knowledge and experience.

vi. Other scholars like Farrant describe education as a tool used to explain the

total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties

trained, skills and competences developed.


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TABLE OF CONTENT

UNIT 1 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 1

Introduction: 1

1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION 1

1.2 EDUCATION 2

TABLE OF CONTENT 3

1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION 7

1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION 8

1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION 9

UNIT 2 11

2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL EDUCATION 11

Introduction: 11

2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 13

2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 13

2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION 15

2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 15

2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING 15

2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION 16

2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING 16

2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING 16

2.7 FORMAL LEARNING 16

2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 16

2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 17

2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION 18

2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION 18

SUMMARY 19

ACTIVITY 19

UNIT 3 20

3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924 20

3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION 20

Introduction: 20


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3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 21

3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA? 21

3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890 22

3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL 22

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 22

3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 23

3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND EDUCATION-1890-1924

23

3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924) 24

3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL 25

3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANYS NON PROVISION OF

EDUCATION 25

3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924 26

3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were: 26

3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference: 26

3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS CONTRAVERSIAL

PART 27

3.6.1 2nd

General Missionary Conference of 1919 28

3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922 28

SUMMARY 29

UNIT 4 31

3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA 1931-1953 31

Introduction: 31

4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL AFRICA/NORTHERN

RHODESIA-1925 32

4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923 34

4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION 34

4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were: 35

4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS 35

4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF

EDUCATION 35

4.3.4 4th

General Missionary Conference 1924 38


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4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS 38

4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-1925-1931 38

4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925 39

ACTIVITIY 40

4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT 40

SUMMARY 41

5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963 42

Introduction: 42

5.1EDUCATION 42

5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961 43

5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED 44

5.2.2 TARGETS SET 44

5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS 45

5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD)

STRATEGY 45

SUMMARY 47

ACTIVITY 47

UNIT 6 48

6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 48

Introduction: 48

6.1 POLICY 48

6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964 49

6.3 CHALLENGES 49

6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS 50

6.5 TYPES OF SCHOOLS 50

6.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING 50

6.7 BEFORE INDEPENDENCE 51

6.8 AFTER INDEPENDENCE 51

6.9 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION 52

6.9.1 LOCKWOOD RECOMMENDATIONS 52

6.9.2 PROGRESSION 53

6.9.3 CHALLENGES 53

SUMMARY 53


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UNIT 7 54

7.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 54

7.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UPTO 1974 (FIRST TEN YEARS)

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Introduction: 54

7.1.1 BACKGROUND: 54

7.1.2 PATTERN OF REFORMS 55

7.1.3 RESULTS OR OUTCOMES 55

7.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REFORMS 55

7.1.5 WHY REFORMS FAILED? 56

7.1.6MAJOR TRENDS/PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMS 56

7.1.7 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION 57

7.2 EVOLUTION OF POLICIES 58

SUMMARY 59

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UNIT 8 60

8.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION POLICIES 60

8.1 Focus on Learning 1992. 60

8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE 60

8.3 BASIC EDUCATION SUB-SECTOR INVESTMENT PROGRAMME

(BESSIP) 61

8.4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION STRATEGIC PLAN (2003-2007) 61

8.5 THE VISION 2030 61

SUMMARY 62

REFERENCES 63


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1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION

You will realize that education in any society had its own objectives and generally to

produce an individual who would fit in a society in which one lived. The relationship

between an individual and the society has been utmost value and concern for social

scientists. For this reason, we may be tasked to questions such as education for

what/who?

Aims of education can be social or individual;

Individual aims include:

a) Career prospects-to develop a vocation skill.

b) Self development- though education individual develop their full

potential.

c) Development of language skills- education helps individuals to

develop their imaginative expressive powers.

d) Education helps individuals to develop spiritually, emotionally,

morally etc.

e) Education for self expression- e.g in art, music, literature, drama etc.

f) To make one fit in society- to help a child to be adaptive to changing

society, to understand a world outside his own environment.

Social aims of education include:

a) Patriotism- appreciates one cultural heritage, to appreciate ones role

as a citizen.

b) Education for social service- helping the society though different

careers e.g Doctors, teachers, engineers etc.

c) Education for economic development- to develop creative and

innovative skills, to appreciate the dignity of labour.


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From the above aims, you will understand that education was multi-dimension in

such a way that whatever form it might be, it required certain aspects in order for one

to benefit from the education.

1. Explain the benefits of each aim to both the individual and the society.

2. Which aim explains well the aims of education and explain your answer.

1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION

Education involves a lot of processes and methods and some of them are as follows:

a) Teaching- This involves imparting of knowledge or skills to a person.

There is instruction, discussion and explanation. The learner participates in

the discussion as the teacher guides.

b) Learning- A conscious activity involving the acquisition of new

knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviour, manners etc.

c) Instructing- This involves imparting knowledge of facts or giving

orders, rules, modes of operating and instructions. The learner follows these

orders.

d) Drilling- This is a situation where a piece of learning is repeated over

and over until a person can do the skill without making a mistake.

e) Training- It is a process that helps to produce particular skills for

example an electrician, a carpenter and a footballer among others.

f) Conditioning- This is where the learner performs actions against his

wishes usually through the use of force or threats.

g) Brainwashing- This is making someone change the way of believing

without much reasoning. For example an advertisement for MTN

Everywhere You Go


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h) Indoctrination-This is where one accepts the beliefs without

questioning usually achieved through propaganda. Once one is indoctrinated,

the recipient holds on such views dogmatically and unshaken in spite of

reason.

1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION

There are three types of education and these include: formal, non formal and

informal education

1. Formal Education- this is usually organized and structured learning which is

found in schools, colleges and universities.

2. Non-formal- this is an organized learning activity outside formal education

and aimed at meeting the specific needs of a particular group of people and

3. Informal Education- this is unorganized and unplanned

Type of Education Characteristic Features Agents

a) Formal

Education

-Learning done in

specially built institutions

such as schools, colleges,

and universities.

-Programmes are

structured in form of

syllabus, curriculum,

schemes, timetables

-Learning is supervised

by internal administrative

body

-Certificates awarded to

those who are successful

-People are trained and

employed to do the job

and are paid.

-Governments,

companies, individuals

and churches

b) Non formal -Loosely structured


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Education programmes

-Certificate of attendance

maybe awarded

-No special buildings may

be required

-Loosely supervised at

times not supervised by

an internal administrative

body

c) Informal

Education

-Learning is unplanned

-Learning is not

structured

-No awards of certificates

-Long life process

In this chapter, we have looked at the meaning of education and how various scholars

have defined it. The chapter has further discussed the aims and types of education,

including the common concepts found in education.

1. List down and give examples of the types of education that are found in

Zambia

2. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the types of education in question 1.


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UNIT 2

2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL

EDUCATION

Introduction:

This unit looks at the education systems that existed before the coming of the

Missionary/modern education in Africa. Different themes have been explored to help

understanding the nature of the education that was there.

Learning Outcomes

Education is part of every society, whether simple or sophisticated. Each community

has evolved its own forms of education based on the religious, social, political,

economic and cultural values of that community (Tiberondwa: 1989). In this unit,

we are analyzing;

a) the aims of indigenous education

b) components of indigenous education

c) the curriculum of Indigenous African education

d) methods of indigenous African Education

e) methods of testing in indigenous education

f) characteristics of indigenous education

g) the merits and demerits of Indigenous African education

During the pre-colonial period, Africans had already developed their own systems of

education. The first Europeans, who came to Africa, viewed Africa as a savage, a

pagan with no history and culture to perpetuate that he was primitive, that he knew

nothing and that Africans never taught their young. This was a mistaken belief which

reflected the ignorance of the Europeans about African education systems. It also

help to explain why the first Europeans educationists never considered that the


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formal schools they were introducing had any relationship to the largely informal

education, the African children were receiving in their communities. The basic

assumption was that they were introducing something totally new. In this, there was

no social interaction or rather socialization. This meant that adults never made a

deliberate attempt to bring up children to be the kind of men required by the society.

Secondly, since Africans had neither reading nor writing skills, some scholars tended

to assume that they had no system of education. Hence the conclusion that they had

no content and no methods to pass on to the young. To such scholars then, education

in Africa would mean nothing else but western civilization. Therefore, no western

civilization, no education. The scholars neglected anything traditional because of

their restricted view of the nature of the education. It is definitely fallacious to define

education in terms of school or reading and writing, because schooling and education

are not synonymous in any way at all. Education is defined as the whole process by

which one generation transmits its culture to the succeeding generation, or a process

by which people are prepared to live effectively and efficiently in their environment.

On the basis of this definition then, it is quite easy to see that before the coming of

the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each African clan,

chiefdom or kingdom. African traditional education was effective ever since the

evolution of the African race. It was tangible, definite and clearly intelligible.

There have been no single indigenous form of education In Africa. Societies

differing from each other, developed different systems of education to transmit their

own particular knowledge and skills. The differences were not necessarily great, but

it as quite clear that indigenous forms of education were sometimes remarkably

similar but differed in methods and content. One form could be seen to have

influence over another. This was due to the fact that certain specialists were

extremely mobile, just like in the case of western type and Islamic systems. The

mobility of specialists such as the Dyula dyers and Numu blacksmiths of Ivory Coast

and Ghana was in large measure responsible for this.

Another misconception is that within one particular society, all young people learned

the same skills. This may have been so in ethnic groups, where all families followed

roughly the same economic pursuits and where political and social roles were

relatively undifferentiated. Some traditional societies like Yoruba, had marked


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specialization in occupation as well as pronounced political and hierarchies.

Although they shared general knowledge, a child at the royal court of Ife had a

different orientation and training in skills from that of a blacksmiths son in the war

camp of Ibadan.

2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

To socialize and initiate an individual into the tribal or ethnic group in

a communal perspective.

To help people conform to cultural norms and roles.

It exposed the young to checks and balances.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

The education in Africa before the coming of the European was an education that

prepared one for the responsibilities as an adult in the home, the village and within

the tribe. The education varied from the simple instruction given by the father or

mother to the youths to complex educational system of highly organized and

sophisticated such as the one among the Poro in West Africa which had myriad of

ceremonies and countless degrees. Most societies fell between the simple and

sophisticated with respect to the educational arrangements they provided for their

youth, offering rituals to mark the end of puberty and relying heavily upon the

custom and example as the principal educational agents.

1. History of Ethnic group. The education looked at what

happened and why things happened the way they did. For example,

where did we come from, when, why did we settle here? Why are we

having the drought this year? Why floods along the Zambezi river for

example. The questions which were asked made the society develop

a sense of security consciousness, religious beliefs and sense of

belonging. The history was reflected much in the songs, dances

myths. The young were taught and reminded about their names,

surnames, clans, totems and cousin relationships. There were also

stories in the evenings around the fire places about heroic deeds of


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ancestors, how they developed loyalty and pride in membership of

the tribe.

2. Apprenticeship in Practical Skills. The African Indigenous

education stressed the skills according to sex roles. For example boys

were taught by men such as fathers, uncles, and grandfathers about

the uses of herbs, flowers and fruits, farming and raising cattle. They

also learnt how to set traps, hunting and other skills in line with men.

On the other hand girls learnt through close contact with mothers,

aunties and grandmothers in the kitchen. They learnt how to cook,

wash calabashes, pots and how to brew beer. They further learnt the

art of being good wives and mothers.

3. Social Obligations and Inculcation of Good Manners.

Children learnt the correct way of greeting different ages, how to sit,

how to address other members of the tribe and elders among them.

They were to respect the old and to extend hospitality to all.

4. Religious Teaching. Their religious teaching centred on the

Supreme Being who controlled all the tribal fortunes. The young

learnt the influence of the spirits in the society and how to appease

the spirit of the departed. They also learnt about different spirits (bad

and good spirits) and the mysteries of religion.

5. Initiation Ceremonies. This was done after one had reached

the puberty stage and it marked an epoch in ones life as the child was

being introduced by elders to the legends surrounding previous

exploits of ones tribe and community responsibilities. It was an

intensive course of instruction which was done in seclusion and the

initiates were exposed to tests of physical endurance. For example

Nyau among the Chewa people in Zambia were exposed to harsh

environment and taught survival skills such as swimming. They were

also exposed to hot pots as a way of training them endurance. Of

course there were clever women who could only put the pot on the

fire when they were about to come and pick it. They were given


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instructions in hygiene, sexual behaviour, expectations in marriage

among other areas. In some societies secrecy surrounded the event.

2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN

EDUCATION

In traditional African society people learnt what they lived and lived what they

learnt. Education was a life long process; it began at birth and ended at death.

Education enabled people to adapt to their environment in which they lived. For

instance, those who lived in the equatorial rain forest and those who lived in the plain

areas each had the curriculum to follow. At society, level education was planned or

unplanned (incidental), formal (e.g initiation ceremonies) or informal. Education

transmitted skills, modes of behaviour, essential for societys survival. Learning was

by imitation, repetition and observation. Societys education was determined by its

ideologies, dominant value or moral order. Education ensured national unity and

ensured cultural survival. Alfred North White Head summed up the contents of any

education as life in all its manifestations.

2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

In practical terms, the method of indigenous African education was humanization of

man in society. Learning was expected to yield:

a) Cognition- knowledge in general, understanding.

b) Skills- which had relevance to their survival.

c) Volition- attitudes, values, feelings, appreciation etc.

d) Practice, not theory- what was learnt was put to use-

pragmatism/functionalism, practicality/utilitarianism was at the centre of

learning.

e) Involvement- active participation in everyday life.

2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING

a) IMITATION


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Imitating others such as mothers, fathers, peers and grandparents was part of

the learning process.

2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION

a) Conditioning Imitation- through which learners acquired attitudes,

values, and forms of reasoning by virtue of being member of a group, or

because of social pressure e.g sisters wanting to live like mother Theresa.

b) Reinforcement Imitation- voluntarily participating in order to win

social praise e.g mum, I can cook like you, sing, jump like you.

c) Insightful Imitation- Deliberate copying of other peoples acts or

methods of doing things in order to solve specific problems.

2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING

Initiative to learn comes from elders who want an individual to acquire a particular

skill e.g grooming someone to be a king, to marry a kings daughter etc.

Many techniques were used to induce or stimulate learning:

-praise an incentive

-Rewards e.g cattle

-Story telling on heroic deeds

-Ridicules etc.

2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING

a) Most widespread

b) Reflected in doing, working, participation, playing, attending funerals and

observation, in every activity.

2.7 FORMAL LEARNING

This is organized, planned and structured learning e.g. initiation ceremonies.

2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

The education in an African set up required that the individual had to change in order

to adjust for a living. Though very few people failed, testing was one of the ways to

confirm if there was education going on. It involved both diagnostic and prescriptive


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that made rise to the remedial lessons or for further perfection of skills, manners,

attitudes, perceptions and behaviour among other areas of interest. The testing was in

form of:

i. Assigning work to an individual and monitoring of the results closely.

ii. Sometimes girls were sent to take care of the elderly relatives to see

how they could manage. This was in view of the other elderly people

that one might live with in future especially after marriage as African

societies lived in communities.

iii. A boy could be given an opportunity to express his personality as a

man. For example how to protect ones siblings.

iv. Some customs required bridegrooms to take care of their in laws for

some years until when the in laws were satisfied that one could take

care of their daughter.

v. The cultures that were pastoralists, boys were asked to identify their

cattle or goats from the rest of the herds of the community.

vi. Some societies asked the children to name the relatives both the

maternal and the paternal.

2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

i. Multiple learning (Wholesticism). The education system had no

much room for specialization but equipped boys and girls with a

number of occupations with related skills. This meant that a boy could

be taught how to fish, geography of an area, interpretation of the

seasons, building and farming among them. On the other hand girls

were taught gardening, cooking, laundry, and simple skills of nursing.

The education was centred on the whole life of the society.

ii. Integration. The education depended on what was available without

fixing of time for learning. Children learnt how to welcome visitors

when there were visitors (situational learning). Teaching for sex roles

was done during initiation.


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iii. Utilitarian/Functionalism. Whatever was taught had to be useful as

the education produced the skills which were used in practice.

iv. Perenialism. There were skills which were only taught during

specific seasons such rain season (planting and ploughing).

v. Communalism. Most of the lessons were done in communal manner.

Education was a responsibility for the whole community. For example

working in fields, construction of houses, child discipline etc.

2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

a) It relied on memory and oral tradition. It had no device for recording

acquired knowledge for future use.

b) Punishment was too harsh and non-reformatory.

c) It was tribal and so skills of one tribe could not be transmitted to the

other. There was no common language for different tribes.

d) It stressed gender roles.

e) It was conservative because society changes were not as rapid as they

are today. But measured against the people it had to serve. Traditional

education was very successful. Snelson (1974) contends that this form of

education was conservative and not progressive, some teachers were

incompetent, so were some learners. Kelly (2006) adds that it was orally

based with no written records, it could not fully cope with scientific concepts,

it was static and did not embrace aspects of innovation inquiry and change.

In the final analysis, the onus is on the modern student to critically analyse

and subject the aforesaid to reason and take a position out of an academic and

informed decision.

2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION

In any case, traditional education is believed to have been meaningful, unifying,

holistic, effective, practical, relevant and community based. There was no separation

between education and the world of work. Graduates were readily absorbed in


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society upon completion of their induction or socialization (Kelly, 2006; Farrant,

1980).

African traditional education developed and educated the whole person. This type of

education involved the entire society or community. Because it was human centred,

it promoted and developed very good and strong bonds among the people. This

education had clear values, attitudes and morals for its curriculum. This was to

exploit the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

SUMMARY

The chapter has apart from defining what indigenous or traditional education means,

also discussed the components, curriculum, methods, merits and demerits of

Indigenous Education.

ACTIVITY

1. There are some elements in traditional education which are relevant to an

individuals life in a community. Discuss this assertion in relation to modern

way of life.

2. Discuss the weaknesses of indigenous education.

3. African Indigenous education was very primitive. Discuss the assertion.


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UNIT 3

3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924

3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Introduction:

The unit looks at the education that prevailed during the time of the

Missionaries and the British South African Company (BSACo).

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

To define missionary education.

Explain for coming of missionaries in Africa.

Compare between the indigenous education and missionary education

Trace the first schools in Zambia

Explain the characteristics of missionary education

Discuss the involvement of the BSACo in Education.

Missionary education refers to Western education as opposed to the African

indigenous education. It was based on literacy (ability to read and write) and

numeracy (ability to work with numbers) There are differences between the two

types of education mentioned above in many aspects.

Compare and comprehend the two types of education in order to

comprehend them.

Missionary education derives its name from the group of people who first brought it

to Africa from Europe-the church people or the missionaries. Between 1890 and

1924, many mission groups came to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in


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particular. They settled in different parts of the country and opened many stations

(Missions) as well as schools to offer what became known as missionary education.

3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Missionaries built schools with specific aims or goals. Some of these were:

a) To enable Africans read and write so that they could help in the

evangelization process: ability to read and interpret the Bible in a local

and English Languages.

b) To harness or tame Africans for them to co-operate with missionaries in

their work (Trying to create some common working ground entice them

to European culture).

c) To de-culture Africans and make Europeans out of Africans e.g French

policy of Assimilation.

d) To give Africans some technical schools in capentry, agriculture, brick

laying etc.

3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA?

Different missionary groups came to Africa as a follow up to David Livingstones

exploration works and reports he sent back to Europe(United Kingdom in particular).

Secondly, early exploration works by different explorers such as Bartholomew Diaz,

Mungo Park, Henry Morton Stanley etc also helped to stimulate missionaries to

come to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). What were their aims?

Missionary groups and their stations

Many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in the period under

review. Each group claimed areas of influence and built schools and clinics there.

i) Draw the map of Zambia. On it show mission stations and years when

established.

ii) Below the map, make a list of these church groups indicating who were

their leaders at that time. For instance

NatashaHighlight

NatashaHighlight

NatashaHighlight

NatashaHighlight

NatashaSticky Notepreaching of the word of God

NatashaSticky Noteassimilado

NatashaHighlight


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1. Brethren in Christ Church-Macha mission in Choma(1906)-Leader was

Francis Davidson.

2. Catholics-Society of Jesus (Jesuits)-Chikuni Mission in Chisekesi,

Monze(1905), Leader was Fr. Moreau.

3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890

There are many missionary groups that had already established their mission

settlements and schools before 1890. Indicators are that the under listed were in

Northern Rhodesia before 1890:

a) Paris Evangelical Mission-1885

b) United Free Church of Scotland-1895

c) The Largest Society-the White Fathers-1895

d) The Dutch Reformed church Mission-1895

e) The London Mission Society-1883

f) The Primitive Methodist-1893

g) Christian Missions in Many Lands-the Open Brethren-1897

3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL

Missionary education in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) owes its establishment to

David Livingstones exploration works which exposed the interior of Africa to the

European people. As a follow up to Livingstones reports on events in Africa and

Northern Rhodesia in particular, many missionary groups came to Northern

Rhodesia.

In March 1883, the first school was opened in Limulunga by Arnot of the Paris

Evangelical Missionary society with three pupils all male.

It situated at Kanyonyo whose name it adopted. Later it became National Barotse

School.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

1. It is foreign or alien to Africans and is based on reading and writing

2. It carries with it European/Western culture and norms


23

3. It does alienate (separate the learner from the society-village set up/family) to

some place of employment. It also alienates the learner in a host of cultural

aspects as the two cultures clash.

4. It is believed that it has the capacity to explain scientific concepts. That it is

dynamic helps to make people adaptive and universal in nature.

5. Perceived as a tool for national development.

6. From the African perspective, it may be seen as a lazy mans chain. It

promotes white collar job syndrome as opposed to manual work that

demands physique.

7. It is more practical in problem solving than other types: through medicines,

industries, technology and various disciplines of education itself like social

sciences etc.

8. It is seen as a tool or means to acquire prestigious status in society. It is said

that it enhances social position and status for the elite.

3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Depending on ones view point it can be said that there are many benefits.

a) Western education through missionaries helped to replace slave trade with

modern trade.

b) It helped Africans to open up and started fighting for independence until it

was achieved.

c) It changed the status of Africans as a continent as well as the status of

Africans themselves.

d) A lot of what was perceived as bad cultural practice was phased out or

moderated e.g. using skin clothing, polygamy, worshipping ancestral spirits

etc.

e) It brought modern social services, schools, hospitals, industries and modern

way of life supported by technology.

3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND

EDUCATION-1890-1924

According to Manchishi and Chondoka (1999), the pioneers of Western education in

colonial Zambia were the European Christian Missionaries who started their work in


24

the country from 1883.(ERIP report:5). This was adequately shown in earlier lesson

on missionary education 1883-1889.

3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924)

Cecil Rhodes is a key player in the formation and administration of the British South

African Company. He founded the company in 1889 after making a fortune in

diamond mining at Kimberley, in South Africa.

He got authority from the Crown (British Monarchy) to administer what was then

known as North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia. In turn, he got support from

the mother country, Britain. His entry point was North-Western Rhodesia (1897)

after signing concessions with Lewanika in 1890, 17th October. The treaty of the

BSA company mineral rights in all areas under King Lewanika in turn the BSA

company protected the Lewanikas Kingdom and gave him an annual grant of 850

pounds. The prime aim of the BSA company was to:

a) Exploit minerals and make profits

b) Use North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia sources of cheap

mineral and human resources for the development of South Africa.

Although when signing concessions, Cecil Rhodes accepted responsibility to provide

social services to the Africans in practice it was a non-starter. He was a first class

capitalist Snelson(1974) spells out the position of the BSA regarding the provision of

education to the Africans as well as the development of colonial Zambia: the BSA

records in regard to African education was one of the consistent neglect.

It is further noted that for three decades BSA co. consistently refused to give

financial assistance to missionary education in the country. It failed lamentably and

shamefully to implement clear promises regarding education which had been part of

the treaties with Lewanika. Three treaties were signed which the BSA never fulfilled:

the Lochner treaty (1890, 1898, and 1900).

One clause found in these treaties read: The BSA co. further agrees that it will aid

and assist in the education and civilization of the native subjects of the king by the

establishment, maintenance and endowment of schools and industrial

establishment(vocational trade schools), Sneson:122).

Find out why things happened like way.


25

3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL

Due to pressure from the Chewa chiefs in Nyasaland,(Malawi), the BSA opened

Livingstonia mission school and funded it in a little way. This was facilitated by

Rhobert Codrington, the administrator. In colonial Zambia, the same was done in

1907 by the BSA co. at Kanyonyo village-Mongu. This school was only one partly

funded by the BSAco. And came to be known as Barotse National School. It opened

in March 1907 with Austin R William as headteacher. African teachers were drawn

from Basutoland (Lesotho). Curriculum:carpentry, bricklaying, thatching, forestry

other than reading, writing and arithmetic. This school was under the Paris

evangelical Mission led by Francis Coillard.

By 1911/12, a few Africans from this school had become teachers or were employed

as clerks, shopkeepers, office orderlies etc. While company rule did not support

African education, missionary groups continued expanding in this area. They called

on the company to give grants to mission schools, the move which the BSA co.

rejected. In 1911, the BSA co. formerly amalgamated N.E and N.W. Rhodesia into

one territory called Northern Rhodesia.

3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANYS NON PROVISION

OF EDUCATION

a) Lost opportunity:

The B.S.A. co. lost a golden chance to change its African education stance in 1906.

In this year, Alfred Beit died and donated money-200,000 pounds for education and

other public social services in his will. B.S.A. through Codrington and Wallace

indicated that Northern Rhodesia had no financial need.

Missionary groups at that time through Native Affairs department placed for

governments funding of missionary education.

Both mission schools and government officials saw the need to have a coordinated

curriculum or common curriculum in addition to financial grants. The B.S.A. as

government had a duty to provide such a policy.


26

3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924

In July 1914, what one may call as the first General Missionary conference was held

under the auspices of the Primitive Methodists. This group was used to work with

other churches. They did so when they translated the New Testament in Ila.

These church groups did take part in this conference held in Livingstone in Coillard

memorial hall.

a) Primitive Methodists

b) Paris Evangelical Mission

c) Brethren in Christ Church

d) U.M.C.A and Weslayan Methodists

3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were:

i) To foster cooperation between and among all church groups

ii) To evangelize North Western Rhodesia

iii) To give civic education/awareness to local people about missionary work

as well as to care for the locals.

Reverend Edwin Smith was elected chairperson of the conference. Rev. John Fell

presented a paper on Ideas and Methods in Native Education-it was the main agenda

item.

3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference:

a) Encouraging government to take a keen interest in the education for local

people.

b) Government to fund education in Northern Rhodesia

c) Urgent need to provide well trained local teachers by government

d) Government must subsidize approved elementary schools as was in Southern

Rhodesia.

By about 1915/16, the B.S.A. co. had this concern with the government as well; the

quality of teachers and their reliability. A form of control was needed. This led to the

Native schools Proclamation of 1918. Its contents were:

a) To define a school and a teacher

i) School meant a school or class for teaching or instruction of local people

whether held in a building of not.


27

ii) Teacher meant any local person teaching in a school

b) No opening of new schools without consent of government (administration)

or any other authorized officer.

c) All existing schools were to be registered within 90 days of issue of 1918

proclamation.

d) Administration could close any school seen detrimental to national peace and

security through the behaviour of its pupils and teachers.

e) Administration could close school that was contrary to wishes of the society.

3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS

CONTRAVERSIAL PART

This was the first educational legislation (law) in Northern Rhodesia. It seems its

first part was user friendly but the other part was seen to be anti-development in the

area of education provision.

a) No person shall be a teacher in any school unless duly qualified

b) To be considered duly qualified, one needed to be given a certification of

efficiency and competence by the administrator.

c) In schools not headed by Europeans, to be a teacher there one needed to be

married and lived with a wife.

d) Breach of the above would lead to a fine not more than twenty five pounds or

to be jailed for not more than three months or both.

e) Any teacher guilty/suspected for interference in the works of the

administrator, chief, headman and other government officers would be black

listed.

f) The native schools Proclamation of 1918 gave powers to magistrates and

Native Commissioners to inspect schools.

g) This law (Proclamation) gave power to the administrator to prescribe

qualifications of teachers to provide competence certificates to teachers as

well as reports of good conduct, locating of building new schools.

The law gave sweeping powers to control education system and provision

without any financial part. Missionary groups, who were the main providers of

education in Northern Rhodesia at this time, became disappointed and bitter.


28

3.6.1 2nd General Missionary Conference of 1919

The general dissatisfaction and disapproval of the 1918 Proclamation by all the

missionary groups in Northern Rhodesia led to the 1919 conference. It was held in

Livingstone from 18-22 July 1919. Rev. Adolphe Jalla of Paris Evangelical

Missionary Society was elected chairperson and Rev. John Fell of Primitive

Methodists was elected Secretary. The Conference proposed amendments to: Clause

that referred to churches as schools and the marriage clause.

Resolutions passed:

a) The Government should give grants to schools

b) Accepted school code drawn by Rev. Fell

c) Agreed to invite missionary societies in Northern Rhodesia to next

conference.

In response to the missionary conference, resolutions of 1919, the government

repeated the 1918 Native Schools Proclamation. It was replaced by the January 1922

New Native Schools Proclamation. In this law:

a) The controversial marriage-teacher clause was dropped.

b) Teachers were to be certified by the missionary in charge

c) Definition of a school now excluded holding of a religious service

d) Missionaries in charge to inspect schools at least twice a year.

3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922

The conference was held in Kafue from 17-23 July 1922 and was attended by eleven

missionary societies. The Conference discussed different items, key among them

were three papers. Coxhead presented the first paper which advised/suggested

recruitment of agriculture expert to advise mission groups on agricultural education.

The Government was to pay 1/3 of experts salary. Coxhead was searching for Native

affairs.

Loram presented a second paper that advocated for retention of primary education in

the hands of missionaries and that Government should support missionaries

financially. He urged the Government to be responsible for secondary education.

Loram also suggested the establishment of a college/university as was the case in

South Africas Fort Hare. Loram had come from Natal and was outstanding

educationists.


29

Latham G.C. presented the 3rd

paper. He was part-time inspector of schools for the

country. He advised missionary groups to be well-coordinated and respect each

other. He advised that denominational differences be buried and that a first class

normal school like Sefula be made in central area for teacher training.

His paper indicated that missionary education should include: spiritual, moral, social

and economic progress of the local people. He proposed for a good balance between

religious, academic and individual components.

Provisional agreement was made to use Kafue institute for teacher training to be

offered by the Primitive Methodists. But later the idea was abandoned to differences

that arose.

1. Primitive Methodists did not support John Fell

2. U.M.C.A. did not support Bishop May idea to fund the program-five

hundred pound per annum. The B.S.A co. director did not support the

idea. But the major success of the conference was that the

Government was clearly made to understand it needed to fund

education sooner than later. Lathan was regarded as a radical: He said,

We can not educate the natives without allowing them some share in

their government, sooner than later.

Very few people-whites then accepted the eventual self-government rule coming to

pass. For the future, Lathan recommended Industrial training for learners at least 2

hours per day in addition to other subjects (Literacy and numeracy).

In 1923, there was a General Missionary Council Executive Committee attended by

Lathan. In that meeting, he recommended to the council that the Government should

not run away from funding education and that the Government needed a policy on

Native education.

SUMMARY

The Chapter looked at the coming of the missionaries and what was referred to as

Missionary Education. It also looked at the BSA Company and what it had to offer in

terms of education


30

1. Missionary education and teachers have been criticised as having

facilitated colonialism and imperialism in Africa. Discuss this

assertion citing six countries.

2. Compare and contrast Indigenous type of education with the

Western type of education. Examine how education has influenced

development in Zambia.

3. Trace the way in which the White Collar Worker syndrome

developed and manifested itself in Zambias education system

during the 1960s. How did the new Republic of Zambia attempt to

address the White Collar Worker


31

UNIT 4

3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA

1931-1953

Introduction:

This unit will introduce you to the activities that followed after the two groups

involvement in education as observed in unit 3.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

Discuss the Phelps Stoke Commission

Illustrate the recommendations by the Phelps Stoke Commission.

Explain the challenges faced by the Phelps Stoke Commission.

Analyse the British policy in Tropical Africa.

A lot of educational events took place between the time of Lathan left Northern

Rhodesia in July 1931 and the time when the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

started in 1953.

In order to capture as many events as possible in this period of time (era), the time

chart method will be applied. This is to capture events that happened as early as

when Northern Rhodesia became a British Protectorate or British Crown in 1924.

1928 First departmental exams for teachers was held based on government

standard 4 syllabus.

There was a paper on teaching theory and school management, as well

as practical test on First-Aid.

In the same year, governments Jeanes Agricultural, Normal and

Primary schools were being built.

1931 Lathan left Northern Rhodesia as director of African Education.

1938 Jeanes school close due to the change in Native Reserve boundary


32

1939 A new Jeanes and Teacher Training Centre was opened at

Chalimbana (NISTICOL)

Munali Secondary School opened in Lusaka.

1946 Chipembi Girls School opened by the Methodist Mission

1947 Nursing school for African nurses started at Chikankata Mission

1951 New Munali Secondary School was opened

Hodgson Training Centre expanded

12 Trades school operational.

One major characteristic of education in the era under review was an attempt to

implement mass education. An attempt was also made to phase out racial school.

4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL

AFRICA/NORTHERN RHODESIA-1925

It is believed that the above policy came about as a result of the Phelps-Stokes

Commission Report. This report influenced the Advisory Committee on Native

education to come up with the first ever policy memorandum in March, 1925. Its title

was Education Policy in British Tropical Africa.

Through this policy, the influence and impact of the commissions chairperson

became vivid. This was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The policys entry point was that:

The Controlling Power is responsible as Trustee for the Moral advancement of

the Native Population.

The main principles of the 1925 education policy were:

a) To govern the direction of educational development in Northern

Rhodesia and elsewhere in British African dependencies or

colonies.

b) Government welcomed partnership with other stakeholders in

provision of education to local people.


33

c) Government reserved the right to have total control of education

through inspections, monitoring and giving the general direction.

d) Advisory Boards of education were to be set up in all

dependencies upon which agencies and others who have

experience in social welfare should be accorded representation.

e) Education for adaptation was stressed as a principle in the policy.

Education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes,

occupations and traditions of the various peoples, conserving as

far as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of

their social life.

The content and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the local

conditions.

i. Relevant text books and the use of vernacular language was stressed and was

to be observed.

ii. The aim of education was to be spelt out- to render the individual more

efficient in his/her condition of life and promote the advancement of the

community as a whole through the improvement of agriculture, the

development of native industries, the improvement of health, the training of the

people in the management of their own affairs and the inculcation of true ideals

of citizenship and service.

iii. The teaching of higher education as well as Religious and moral instruction

was to be observed. Character training was to be founded on the formation of

habits of industry, of truthfulness, manliness, readiness for social service and of

disciplined cooperation.

iv. Improved conditions of service were to be implemented to attract the best

available men both British and African.

v. Grants in aid were to be paid to approved non-government schools, who met

the required standards.

vi. Teacher education/training and gender balances was another principle in the

1925 policy. The native teaching staff should be adequate in numbers,

qualifications, in character and should include women. The key to a sound

system of education lies in the training of teachers and this matter was to

receive primary consideration.


34

The policy went on to state that other than initial training, teachers were to receive

further education from time to time (in service) or continuing professional

development (CPD). One way this could be done for rural school concept of visiting

teachers.

a) The policy included the need to provide technical and vocational training to

counteract the white collar jobs syndrome and the tendency to look down on

manual labour/practical jobs.

b) Girl education re-emphasised within the policy. The education of girls and

women was a challenge at that time, but more needed to be done at once.

The memorandum stressed that it was important to provide educated mates for

clever boys. It was viewed as cardinal for girls to have lessons in hygiene and public

health, child welfare, domestic economy and home management.

The policy advised that adult education be given once the experimented stage/version

was confirmed. In contrast to the 30 years of BSA rule which had no education

policy in Northern Rhodesia, Colonial rule at least introduced one. What remained to

be seen was its implementation for the benefit of the territory and its people.

4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923

This was set up to advise the secretary of state on matters of Native Education in

British colonies and protectorate in Tropical Africa. The work of this committee was

made easy by the Phelps-Stokes Commission which had recent records or reports on

south and Western Africa in of educational activities (1920-1921).

4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION

The commission was set using the funds under the will of Miss Calorine Phelps-

Stokes. The aim of the fund was to enhance the education of Negroes in Africa and

United States of America.

The members were: Dr. James Aggrey distinguished educationist from Gold Coast,

Dr. J H. Dillard (USA), president of the Jeanes Fund, Dr. H.L Shantz agriculturalist

and botanist (USA), Rev: Garfield Williams, Educational secretary, Colonial Office

Advisory Committee on Native Education in Tropical Africa, C.T Loram (South

Africa), Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones-Chairperson (USA) and James Dougall (Scotland)


35

4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were:

i. To investigate educational needs of the people in the light of their religions,

social, hygiene and economic conditions.

ii. To ascertain the extent to which peoples needs were being met in rural areas.

iii. To assist in the formulation of plans to meet educational needs of local people

(ethnic group)

The commission set out to do its work by sending an education commission to west,

south and Equatorial Africa in 1920-1921. The report of the first tour encouraged the

Phelps Stokes Commission to send another group to survey educational needs of

local people in east and Central Africa. This decision was made in 1923, and

implemented between January and July 1924. The countries visited were: French

Somaliland, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar,

Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia (8-13

June 1924). Much of the information from Northern Rhodesia was provided by

Lathan and representatives of Missionary societies.

4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS

i. Appointing a director of native Education whose task would be to co-ordinate

and unite educational activities of the missionary societies and orders

ii. To appoint an advisory committee on education with representatives from the

government, missions and settlers. The important thing was that the native

opinion was to be sought as soon as possible.

iii. Establishing teacher training institutions at selected mission stations.

iv. Providing funds for the training and employment of visiting teachers based on

the Jeanes School operating in USA.

4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF

EDUCATION

This memorandum governed the direction of Education development in Northern

Rhodesia and elsewhere. It contained the following principles:


36

a) The government was going to encourage all voluntary effort which

conformed to the general policy but the government was to reserve the right

to intervene over the general direction of educational policy and the

supervision of all educational institutions by inspecting and other means.

b) Cooperation between government and other educational agencies was to be

encouraged which led to the formation of advisory boards of education in

British dependencies in each province there was a committee.

c) Adoption of education to the African environment was to be one of the aims

of education. This implied that the system was going to be adapted to the

mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various people.

d) The need for higher education was also acknowledged. This education was

going to be given to those who by character, ability of temperament showed

themselves fitted to profit by such education.

e) The importance of religion was also emphasized.

f) Financial assistance was also to be given to voluntary schools.

g) The memorandum also recommended that the status and conditions of service

in the education department should be such as to attract the best available

staff. Both the British and the African

h) The memorandum also urged that the native teaching staff should be adequate

in numbers, qualifications and character which should include women.

i) Supervision of the education system was also encouraged. Government

inspectorate was to be established and each mission was encouraged to

inspect its own schools.

j) It also encouraged the establishment of technical and vocational training

schools.

k) Girls were to be trained in hygiene and public health, child welfare and

domestic economy. Adult education for women was to be encouraged. Soon

after the presentation of the above document. The first director of native

education was appointed. This was Geofrey Chitty Laterin.

l) The first survey of the state of education in British Tropical Africa was done

in a period of eighteen months. The Phelps-Stokes Commission which had

made a rapid tour of West Africa in 1919, completed a similar tour of East

Africa in 1924 and produced detailed reports which provided the Advisory


37

Committee of Education in the colonies with clear picture of educational

needs.

The trustee of the Phelps-stokes Fund, in November 1919, adopted the following:

that a survey of educational conditions and opportunities among the Negros of

Africa, with a special view of finding the type or types of education best adapted to

meet the needs of the Natives, be undertaken by the Phelp-Stokes Commission.

In 1925, the principles on which the educational system of the dependencies were to

be based were set out. In summary the points were:

a) Governments themselves control educational policy but they should

cooperate with other educational agencies. Each territory should have an

advisory board on which all educational interests should be represented.

b) Education must adapt the mentality, aptitude occupations, and traditions of

various peoples, conserving as much as possible all sound and healthy

elements in the fabric of their social life, adapting them where necessary to

changed circumstances and progressive ideas as an agent of natural growth

and evolution. This meant maximizing the use of African arts and culture

and hoped that it would narrow the gap between the educated class and the

rest of the community.

c) Religious training and moral instruction should be regarded as fundament to

the development of a sound education and should be accorded complete

equality with secular subjects.

d) Educational services must be made to attract the best men from Britain,

whether for permanent careers of for short service appointments.

e) Grants should be given to aid voluntary schools which fulfilled requirements.

f) African languages, as well as English, should be used in education; content

and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the conditions of

Africa, special text books should be prepared.

g) African teaching staff had to be adequate in numbers, qualifications and

character which required the inclusion of women. The training was essential.


38

4.3.4 4th General Missionary Conference 1924

It is important to note by this time the BSA rule had ended on April 1st 1924.

Colonial office was now in charge of affairs in Northern Rhodesia.

The conference was called in June 1924 at Kafue Institute. The purpose for the

conference was to:

i. Get members of missionary societies meet Phelps-Stokes Commission

ii. Make recommendation to the government (colonial office) on the

educational policy for Northern Rhodesia.

4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS

a) Primary and secondary education be given in mission schools with the help

from the government.

b) Higher education (tertiary) be done at government schools with the help of

missionary societies.

c) It re-activated the 1914 resolutions for implementation.

d) Out of direct native tax money which was 100,000 pounds P.a. Most of it was

to go to the education expenses for Africans.

4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-

1925-1931

Colonial office took over reins of government from BSA Co. in April 1924. Among

the immediate tasks for the new government were to:

a) Act on the Phelps-Stokes reports and recommendations

b) Take over the supervision and financing of education from

missionaries.

c) Encourage technical and agricultural skills in education.

d) Set up Native education department.

e) Come up with an education policy in British Tropical African.

f) Appoint a director of Native affairs (G.C. Lathan was appointed).


39

4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925

The colonial office spent the first one year to put in place logistics for administering

education in Northern Rhodesia. This was enhanced by the Advisory Board set in

1924, which had its first meeting in July 1925. Until 1943, the Advisory Board only

comprised Missionaries, government and settlers without the local people.

One key resolution of the Board was the issuing of the Native School Code. In line

with the one passed out by the missionaries earlier on. The difference here was the

emphasis put on Agriculture for the first time. Lathan on behalf of the colonial office

spelt out the Education Policy in British Tropical Africa in the White Paper No

Command 2374. This meant that the new government had a framework to use in

running education affairs in Northern Rhodesia. Also that structures for educational

administration were put in place for instance the Advisory Board. Additionally,

these were made clear:

i. Conditions for paying grants to schools.

ii. The curriculum for village (rural) and station (urban) schools were put in

place.

iii. The curriculum for agricultural training was agreed upon.

iv. Teachers conditions of service and qualifications were agreed upon and

made known.

v. Challenges of language teaching and proposed methodologies were made

known.

Lathan drew up a transformation programme in the provision of education in

Northern Rhodesia which tried to address these areas: teacher training, salary, grants,

normal school syllabus, the Jeanes School concept/mode in Mazabuka, village

schools, Native schools (Ammendment ) Ordinance 1927, the school syllabus, girls

education, urban education, practical work, Finance and Financial support from

oversees. According to Nelson (1974) Lathan did a lot in the above sector of Native

education with a view of improving the quality of education provided in Northern

Rhodesia by both government and missionaries


40

ACTIVITIY

a) Lathan came to be known as father of African Education in Northern

Rhodesia. What were his achievements as director of Native

Education from 1924-1931?

4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT

The name was derived from Miss Anna T. Jeanes an American Quarker

Philantropist. She believed in the value of little schools for Negroes in the Southern

States of USA. She gave her fortune to their improvement. Part of the money was to

be used to train: travelling or visiting teachers. Travelling (visiting) teachers were

supposed to be best trained teachers who would demonstrate new methods and

techniques of teaching various subjects. These teachers were expected to discuss

challenges visited teachers were facing so as to encourage and inspire them to forge

ahead. These visiting teachers were supposed to be role models and demonstrators

academically and professionally.

Impressed by the Jeanes school model, Lathan planned to have a Jeanes Training

school in Northern Rhodesia. The Advisory Board approved that plan and idea. In

1928, the Beit Railway Bequest (Trust) made available a grant of 12,000 Pounds for

the building of a Jeanes and agricultural school in Mazabuka. This was accompanied

by a maintenance fund of 1,000 Pounds P.a for subsequent four years.

John Fell became the Principal in January, 1929. Fell with the help of Frederick

Hodgson superivised the building of the Jeanes school, which opened on 3rd

February, 1930.

These institutions Jeanes school (now Mazabuka Basic school) and Agricultural

schools (now Zambia Institute for Animal Sciences-ZIAS), became the first

government educational institutions to open since 1906. Jeanes school enrolled 21

while Agricultural school had 14 pioneer students.

Carmody (2004:12) states that the main purpose of the Jeanes school was to train

African teachers to supervise village (rural) schools.


41

SUMMARY

This chapter looked at the Phelps-Stokes Commission, its recommendations and the

British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa or Northern Rhodesia.

1) What was the Phelps Stokes Commission? Discuss the main

recommendations of this commission.


42

UNIT 5

5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963

Introduction:

In this unit you will be introduced to education system that existed during the federal

period.

Learning Outcomes


Explain the evolution of secondary education in Zambia

Discuss the Addis Ababa Conference

Discuss the search for human resource strategy

Illustrate the difficulties of the Addis Ababa Conference

The ten year era is known as the Federation Period. The federation was an act of

bringing together Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and

Nyasaland (Malawi). The major attraction point for this merger by Colonial Office

was copper in Northern Rhodesia.

Massive resources were taken from here to Salisbury (Harare) which was the

Headquarters for the Federation. Southern Rhodesia greatly developed from copper

resources from here including United Kingdom herself.

Capital projects built during this era included: Central African Airways, Central

African Power Corporation, a university and Kariba dam among them. Only mining

in Northern Rhodesia seem to have developed during 1953-1963 period. Agriculture

at the same time was the most affected in that prices fell due to preferences given to

whites in Southern Rhodesia.

5.1EDUCATION

Education was racially structured. Northern Rhodesian government was responsible

for Africans while Federal government was responsible for whites and other races.


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Most of the resources went to fund education for non Africans. However, from 1956,

the number of secondary schools and trade institutes increased. One institute at that

time that became a major one was Hodgson Institute of Lusaka. Between 1952-1953,

ideas to build a university in Northern Rhodesia were turned down but preferred to

open one in Southern Rhodesia (University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland) in

March 1957. This is the current University of Zimbabwe.

The university through qualifications based on A-Levels did not help many Africans.

No teacher training college was built in Northern Rhodesia except for a few run by

missionaries. Unified African Teaching Service was put in place to look into the

conditions of service for the teachers. The few Africans who were exposed to

education led to the development of the African Elite. This group made nationalists

movements. African National Congress (ANC), Zambia African National Congress

(ZANC) AND United National Independence Party (UNIP).

After Ghanas independence in 1957, the wind of change across Africa Nationalism

became the main stay especially in schools and places of work (industries) or urban

centres. Continued passive resistance against Federation by Africans led to its break

up on 31st December 1963.

5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961

The sponsors for this conference were UNESCO and Economic Commission for

Africa. It was held in Ethiopia Addis Ababa from 15th

-25th

May, 1961. The

conference was for African Ministers of education, as for resolution of the 11th

Session of UNESCO General Assembly.

The purpose and aim of the 1961 Addis Ababa conference was to establish an

inventory of educational needs and make a programme to meet those needs in the

coming years.

By the time of the conference, it was appreciated that many African countries had

shown good efforts in the provision of education to their citizens, and that many were

in the process of gaining their independence. The conference was significant in that it

provided the first occasion when the education progress, needs and problems of

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Middle Africa (Zambia inclusive) were dealt with as a whole, with the drawing up of

a regional plan of educational development for the attainment of the objectives

agreed on by the conference.

5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED

African countries were careful in aligning needs to educational progress and

economic development. They also recognized the role of skilled human resource.

They maintained the intra balance in education to reduce costs and to seek external

aid.

Prominent needs included: finances, infrastructure, equipment, Learning and

teaching materials, text books, trained teachers, curriculum that would embrace

technical, vocational and girl education. Other areas included; expansion of higher

and adult education components.

Due to economic challenges the conference gave priority to:

b) Secondary education

c) Curriculum reform and

d) Teacher Training.

5.2.2 TARGETS SET

The Addis Ababa conference set targets for a long term plan as 1960-1980. While

short term plan was set as 1960-1965. Features of the long term plan included:

a) Primary education to be universal compulsory and free.

b) Education at the secondary level to be provided for 30% of the children

completing primary education course.

c) Higher education to be provided mostly in Africa itself, to 20% of those

completing secondary education.


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5.2.3 SUCCESS OF THE CONFERENCE

a) It provided a Platform for regional approach to the educational challenges in

Africa

b) Pooled ideas, visions, experiences, success and challenges became available

for sharing in the administration of the entire education sector.

c) The conference served as a bridge for cultural and academic work between

French and English speaking people (nations).

d) It attracted attention from the developed world, to decide to give aid to

African nations to help them develop their education systems.

From this conference, African countries went to draw up their domestic educational

plans to meet the agreed upon regional plan or framework.

5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS

Primary education:

a) There was to be an annual increase of 5% of age groups entering primary

school. There should be an increase in enrolment from 40% -51%.

b) There was to be only 10% wastage each year during primary cycle and

accumulative wastage target of 41% for 6 years.

c) Distribution of teachers on the basis of qualifications was to be:

Highly qualified secondary education and 3 years of professional

learning.

Adequately qualified (primary education and 4 years training)

It was noted that by the time of the conference most of the term of reference in short

term plans were already met by most countries.

5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

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(HRD) STRATEGY

It is believed that people or human resource is the most important asset a country

has. All other resources such as financial, industrial, natural and other are secondary.

This view is backed by on of the development theories called Human Capital

Theory. The theory contends that educating and training people is productive

investment with immeasurable returns in tems of national development.

Therefore, the topic title under review mean that Zambia and other newly

independent nations needed good formulae to develop peoples potential to bring out

needed varied skills and competences. Developing nations generally had no adequate

skilled people by the 1960s. This was caused by inadequate schools for tertiary

education such as colleges and universities.

Other factors included: imbalance in status and payment between white collar and

practical jobs, no role models in self employment (entrepreneurs) and self made

people.

Another theory that supports Human Resource Development is Modernization

Theory. This theory stresses the need to have educated people in order to upgrade or

modernize the process of national development. However, other people felt that

development theories and their strategies such as Human Resource Development

were narrow in approach for they seem to only look at economic development.

Areas over looked included: life long education, health, cultural, traditions, religions

and moral values, leisure and elimination of poverty. Critics argue that the Human

Resource Development were too much aligned to employment aspects. Education

was seen as a tool of development.

Arising from the aforesaid, Zambia like other developing countries embarked on an

ambitious human resource development programme. To do this Zambia had planning

sessions called Matero and Mulungush Reforms. These reforms advocated for a

speedy Zambianisation programme, to replace whites with Zambians.

To this end the government was compelled to give Massive education which was

free from primary to University level. Additionally, the curriculum was tailored to

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producing workers for all the emerging industries although white collar jobs seem to

have been the major output as opposed to practical oriented vocations such as

farming, building and technical ones.

SUMMARY

This chapter looked at education between 1924-1953; in particular, it looked at the

development of Secondary Education in Zambia, the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference

and the search for human resource strategy.

ACTIVITY

1. Identify and discuss both the long term and short term recommendations of

the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference on Education.

2. Discuss the provision of School education in Zambia during the Federal

period of 1953-1963.

3. Critically discuss reasons that triggered the need for a search for human

resource strategies in Africa and Zambia in the 1960s.

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UNIT 6

6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION

Introduction:

The unit looks at the happenings in the education provision in the independent

Zambia.

Learning Outcomes


Explain the post independence education provision

Discuss the education system at different levels

Analyse the education system in Zambia.

Post-independence refers to the period after 1964, when Zambia got her

independence. Therefore the topic makes an attempt to review the approach used to

provide education to citizens in Zambia, more so in the first ten years 964 1974.

The review will cover these levels: Primary, Secondary, Technical and Vocational

and University.

6.1 POLICY

At Independence in 1964, government policy was the accelerated facilities. Universal

Primary Education was to be compulsory, free and given to all citizens regardless of

their creed, colour and sex. Zambia advocated for multi-racial education system.

The government used the 1966 Education Act and the First National Development

Plan to execute its initial policy on education, during the republican formative years.

National Policy on education :through the First National Development Plan was very

precise on both Primary and Secondary levels. For instance, at Primary level, it set

to:

(a) Provide sufficient places for primary education for every child aged seven in

Zambia.

(b) Provide opportunities for all upper primary school children in urban schools.

(c) 75% of children in rural areas to complete a 7year primary course.


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At Secondary School level, the projections were related to the economic needs of the

country:

(a) To expand secondary schooling to provide the manpower in the numbers and

with the skills required for national development.

(b) To expand secondary school building programme already started to cater for

most of the pupils in this sector form 1-5, (now grade 8-12).

In short, Zambias educational policy at independence hinged on three principles:

(a) Provision of equal educational opportunities to all citizens.

(b) Development of an education system that must foster a sense of nationalism

or nationhood and promote national unity.

(c) Supply the much needed human resource in all sectors of the Zambian

economy, by developing relevant training programmes.

6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964

At independence, government worked to provide non-racial as opposed to racially

structured education. The policy stressed quality, while practice stressed quantity to

accommodate most children. By 1970, many primary schools had been built, many 7

year old children had places in schools, many teachers (primary) were re-trained and

teacher training facilities were expanded to produce more needed primary school

teachers. Government made sure that by 1970, there were no racial schools in

Zambia. Within the first ten (10) years, government also spelt out the policy of

universal primary education. This meant expand enrollments ad free compulsory

education from grade 1-7.

By 1974, government had achieved a lot regarding the provision of education at

Primary level.

6.3 CHALLENGES

In spite of successes recorded there were also notable challenges which included the

following: Poor infrastructure (buildings), shortage of teachers accommodation.

Poor conditions of service that led to major strikes e.g: 1968, 1970, large classes,

triple sessions, made grade 7 repetition a visible gap in training between the old and

young teachers as well as high drop-out rates more so with girls at grades 4 and 7.

This phenomenon seem to have been more in rural than urban areas.


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Other challenges for the primary sector within the first decade ie 1964-1974

included:

How to convince all stakeholders that primary education is terminal, medium of

instruction in terms of English versus local languages, how to enrich primary

education to help those who drop out at grade 7, what to do with the increasing

number of grade 7 drop outs as well as the widening gap between the number of

Primary and Secondary schools. At the same time, from 1975 to date, Primary sector

has continued to expand and scoring a lot of successes in spite of persistent

challenges of varied nature.

6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS

A lot of innovations have taken place in the Primary School sector since mid 1970s.

Many primary schools have been built, many teachers trained as well, courses for

both pupils and teachers have been revised and changed from time to time eg:

Zambia Primary Course (ZPC), to Zambia Basic Course (ZBEC), to Zambia Teacher

Education Course (ZATEC) which is being phased out for another course to be

announced by MOE.

The term Primary is replaced with Basic. Basic education runs from g

Module Education 100

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Transcript of Module Education 100