Module # 3 – Component # 1 Suitable Game Species – Vital ... · Suitable Game Species – Vital...

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Suitable Game Species © Copyright

Module # 3 – Component # 1

Suitable Game Species –

Vital Statistics for Game Managers

Objective Achieve an understanding of some of the suitable African game species for introduction to reserves or ranches; the factors to be considered when planning an introduction; and the behaviour and social systems of animals which are important in game management.

Expected Outcome

Deduce the suitability of a game species for a specific game ranch or reserve given

certain circumstances Have a basic knowledge of the most important African game species Understand the social systems of animals and the way in which it affects animal

density Understand the reasons and methods for monitoring game Understand the principles of sound genetic management and the purpose thereof



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Introduction Not every nature reserve or game ranch is suitable for all game species. It is very important that animals are only introduced into a habitat that can fulfil their basic living requirements. The choice and management of the type of game in an area are partly determined by the management objectives which are set for the area.

A good starting point when choosing game species is to study the historical distribution of species within the area in which the reserve or ranch is situated. Further, the ecology of each species considered for introduction should be studied and its living requirements compared to the available habitat.

The following section will briefly discuss the characteristics of various southern African game species, their ecology and habitat requirements. This gives an indication of the factors that should be considered when studying other game species with the view to introduction into an area.

A tranquilised Roan antelope: Hippotragus equinus Notice the tranquilising darts towards the back and side of the animal



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Herbivores

Sable Antelope: Hippotragus niger



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African elephant - Loxodonta africana

Habitat

Versatile, woodlands, savannahs, grasslands, semi-desert

Social structure

Matriarchal family groups, bachelor groups and solitary bulls

Food Preference

Grass, browse, bark, fruit

Sexual maturity

♂ - 10 years ♀ - 11 years

Gestation

22 months

First calving

15 years

Calving interval

Variable

Age at weaning

2 years

Adult Mass

♂: 5000 – 6000kg (11 000 – 13 200 lbs) ♀: 3000 – 4000kg (6600-8800lbs)

Longevity

60 – 70 years

General Ecology Elephants have highly developed social systems. They utilize a wide variety of habitats and have a significant impact on their environment by pushing over trees, ring-barking trees and bush clearing. This can be beneficial in opening areas for other species to utilize, but if the degree of utilization is too intense elephants can transform an entire landscape with much destruction in the process. Elephant populations double on average every 14 – 15 years in savanna areas. This has major influence on the reintroduction of elephants into reserves and introduction population numbers must be well-planned with expert advice. Overpopulation can have disastrous consequences for biodiversity.

Feeding spectrum

Bulk feeder

Water dependent

Yes



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African elephant - Loxodonta africana



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White Rhinoceros - Ceratotherium simum

Habitat

Abundant grass cover and lower shrub stratum, water dependant

Social structure

Small family groups, adult bulls solitary

Food Preference

Selective grazers, utilizing mostly palatable broad-leaf grasses.

Sexual maturity

5 ½ years

Gestation

16 months

First calving

6 – 7 years

Calving interval

3 years

Adult Mass

♂ 2100 kg (4630 lbs.) ♀ 1600 kg (3530 lbs.)

Longevity

40 years

General Ecology White rhinoceroses usually occur in small family groups with a mean size of 2,3 animals. Adult bulls are usually solitary. White rhinoceroses maintain a territorial system in which breeding males defend their territories against their opponents.

Feeding spectrum

Bulk feeder

Water dependent

Yes



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White Rhinoceros - Ceratotherium simum



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Black Rhinoceros - Diceros bicornis

Habitat

Versatile, dependant on availability of shrubs and short trees

Social structure

Solitary

Food Preference

Browse, leaves and thorns

Sexual maturity

♂: 8 years ♀: 6 years

Gestation

15 months

First calving

7 – 8 years

Calving interval

2 ½ – 3 yearly

Adult Mass

800 – 1000kg (1760 – 2200 lbs.)

Longevity

35 – 40 years

General Ecology Black rhino are among the most valuable African animals. Having become critically endangered during the 1970’s due to poaching, significant efforts have since been put into their conservation. Black rhino live solitary, except for a cow and her calf. Black rhino are not territorial but occupy home ranges. Fighting can, however, occur to establish dominance when their density is high. Habitat management is crucial to successful keeping of black rhino in smaller areas.

Feeding spectrum

Highly selective browser

Water dependent

Yes



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Black Rhinoceros - Diceros bicornis



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Burchells zebra - Equus burchelli

Habitat

Open woodland, grassland, water dependent.

Social structure

Dominant male with breeding herd, bachelor groups

Food Preference

Grass, bulk feeder, attracted to burnt areas.

Sexual maturity

2 years

Gestation

12 months

First foal

3 – 4 years

Foaling interval

13+ months

Mating period

December – February

Foaling period

December – February

Adult mass

320kg (705 lbs.)

Longevity

22 years

General Ecology General: Being bulk feeders, zebra have the positive effect of opening grassland for other species. Zebra live in close-knit family groups.

Feeding spectrum

Bulk feeder

Water dependent

Yes



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Burchells zebra: Equus burchelli



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Warthog - Phacochoerus aethiopicus

Habitat Open terrain with short grass, flood-plain, attracted to burnt vegetation

Social structure Solitary, pairs or female groups.

Food Preference Mostly vegetarian, roots, fruits, grass.

Sexual maturity 1 ½ years old

Gestation 6 – 7 months

First litter 2 years

Mean litter size 3 piglets

Mating January – March

Births July – September

Adult Mass 44 – 104 kg (97 – 230 lbs.)

Longevity 17 years

General Ecology Warthogs are useful indicators of overgrazing as they are the first game to visually lose body condition. There is little competition between warthogs and grazing antelope. However, if overstocked warthogs can damage the grass sward due to their digging behaviour.

Feeding spectrum mixed feeder

Water dependent Yes



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Warthog: Phacochoerus aethiopicus



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Hippopotamus - Hippopotamus amphibius

Habitat Rivers, swamps, lakes and adjacent areas

Social structure Loose groups of females or bachelors, territorial males

Food Preference Grass

Sexual maturity ♂ 5 – 7 years ♀ 3 years

Gestation 7 ½ months

First calving 4 years

Calving interval 2 – 3 years

Calving All year

Adult Mass ♂ 1000 – 2000kg (2200- 4410 lbs.) ♀ 950 – 1600kg. (2100-3530 lbs.)

Longevity 40 years

General Ecology General: Hippos are popular animals from a tourism point of view. However, they can be extremely aggressive and dangerous. Where activities such as fishing, or canoeing are offered, hippos should not be introduced.

Feeding spectrum Bulk feeder

Water dependent Yes



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Hippopotamus: Hippopotamus amphibius



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Blue wildebeest - Connochaetes taurinus

Habitat

Open woodland, short grassland, shade and water essential

Social structure

Territorial males, female herds and bachelor groups

Food Preference

Short grass

Sexual maturity

♂ 2 years ♀ 15 months

Gestation

8 months

First calving

2 years

Mating

February – May

Calving period

November – January

Age at weaning

8 months

Adult Mass

180 - 250 kg (400 – 550 lbs.)

Longevity

18 years

General Ecology Blue wildebeest appear to be partially resistant to ticks and are often recommended as a measure of ‘tick control’. The life cycles of several tick species seem to be inhibited on the blue wildebeest host

Feeding spectrum

Highly selective grazer

Water dependent

Yes



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Blue wildebeest: Connochaetes taurinus



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Blue duiker - Philantomba monticola

Habitat Thicket and dense woodland with ample undergrowth, water dependent

Social structure Territorial pairs with their offspring

Food Preference Wild fruit (particularly figs), fallen leaves and flowers

Sexual maturity ♂ 9 months ♀ 10 – 12 months

Gestation 6 ½ - 7 months

First lamb 18 months

Lambing period All year

Lambing interval 9 months

Adult Mass 3 – 6 kg (6 ½ - 13 lbs.)

Longevity 10 years

General Ecology Blue duiker have specialised habitat requirements and are confined to woodlands, forests and thickets with thick undergrowth for cover. Both males and females carry tiny horns of about 3 – 4,5 cm length (1.2 – 1.8 in.)

Feeding spectrum Highly selective browser

Water dependent No



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Blue duiker: Philantomba monticola



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Giraffe - Giraffa camelopardalis

Habitat Open woodland and shrubland with abundant food plants, riverine forest

Social structure Variable – temporary associations

Food Preference Browse, occasionally young grass

Sexual maturity ♂ 3 – 4 years ♀ 4 – 5 years

Gestation 15 months

First calving 5 – 6 years

Calving period All year, peak March – April

Adult Mass 1100 – 1300kg (2425 –2870 lbs.)

Longevity 20 years

General Ecology Giraffe are gregarious, but no strong social bonds develop, except between a female and her calf. Herds consist of females and their young and tend to break up and regroup often. Bachelor herds as well as mixed herds are formed at times. An interesting aspect of the giraffe’s physiology is the way it copes with potential blood pressure problems, which could particularly affect the functioning of the brain. The brain is about 2 metres (6 ½ ft.) below the heart when the animal is drinking and 2 metres above the heart when the head is held upright. To pump blood up to this height, the heart has 7 cm (2.7 in) thick walls and a propulsive power that is three times that of the human heart. The main arteries in the neck have valves, whereas only veins have valves in other mammals. A special network of blood vessels, called the rete mirabile, at the base of the brain acts like a shock-absorber. It stores excess blood when the head is lowered and blood rushes downwards, which could damage the sensitive brain vessels, and it stores sufficient blood to supply the brain when the head is held upright.


Water dependent Occasionally



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Giraffe: Giraffa camelopardalis



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Common duiker - Sylvicapra grimmia

Habitat Wooded termite mounds, thicket and woodland with ample undergrowth

Social structure Solitary

Food Preference Browse, occasionally carnivorous

Sexual maturity ♂ 1 ½ years ♀ 1 year


First lamb 1 ½ – 2 years

Lambing period All year

Adult Mass 16 – 18 kg (35 – 40 lbs.)

Longevity 10 – 12 years

General Ecology It is widely accepted that common duiker are at times carnivorous, eating insects, birds and even small mammals.

Feeding spectrum Selective feeder

Water dependent No



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Image source: Africa Geographic: Common Duiker. © Masteraah

Image source: www.krugerpark.co.za



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Impala - Aepyceros melampus

Habitat

Open woodland, grassland, wooded termite mounds, water dependent

Social structure Territorial male with female herd and bachelor groups

Food Preference Grass and browse, attracted to burnt areas

Sexual maturity ♂ 2 – 3 years ♀ 1 ½ years


First Lamb 2 years

Rutting period February – April

Lambing period October – December

Age at weaning 6 months

Adult Mass 40 – 65 kg (88 – 143 lbs.)

Longevity 14 years

General Ecology Impala are adaptable animals, breed well and their venison is of high quality. They are therefore a popular species for game ranching. Due to their variable diet, impala will often retain a reasonable condition when other game begin to starve during droughts. Impala can be destructive to their environment when overpopulated and their numbers should be controlled rigorously

Feeding spectrum mixed feeder

Water dependent Yes



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Impala: Aepyceros melampus



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Roan antelope - Hippotragus equinus

Habitat Medium to tall grassland and open woodland, particularly sensitive to competition from other game, water dependent.

Social structure Dominant male with breeding herd, solitary males and bachelor groups

Food Preference Selective grazers preferring medium to tall grasses

Sexual maturity ♂ 2 ½ years ♀ 2 years

Gestation 9 months


Calving period 11 monthly intervals


Adult Mass 270 kg (595 lbs.)

Longevity 17 years

General Ecology Roan antelope are critical in their habitat requirements, needing lightly wooded savanna or open woodland with extensive areas of medium to tall grassland and access to permanent water. Roan antelope hide their calves for 6 weeks before joining them with the herd. They are valuable animals for trophy hunting, live sales and tourism.

Feeding spectrum Highly selective feeder

Water dependent Yes



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Roan antelope: Hippotragus equinus



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Sable antelope - Hippotragus niger

Habitat Open tree-veld with scattered low shrubs bordering wetlands and with medium to tall grassland, water dependent.

Social structure Territorial males, female herds and bachelor groups

Food Preference Highly selective, mostly grass, some browse

Sexual maturity ♂ 3 years ♀ 2 years


First calving 3 years

Mating period July and December – February

Calving period January – March and September – November


Adult Mass 180 – 230kg (395 – 510 lbs.)

Longevity 17 years

General Ecology Sable antelope are dependent on cover and surface water for survival. They prefer open woodland adjacent to open water or drainage lines. The bulls are territorial and fight viciously, even to death, when they are confined to a small area and cannot avoid each other. Sable antelope hide their calves for about two weeks before joining them with the herd. They are valuable animals for trophy hunting, live sales and tourism. Sable antelope are not as sensitive to the presence of other game as roan antelope are, but they are nevertheless easily outcompeted by less selective feeders utilizing the same habitat

Feeding spectrum Highly selective feeder

Water dependent Yes



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Sable antelope: Hippotragus niger



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African buffalo - Syncerus caffer

Habitat Open woodland, forest, grassland, riverine vegetation, water dependent

Social structure Variable

Food Preference Grass, roughage feeder

Sexual maturity 3 ½ – 5 years

Gestation 11 months

Mating period December – May

Calving period November – April


Calving interval 13 – 18 monthly intervals


Adult Mass 600 – 750 kg (1320 – 1650 lbs.)


General Ecology African buffalo are roughage feeders and have developed the most efficient system among African ruminants to digest fibrous plant material. African buffalo will trample down stands of tall grass and therefore open the area for other species. African buffalo are gregarious animals living in breeding herds of up to several thousand. African buffalo are valuable animals on a game ranch but are also potentially dangerous. African buffalo are prone to tuberculosis, and disease-free buffalo are in great demand.

Feeding spectrum Bulk feeders

Water dependent Yes



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African buffalo: Syncerus caffer



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Greater kudu - Tragelaphus strepsiceros

Habitat Thicket, open woodland, wooded termite mounds, water dependent

Social structure Female herds and separate male groups

Food Preference Forbs browse and occasionally fresh grass

Sexual maturity ♂ 14 months ♀ 18 months


First calving 2 – ½ years

Rutting period May – July

Calving period January – March

Adult Mass 150 – 250 kg (330 - 550 lbs.)

Longevity ♂ 9 years ♀ 15 years

General Ecology Kudu are excellent jumpers and are known to clear fences of 2 ½ metres (8.2 ft).


Water dependent Yes



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Greater kudu: Tragelaphus strepsiceros



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Bushbuck - Tragelaphus scriptus

Habitat

Thickets, woodland with dense undergrowth, termite mounds, vicinity of permanent water.

Social structure Territorial, mostly solitary

Food Preference Browse

Sexual maturity ♂ 12 months ♀ 14 months

Gestation 6 months

First Lamb 2 years

Mating period April – May, October – November

Lambing period October – November, April – May

Adult Mass 50 kg (110 lbs.)


General Ecology Bushbuck are secretive, mostly nocturnal animals. Their acute senses make it possible for bushbuck to survive under heavy persecution and even close to human habituation. Bushbuck are vicious fighters and will fight to the death. They easily attack hunters when wounded.


Water dependent Yes



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Bushbuck: Tragelaphus scriptus



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Waterbuck - Kobus ellipsiprymnus

Habitat

Woodland, reeds, flood-plain, within 2 km (1.2 mi) of water

Social structure

Territorial males, bachelor groups and loose female groups

Food Preference

Roughage feeder, mostly grass, attracted to burnt areas

Sexual maturity

♂ 3 years ♀ 2 – ½ years

Gestation

9 months

First calving

3 – 3 ½ years

Mating period

March – October

Calving period

November – June (peak in January)

Age at weaning

9 – 10 months

Adult Mass

250 kg (550 lbs.)

Longevity

16 years

General Ecology

Exceptionally dependant on water

Feeding spectrum

Highly selective grazer

Water dependent

Yes



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Waterbuck: Kobus ellipsiprymnus



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Eland - Taurotragus oryx

Habitat Versatile from semi-arid scrub to mountain grassland and open woodland

Social structure Loose male and female groups

Food Preference Predominantly browse

Sexual maturity ♂ 18 – 24 months ♀ 15 – 18 months

Gestation 9 months

First calving 2 ½ – 3 years

Mating peaks September – October, December – January

Calving peaks June – July, September – October

Calving period 12 monthly intervals


Adult Mass 450 – 700 kg (990 – 1540 lbs.)

Longevity ♂ 15 years ♀ 20 years

General Ecology Eland are gregarious animals, occurring mostly in small herds. Sometimes large aggregations of several hundred animals are found. Herds tend to break up into nursery and bachelor herds during the calving season and re-unite later. Weaned calves join others in the nursery herd, where bonds between these youngsters’ form that are stronger and last longer than the mother-calf bond. Despite their heavy body weight, eland are agile and excellent jumpers that clear 2 metre (6 ½ ft.) high fences with ease

Feeding spectrum Mixed feeder

Water dependent Occasionally



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Eland: Taurotragus oryx



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Carnivores

The presence of large carnivores in an area is very valuable for tourism purposes. However, introducing large carnivores to a reserve or game ranch requires careful consideration. They generally require large home ranges and do not often tolerate other animals of the same species in their ranges. They also require high prey densities and can have a considerable effect on prey populations, which must be considered. Expert advice should be sought when planning to introduce large carnivores.

Lion: Panthera leo



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Spotted hyaena - Crocuta crocuta

Habitat Open woodland and plains, dependent on prey availability and water

Social structure Matriarchal clans

Food Preference Mostly mammals, also birds and reptiles

Sexual maturity ♂ 2 years ♀ 3 years


First Litter 3 ½ – 4 yearly intervals

Litter size 1 – 4 cubs

Birth interval 16 – 19 months

Breeding season All year

Eyes opening At birth

Adult Mass ♂ 50 – 75 kg (110 – 165 lbs.) ♀ 55 – 80 kg (120 – 180 lbs.)

Longevity 40 years

General Ecology Abundant food and permanent water are essential requirements for spotted hyaenas. They are social animals that live in matriarchal clans of 4 – 18 adults, led by a dominant female. High-ranking males have mating status and move with the clan, whereas subordinate males move solitarily. Spotted hyaenas are notorious scavengers, but also efficient hunters.



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Spotted hyaena: Crocuta crocuta



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Cheetah - Acinonyx jubatus

Habitat Open plains and savanna woodlands

Social structure Female with cubs, male groups or solitary

Food Preference Birds, reptiles and medium-sized mammals up to 60 kg (132 lbs.)

Sexual maturity 1 ½ – 2 years

Gestation 3 months

First Litter 2 ½ – 3 years


Birth interval 18 – 24 months

Birth mass 250 – 300g (9 – 10 ½ ounces)


Eyes opening 10 – 12 days

Adult Mass Male 40 – 60 kg (90 – 130 lbs.) ♀ 35 – 50 kg (77 – 110 lbs.)

Longevity 16 years

General Ecology Cheetah stalk prey animals carefully, and prey are brought down after a final chase that can take several hundred metres, during which cheetah can reach a speed of up to 116 km/h (75 mph). Small or medium-sized animals up to 60 kg (130 lbs.) Are their preferred food. As with other solitary predators, small game ranches are unsuited to keep cheetah for genetic and ecological reasons. Cheetah ranges are large, and subadults must be able to emigrate to find new ranges.



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Cheetah: Acinonyx jubatus



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Wild Dog – Lycaon pictus

Habitat Open plains species, avoiding forests or thick woodland

Social structure Gregarious packs lead by an alpha female and male

Food Preference Small, medium and large mammals

Sexual maturity 2 years


First Litter 2 ½ years

Litter interval 12 months


Litter size 2 – 19; average 10

Breeding Season April to September; peaks during May and June

Hunting success 40 – 85%; depending on number of dogs participating

Adult Mass ♂ 24 kg (53 lbs.) ♀ 20 kg (44 lbs.)

Longevity 9 - 10 years

General Ecology An endangered species, highly susceptible to disease. They are easily bred in captivity, and there has been mixed success with re-introduction programmes.



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Wild Dog: Lycaon pictus



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Leopard - Panthera pardus

Habitat Versatile, great adaptability

Social structure Solitary, female with dependent cubs

Food Preference Mammals (antelope) birds, reptiles, fish

Sexual maturity ♂ 3 years ♀ 2 ½ – 3 years

Gestation 3 – 3 ½ months

First Litter 3 years old


Birth interval 18 months

Birth mass 50 – 60g (1 ½ - 2 ounces)



Adult Mass ♂ 50 - 60 kg (110 – 132 lbs.) ♀ 25 – 40kg (55 – 88 lbs.)

Longevity 12 years

General Ecology Leopard show a wide habitat tolerance. They are masters of seclusion and cover is therefore very important. Both males and females occupy territories in which they don’t tolerate other leopards of the same sex. A male’s territory usually overlaps with those of several females. Leopards are opportunistic hunters, their prey selection depending largely on what is available. Prey is stalked carefully and then brought down after a short chase. Due to their large home ranges and intolerance of other leopards of the same sex, it is impossible to maintain genetically and ecologically viable leopard populations on small areas. They are also not kept in by fencing



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Leopard: Panthera pardus



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Lion - Panthera leo

Habitat Versatile, mostly dependent on prey density

Social structure Prides of females with cubs, males

Food Preference Larger mammals, birds, reptiles

Sexual maturity ♂ 2 ½ years ♀ 3 years


First Litter 3 ½ – 4 years


Birth interval 2 years

Birth mass 2 ½ kg



Adult Mass ♂ 180 – 200kg (400 – 440 lbs.) ♀ 120 – 130kg (265 – 285 lbs.)


General Ecology Lions are the only social cats, living and hunting in prides. A pride can number from a few individuals to more than 30, and usually comprises several related females with their cubs and one or more resident males. Lions occupy home ranges and the entire range is actively defended. Their territoriality is less pronounced in areas where large migrations of prey occur. Hunting takes place at night, with group hunts being more successful than individual attacks. Lions feed on a variety of prey according to what is available but prefer medium-sized animals from 50 – 300 kg (110 – 660 lbs.). Establishment of lion populations on game ranches or reserves is often problematic as substantial prey populations are required to maintain lion populations. It is estimated that an average adult lion requires about 3650kg (8050 lbs.) of live prey mass per year, which represents 91 impala, 20 blue wildebeest or 18 zebra per annum. Lions are highly attractive for tourism, and could be viable for introduction for this purpose, all factors being considered.



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Lion: Panthera leo

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